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822 C
HAPTER 26
One American's Story
Tony Kahn made the neighbors uncomfortable because they
thought his father, Gordon Kahn, was a Communist. In 1947,
Gordon Kahn was a successful screenwriter. However, when a
congressional committee began to investigate Communists in
Hollywood, Kahn was blacklisted—named as unfit to hire.
Later, in 1951, he was scheduled to testify before the committee
himself.
To save himself, Gordon Kahn simply had to name
others as Communists, but he refused. Rather than face the con-
gressional committee, he fled to Mexico. Tony Kahn remembers
how the Cold War hurt him and his family.
A PERSONAL VOICE TONY KAHN
“ The first time I was called a Communist, I was four years old. . . .
I’ll never forget the look in our neighbors’ eyes when I walked by.
I thought it was hate. I was too young to realize it was fear.
”
—from The Cold War Comes Home
The members of the Kahn family were among thousands of
victims of the anti-Communist hysteria that gripped this country in
the late 1940s and early 1950s. By the end of the period, no one was
immune from accusations.
Fear of Communist Influence
In the early years of the Cold War, many Americans believed that there was good
reason to be concerned about the security of the United States. The Soviet domi-
nation of Eastern Europe and the Communist takeover of China shocked the
American public, fueling a fear that communism would spread around the world.
In addition, at the height of World War II, about 80,000 Americans claimed
membership in the Communist Party. Some people feared that the first loyalty of
these American Communists was to the Soviet Union.
Terms & Names
Terms & Names
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
•HUAC
•Hollywood Ten
•blacklist
•Alger Hiss
•Ethel and Julius
Rosenberg
•Joseph McCarthy
•McCarthyism
During the late 1940s and
early 1950s, fear of
communism led to reckless
charges against innocent
citizens.
Americans today remain vigilant
about unfounded accusations.
Tony Kahn
The Cold War at Home
THE COLD WAR
COMES HOME
Hollywood
Blacklists the
Kahn Family
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 822
Page 1 of 6
A
LOYALTY REVIEW BOARD
Strongly anti-Communist
Republicans began to accuse Truman of being soft on com-
munism. Consequently, in March 1947, President Truman
issued an executive order setting up the Federal Employee
Loyalty Program, which included the Loyalty Review Board.
Its purpose was to investigate government employees and
to dismiss those who were found to be disloyal to the U.S.
government. The U.S. attorney general drew up a list of 91
“subversive” organizations; membership in any of these
groups was grounds for suspicion.
From 1947 to 1951, government loyalty boards investi-
gated 3.2 million employees and dismissed 212 as security
risks. Another 2,900 resigned because they did not want to
be investigated or felt that the investigation violated their
constitutional rights. Individuals under investigation were
not allowed to see the evidence against them.
THE HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE
Other agencies investigated possible Communist influence,
both inside and outside the U.S. government. The most
famous of these was the House Un-American Activities
Committee (HUAC). HUAC first made headlines in 1947,
when it began to investigate Communist influence in the
movie industry. The committee believed that Communists
were sneaking propaganda into films. The committee
pointed to the pro-Soviet films made during World War II
when the Soviet Union had been a United States ally.
HUAC subpoenaed 43 witnesses from the Hollywood
film industry in September 1947. Many of the witnesses
were “friendly,” supporting the accusation that Communists
had infiltrated the film industry. For example, the movie star
Gary Cooper said he had “turned down quite a few scripts
because I thought they were tinged with Communistic
ideas.” However, when asked which scripts he meant,
Cooper couldn’t remember their titles.
Ten “unfriendly” witnesses were called to testify but
refused. These men, known as the Hollywood Ten, decided not to cooperate
because they believed that the hearings were unconstitutional. Because the
Hollywood Ten refused to answer questions, they were sent to prison.
823
Protesters
demonstrate in
support of the
Hollywood Ten.
