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Cold War Conflicts 815
First Lieutenant Philip Day, Jr., vividly remembers his first taste of battle in Korea.
On the morning of July 5, 1950, Philip Day spotted a column of eight enemy
tanks moving toward his company.
A PERSONAL VOICE PHILIP DAY, JR.
“ I was with a 75-mm recoilless-rifle team.
‘Let’s see,’ I shouted, ‘if we can get one of
those tanks.’ We picked up the gun and
moved it to where we could get a clean
shot. I don’t know if we were poorly trained,
. . . but we set the gun on the forward slope
of the hill. When we fired, the recoilless
blast blew a hole in the hill which instantly
covered us in mud and dirt. . . . When we
were ready again, we moved the gun to a
better position and began banging away. I
swear we had some hits, but the tanks never
slowed down. . . . In a little less than two
hours, 30 North Korean tanks rolled through
the position we were supposed to block as if
we hadn’t been there.
”
—quoted in The Korean War: Pusan to Chosin
Only five years after World War II ended, the United States became embroiled
in a war in Korea. The policy of containment had led the United States into bat-
tle to halt communist expansion. In this conflict, however, the enemy was not
the Soviet Union, but North Korea and China.
China Becomes a Communist Country
For two decades, Chinese Communists had struggled against the nationalist
government of Chiang Kai-shek (
chBngP kFPshDkP). The United States supported
Chiang. Between 1945 and 1949, the American government sent the Nationalists
approximately $3 billion in aid.
One American's Story
The Cold War Heats Up
Terms & Names
Terms & Names
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
•Chiang Kai-shek
•Mao Zedong
•Taiwan
•38th parallel
•Korean War
After World War II, China
became a communist nation
and Korea was split into a
communist north and a
democratic south.
Ongoing tensions with China and
North Korea continue to involve
the United States.
▼
American soldiers
fire mortars at
communist
strongholds near
Mundung-ni in
Korea.
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 815
Page 1 of 7
A
Many Americans were impressed by Chiang Kai-shek and admired the
courage and determination that the Chinese Nationalists showed in resisting the
Japanese during the war. However, U.S. officials who dealt with Chiang held a dif-
ferent view. They found his government inefficient and hopelessly corrupt.
Furthermore, the policies of Chiang’s government undermined Nationalist
support. For example, the Nationalists collected a grain tax from farmers even
during the famine of 1944. When city dwellers demonstrated against a 10,000
percent increase in the price of rice, Chiang’s secret police opened fire on them.
In contrast, the Communists, led by Mao Zedong (
mouPdzOPdJngP), gained
strength throughout the country. In the areas they controlled, Communists
worked to win peasant support. They encouraged peasants to learn to read, and
they helped to improve food production. As a result, more and more recruits
flocked to the Communists’ Red Army. By 1945, much of northern China was
under communist control.
RENEWED CIVIL WAR
As soon as the defeated Japanese left China at the end
of World War II, cooperation between the Nationalists and the Communists
ceased. Civil war erupted again between the two groups. In spite of the problems
in the Nationalist regime, American policy favored the Nationalists because they
opposed communism.
From 1944 to 1947, the United States played peacemaker between the two
groups while still supporting the Nationalists. However, U.S. officials repeatedly
failed to negotiate peace. Truman refused to commit American soldiers to back up
the nationalists, although the United States did send $2 billion worth of military
equipment and supplies.
The aid wasn’t enough to save the Nationalists, whose weak military leader-
ship and corrupt, abusive practices drove the peasants to the Communist side. In
May 1949, Chiang and the remnants of his demoralized government fled to the
island of Taiwan, which Westerners called Formosa. After more than 20 years of
struggle, the Communists ruled all of mainland China. They established a new
government, the People’s Republic of China, which the United States refused to
accept as China’s true government.
816 C
HAPTER 26
A. Answer
The Nationalists
were corrupt
and non-
supportive of
the peasants.
The Communists
had strong
leadership, and
they worked to
win peasant
support.
Nationalists Versus Communists, 1945
Nationalists
Leader: Chiang Kai-shek
Communists
Leader: Mao Zedong
• Ruled in southern and eastern China
• Relied heavily on aid from United States
• Struggled with inflation and a failing economy
• Suffered from weak leadership and poor
morale
• Ruled in northern China
• Relied heavily on financial aid from Soviet Union
• Attracted peasants with promises of land reform
• Benefited from experienced guerrilla army and a
highly motivated leadership
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
A
Analyzing
Causes
What factors
led to the
Communist
takeover in China?
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 816
Page 2 of 7
B
AMERICA REACTS TO COMMUNIST TAKEOVER
The
American public was stunned that China had become
Communist. Containment had failed! In Congress, conser-
vative Republicans and Democrats attacked the Truman
administration for supplying only limited aid to Chiang. If
containing communism was important in Europe, they
asked, why was it not equally important in Asia?
The State Department replied by saying that what had
happened in China was a result of internal forces. The
United States had failed in its attempts to influence these
forces, such as Chiang’s inability to retain the support of his
people. Trying to do more would only have started a war in
Asia—a war that the United States wasn’t prepared to fight.
Some conservatives in Congress rejected this argument
as a lame excuse. They claimed that the American govern-
ment was riddled with Communist agents. Like wildfire,
American fear of communism began to burn out of control,
and the flames were fanned even further by events in Korea
the following year.
The Korean War
Japan had taken over Korea in 1910 and ruled it until
August 1945. As World War II ended, Japanese troops north
of the 38th parallel (38º North latitude) surrendered to
the Soviets. Japanese troops south of the parallel surren-
dered to the Americans. As in Germany, two nations devel-
oped, one communist and one democratic.
In 1948, the Republic of Korea, usually called South
Korea, was established in the zone that had been occupied
by the United States. Its government, headed by Syngman
Rhee, was based in Seoul, Korea’s traditional capital.
Simultaneously, the Communists formed the Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea in the north. Kim Il Sung led its
government, which was based in Pyongyang. (See map,
page 819.)
Soon after World War II, the United States had cut back
its armed forces in South Korea. As a result, by June of 1949
there were only 500 American troops there. The Soviets concluded that the United
States would not fight to defend South Korea. They prepared to back North Korea
with tanks, airplanes, and money in an attempt to take over the entire peninsula.
NORTH KOREA ATTACKS SOUTH KOREA
On June 25, 1950, North Korean
forces swept across the 38th parallel in a surprise attack on South Korea. The
conflict that followed became known as the Korean War.
Within a few days, North Korean troops had penetrated deep into South
Korea. South Korea called on the United Nations to stop the North Korean inva-
sion. When the matter came to a vote in the UN Security Council, the Soviet
Union was not there. The Soviets were boycotting the council in protest over the
presence of Nationalist China (Taiwan). Thus, the Soviets could not veto the UN’s
plan of military action. The vote passed.
On June 27, in a show of military strength, President Truman ordered troops
stationed in Japan to support the South Koreans. He also sent an American fleet
into the waters between Taiwan and China.
Cold War Conflicts 817
W
O
R
L
D
S
T
A
G
E
W
O
R
L
D
S
T
A
G
E
TAIWAN
In 1949, Chiang Kai-shek and
other Nationalist leaders retreated
to the island of Taiwan, which lies
about 100 miles off the southeast
coast of the Chinese mainland.
There the United States helped
set up a Nationalist government-—
the Republic of China. From 1949
through the 1960s, the United
States poured millions of dollars
of aid into the Taiwanese economy.
During the 1970s, a number of
nations, including the United
States, decided to end diplomatic
relations with Taiwan and estab-
lished ties with Communist
China. With the collapse of Soviet
communism in the early 1990s,
relations between Taiwan and the
United States improved. In 2001,
the United States sold weapons
to Taiwan to bolster the island
nation’s defense system.