▼
S
P
O
T
L
I
G
H
T
S
P
O
T
L
I
G
H
T
HISTORICAL
HISTORICAL
PAUL ROBESON
Paul Robeson was an all-
American football player and Phi
Beta Kappa member at Rutgers
University. After earning a law
degree in 1923, he began a
distinguished international career
as a singer and actor. He was a
vocal civil rights activist, and he
was sympathetic to the Soviet
culture and political philosophy.
In 1950, when he refused to
sign an affidavit indicating whether
he had ever been a member of
the Communist Party, the State
Department revoked his passport
for eight years. During that time,
he was unable to perform abroad
and was blacklisted at home. His
income fell from $150,000 a
year to $3,000 a year.
A. Answer
Individuals
under investiga-
tion were not
allowed to see
the evidence
against them.
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
A
Drawing
Conclusions
How did the
Loyalty Review
Board pose a
threat to civil
liberties?
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 823
Page 2 of 6
In response to the hearings, Hollywood executives instituted a blacklist, a
list of people whom they condemned for having a Communist background.
People who were blacklisted—approximately 500 actors, writers, producers, and
directors—had their careers ruined because they could no longer work.
THE MCCARRAN ACT
As Hollywood tried to rid itself of Communists,
Congress decided that Truman’s Loyalty Review Board did not go far enough. In
1950, Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act. This made it unlawful
to plan any action that might lead to the establishment of a totalitarian dictator-
ship in the United States. Truman vetoed the bill, saying, “In a free country, we
punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have.”
But Congress enacted the law over Truman’s veto.
Spy Cases Stun the Nation
Two spy cases added to fear that was spreading like an epidemic across the coun-
try. One case involved a former State Department official named Alger Hiss.
ALGER HISS
In 1948, a former Communist spy named Whittaker Chambers
accused Alger Hiss of spying for the Soviet Union. To support his charges,
Chambers produced microfilm of government documents that he claimed had
been typed on Hiss’s typewriter. Too many years had passed for government pros-
ecutors to charge Hiss with espionage, but a jury convicted him of perjury—for
lying about passing the documents—and sent him to jail. A young conservative
Republican congressman named Richard Nixon gained fame for pursuing the
charges against Hiss. Within four years of the highly publicized case, Nixon was
elected vice president of the United States.
Hiss claimed that he was innocent and that Chambers had forged the docu-
ments used against him. However, in the 1990s, Soviet cables released by the
National Security Agency seemed to prove Hiss’s guilt.
824 C
HAPTER 26
1954 In 1954, the Communist-
hunting senator Joseph McCarthy,
in U.S. Senate hearings that were
televised live, accused the U.S.
Army of “coddling Communists.”
As many as 20 million Americans
watched the combative senator
malign people who had no chance
to defend themselves.
1960 In the 1960 presidential
election, a major factor in John
Kennedy’s victory over Richard
Nixon was a series of four tele-
vised debates, the first televised
presidential debates in history.
An estimated 85 million to
120 million Americans watched
one or more of the debates,
which turned the tide in favor
of Kennedy.
B
N
O
W
N
O
W
T
H
E
N
T
H
E
N
TELEVISION:
MAKING NEWS
Historians of popular culture
believe that the early 1950s were
the best years of television. Most
programs were filmed live and
had a fresh, unrehearsed look.
Along with variety shows, early
television presented some of the
best serious drama of the age.
Since the 1950s, television has
also become a major vehicle for
reporting the news. Not only
does television report the news,
it also has increasingly helped to
shape it.
B. Answer
HUAC believed
that Hollywood
was sneaking
propaganda into
films. Its mem-
bers pointed to
pro-Soviet films
made during the
war.
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
B
Analyzing
Causes
Why was
Hollywood a target
of anti-Communist
investigations by
Congress?
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 824
Page 3 of 6
THE ROSENBERGS
Another spy case rocked the
nation even more than the Hiss case, partially because
of international events occurring about the same time.
On September 3, 1949, Americans learned that the
Soviet Union had exploded an atomic bomb. Most
American experts had predicted that it would take the
Soviets three to five more years to make the bomb.
People began to wonder if Communist supporters in
the United States had leaked the secret of the bomb.
This second spy case seemed to confirm that sus-
picion. In 1950, the German-born physicist Klaus
Fuchs admitted giving the Soviet Union information
about America’s atomic bomb. The information prob-
ably enabled Soviet scientists to develop their own
atomic bomb years earlier than they would have oth-
erwise. Implicated in the Fuchs case were Ethel and
Julius Rosenberg, minor activists in the American Communist Party.
When asked if they were Communists, the Rosenbergs denied the charges
against them and pleaded the Fifth Amendment, choosing not to incriminate
themselves. They claimed they were being persecuted both for being Jewish and
for holding radical beliefs. The Rosenbergs were found guilty of espionage and
sentenced to death. In pronouncing their sentence, Judge Irving Kaufman
declared their crime “worse than murder.” To him, they were directly responsible
for one of the deadliest clashes of the Cold War.
A PERSONAL
VOICE IRVING KAUFMAN
“ I believe your conduct in putting into the hands of the Russians the A-bomb
years before our best scientists predicted Russia would perfect the bomb has
already caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression in Korea. . . .
”
—quoted in The Unquiet Death of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
Cold War Conflicts 825
1967 By 1967, American
support for the Vietnam War
had plummeted as millions
of TV viewers witnessed the
horrors of war on the nightly
news.
2000 During the 2000 presidential
election, TV networks first declared Al
Gore the winner and then declared
George W. Bush the winner. The latter
declaration led Al Gore to concede.
However, Gore subsequently retracted
his concession because the election
was too close to call. This “election
muddle” blurs even further the already
indistinct line between reporting the
news and making it.
1974 The Watergate scandal
that toppled Richard Nixon’s
presidency in 1974 played to
a rapt TV audience. During the
Senate hearings in 1973, the
televised testimony of John
Dean, the president’s counsel,
had convinced two out of three
Americans that the president
had committed a crime.
C
▼
Ethel and Julius
Rosenberg were
executed in June
1953 despite
numerous pleas
to spare their
lives.
C. Answer
They added to
the impression
that the U.S.
was being
betrayed by
Communist
spies.
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
C
Analyzing
Causes
Why did the
cases of Alger
Hiss and the
Rosenbergs
heighten the anti-
Communist mood
of Americans?
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 825
Page 4 of 6
826 C
HAPTER 26
People from all over the world appealed for
clemency for the Rosenbergs. Many considered the evidence
and the testimony too weak to warrant the death sentence. The case was appealed
to the U.S. Supreme Court, but the Court refused to overturn the conviction. Julius
and Ethel Rosenberg died in the electric chair in June 1953, leaving behind two
sons. They became the first U.S. civilians executed for espionage.
McCarthy Launches His “Witch Hunt”
The most famous anti-Communist activist was Senator Joseph McCarthy, a
Republican from Wisconsin. During his first three years in the Senate, he had
acquired a reputation for being an ineffective legislator. By January 1950, he real-
ized that he was going to need a winning issue in order to be reelected in 1952.
Looking for such an issue, McCarthy charged that Communists were taking over
the government.
MCCARTHY’S TACTICS
Taking advantage of people’s concerns about commu-
nism, McCarthy made one unsupported accusation after another. These attacks on
suspected Communists in the early 1950s became known as McCarthyism. Since
that time, McCarthyism has referred to the unfair tactic of accusing people of dis-
loyalty without providing evidence. At various times McCarthy claimed to have in
his hands the names of 57, 81, and 205 Communists in the State Department. (He
never actually produced a single name.) He also charged that the Democratic Party
was guilty of “20 years of treason” for allowing Communist infiltration into the
government. He was always careful to do his name-calling only in the Senate,
where he had legal immunity that protected him from being sued for slander.
The Republicans did little to stop McCarthy’s attacks because they believed
they would win the 1952 presidential election if the public saw them purging the
nation of Communists. But one small group of six senators, led by Senator
Margaret Chase Smith of Maine, did speak out.