PACIFIC
OCEAN
South
China
Sea
East
China
Sea
TAIWAN
CHINA
PHILIPPINES
VIETNAM
CAMBODIA
LAOS
JAPAN
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
B
Analyzing
Events
How did
Korea become a
divided nation
after World War II?
B. Answer
North Korea
surrendered to
the Soviets.
South Korea
surrendered to
the United
States. Two sep-
arate countries
emerged: North
Korea and South
Korea.
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 817
Page 3 of 7
In all, 16 nations sent some 520,000 troops to aid South Korea. Over 90 percent
of these troops were American. South Korean troops numbered an additional
590,000. The combined forces were placed under the command of General Douglas
MacArthur, former World War II hero in the Pacific.
The United States Fights in Korea
At first, North Korea seemed unstoppable. Driving steadily south, its troops cap-
tured Seoul. After a month of bitter combat, the North Koreans had forced UN
and South Korean troops into a small defensive zone around Pusan in the south-
eastern corner of the peninsula.
MACARTHUR’S COUNTERATTACK
MacArthur launched a counterattack with
tanks, heavy artillery, and fresh troops from the United States. On September 15,
1950, his troops made a surprise amphibious landing behind enemy lines at
Inchon, on Korea’s west coast. Other troops moved north from Pusan. Trapped
between the two attacking forces, about half of the North Korean troops surren-
dered; the rest fled back across the 38th parallel. MacArthur’s plan had saved his
army from almost certain defeat.
The UN army chased the retreating North Korean troops across the 38th par-
allel into North Korea. In late November, UN troops approached the Yalu River,
the border between North Korea and China. It seemed as if Korea was about to
become a single country again.
THE CHINESE FIGHT BACK
The Chinese, however, had other ideas.
Communist China’s foreign minister, Zhou En-lai, warned that his country would
not stand idly by and “let the Americans come to the border”—meaning the Yalu
River. In late November 1950, 300,000 Chinese troops joined the war on the side
of North Korea. The Chinese wanted North Korea as a Communist buffer state to
protect their northeastern provinces that made up Manchuria. They also felt
threatened by the American fleet that lay off their coast. The fight between North
Korea and South Korea had escalated into a war in which the main opponents
were the Chinese communists and the Americans.
By sheer force of numbers, the Chinese drove the UN
troops southward. At some points along the battlefront,
the Chinese outnumbered UN forces ten to one. By early
January 1951, all UN and South Korean troops had been
pushed out of North Korea. The Chinese advanced to the
south, capturing the South Korean capital, Seoul. “We
face an entirely new war,” declared MacArthur.
For two years, the two sides fought bitterly to obtain
strategic positions in the Korean hills, but neither side
was able to make important advances. One officer
remembered the standoff.
A PERSONAL VOICE BEVERLY SCOTT
“ Our trenches . . . were only about 20 meters in front
of theirs. We were eyeball to eyeball. . . . We couldn’t
move at all in the daytime without getting shot at.
Machine-gun fire would come in, grenades, small-arms
fire, all from within spitting distance. It was like World
War I. We lived in a maze of bunkers and deep trenches.
. . . There were bodies strewn all over the place.
Hundreds of bodies frozen in the snow.
”
—quoted in No Bugles, No Drums: An Oral History of the Korean War
818 C
HAPTER 26
Vocabulary
amphibious:
capable of
traveling both
on land and
on water
Beverly Scott
C
C. Answer
Just as UN
forces had over-
taken North
Korea, the
Chinese entered
the war on the
side of North
Korea and
pushed UN
troops south-
ward.
Skillbuilder
Answers
1. To Pusan.
2. Other UN
troops moved
north from
Pusan, and the
two forces
trapped the
North Koreans,
who were
forced to flee
north across the
border.
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
C
Analyzing
Causes
How did the
involvement of
communist China
affect the Korean
War?