A PERSONAL VOICE MARGARET CHASE SMITH
“ I speak as a Republican. I speak as a woman. I speak as a United States
senator. I speak as an American. . . . I am not proud of the way in which the
Senate has been made a publicity platform for irresponsible sensationalism. I am
not proud of the reckless abandon in which unproved charges have been hurled
from this side of the aisle.
”
—Declaration of Conscience
Vocabulary
infiltration: the
act of penetrating
a group or
organization
without being
noticed for
purposes such
as spying
Analyzing
Analyzing
“IT’S OK—WE’RE HUNTING COMMUNISTS”
The fear of Communist subversion affected the entire society. People
were so suspicious that almost any unusual opinion might be labeled
“un-American.” The climate of suspicion was most severe in the
years 1947–1954, but it lasted throughout the 1950s.
SKILLBUILDER Analyzing Political Cartoons
1.
What organization does the car represent?
2.
What does the cartoon imply about the methods of this
organization?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 826
Page 5 of 6
MCCARTHY’S DOWNFALL
Finally, in
1954, McCarthy made accusations
against the U.S. Army, which resulted in
a nationally televised Senate investiga-
tion. McCarthy’s bullying of witnesses
alienated the audience and cost him
public support. The Senate condemned
him for improper conduct that “tended
to bring the Senate into dishonor and
disrepute.” Three years later, Joseph
McCarthy, suffering from alcoholism,
died a broken man.
OTHER ANTI-COMMUNIST MEASURES
Others besides Joseph McCarthy made it
their mission to root communism out of
American society. By 1953, 39 states had
passed laws making it illegal to advocate
the violent overthrow of the government,
even though such laws clearly violated
the constitutional right of free speech.
Across the nation, cities and towns passed
similar laws.
At times, the fear of communism seemed to have no limits. In Indiana, pro-
fessional wrestlers had to take a loyalty oath. In experiments run by newspapers,
pedestrians on the street refused to sign petitions that quoted the Declaration of
Independence because they were afraid the ideas were communist. The govern-
ment investigated union leaders, librarians, newspaper reporters, and scientists. It
seemed that no profession was safe from the hunt for Communists.
Cold War Conflicts 827
•HUAC
•Hollywood Ten
•blacklist
•Alger Hiss
•Ethel and Julius Rosenberg
•Joseph McCarthy
•McCarthyism
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
MAIN IDEA
2. TAKING NOTES
Re-create the web below on your
paper and fill in events that illustrate
the main idea in the center.
Which event had the greatest impact
on the country?
CRITICAL THINKING
3. HYPOTHESIZING
If you had lived in this period and
had been accused of being a
Communist, what would you have
done? Think About:
• the Hollywood Ten, who refused
to answer questions
• the Rosenbergs, who pleaded
the Fifth Amendment
4. ANALYZING MOTIVES
Choose one of the following roles:
Harry Truman, a member of HUAC,
Judge Irving Kaufman, or Joseph
McCarthy. As the person you have
chosen, explain your motivation for
opposing communism.
5. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCES
What does this cartoon suggest
about McCarthy’s downfall?
Causes and Effects of McCarthyism
Causes
• Soviets successfully establish Communist regimes in
Eastern Europe after World War II.
• Soviets develop the atomic bomb more quickly than
expected.
• Korean War ends in a stalemate.
• Republicans gain politically by accusing Truman and
Democrats of being soft on communism.
Effects
• Millions of Americans are forced to take loyalty oaths
and undergo loyalty investigations.
• Activism by labor unions goes into decline.
• Many people are afraid to speak out on public issues.
• Anti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policy.
SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts
1.
How did world events help lead to McCarthyism?
2.
How did McCarthyism affect the behavior of
individual Americans?
Anti-Communist fear
gripped the country.
Skillbuilder
Answers
1. Soviet domi-
nation of
Eastern Europe
and Soviet
development of
the bomb
heightened fear
of communism.
2. McCarthyism
led to required
loyalty oaths,
hesitancy to
speak out on
public issues,
and decreased
activism by
labor unions.
p0822-827aspe-0726s3 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 827
Page 6 of 6
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