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 818
Page 4 of 7
128°E
42°N
30°N
3
8
t
h
P
a
r
a
l
l
e
l
Yellow
Sea
Sea of
Japan
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Y
a
l
u
R
i
v
e
r
Pusan
Pyongyang
Seoul
Inchon
Panmunjom
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
CHINA
SOVIET
UNION
N
S
E
W
0 100 200 kilometers
0 100 200 miles
Cold War Conflicts 819
June 1950
North Korean troops invade
South Korea and capture the
capital, Seoul.
Truce Line, 1953
(present-day boundary)
September 1950
North Koreans push South
Koreans and UN troops south
to the perimeter of Pusan.
November 1950 to
January 1951
The Chinese intervene and force
UN troops to retreat across the
38th parallel.
September to October 1950
UN troops under MacArthur land
at Inchon and move north from
Pusan. This two-pronged attack
drives the North Koreans out of
South Korea. UN troops then
continue into North Korea, take
Pyongyang, and advance to the
Yalu River.
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER
1.
Movement How far south did North
Korean troops push the UN forces?
2.
Place Why do you think MacArthur
chose Inchon as his landing place?
American paratroopers comb through a village in North Korea on
October 20, 1950, during the Korean War.
The Korean War, 1950–1953
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 819
Page 5 of 7
D
MACARTHUR RECOMMENDS ATTACKING CHINA
To
halt the bloody stalemate, in early 1951, MacArthur called
for an extension of the war into China. Convinced that
Korea was the place “where the Communist conspirators
have elected to make their play for global conquest,”
MacArthur called for the use of nuclear weapons against
Chinese cities.
Truman rejected MacArthur’s request. The Soviet
Union had a mutual-assistance pact with China. Attacking
China could set off World War III. As General Omar N.
Bradley, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said, an all-
out conflict with China would be “the wrong war, at the
wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong
enemy.”
Instead of attacking China, the UN and South Korean
forces began to advance once more, using the U.S. Eighth
Army, led by Matthew B. Ridgway, as a spearhead. By April
1951, Ridgway had retaken Seoul and had moved back up
to the 38th parallel. The situation was just what it had been
before the fighting began.
MACARTHUR VERSUS TRUMAN
Not satisfied with the
recapture of South Korea, MacArthur continued to urge the
waging of a full-scale war against China. Certain that his
views were correct, MacArthur tried to go over the presi-
dent’s head. He spoke and wrote privately to newspaper
and magazine publishers and, especially, to Republican
leaders.
MacArthur’s superiors informed him that he had no
authority to make decisions of policy. Despite repeated
warnings to follow orders, MacArthur continued to criticize
the president. President Truman, who as president was commander-in-chief of the
armed forces and thus MacArthur’s boss, was just as stubborn as MacArthur.
Truman refused to stand for this kind of behavior. He wanted to put together a
settlement of the war and could no longer tolerate a military commander who
was trying to sabotage his policy. On April, 1, 1951, Truman made the shocking
announcement that he had fired MacArthur.
Many Americans were outraged over their hero’s downfall. A public opinion
poll showed that 69 percent of the American public backed General MacArthur.
When MacArthur returned to the United States, he gave an address to Congress,
an honor usually awarded only to heads of govern-
ment. New York City honored him with a ticker-
tape parade. In his closing remarks to Congress,
MacArthur said, “Old soldiers never die, they just
fade away.”
Throughout the fuss, Truman stayed in the
background. After MacArthur’s moment of public
glory passed, the Truman administration began to
make its case. Before a congressional committee
investigating MacArthur’s dismissal, a parade of
witnesses argued the case for limiting the war. The
committee agreed with them. As a result, public
opinion swung around to the view that Truman
had done the right thing. As a political figure,
MacArthur did indeed fade away.
820 C
HAPTER 26
INDIA’S VIEWPOINT
Nonaligned nations such as India
were on neither side of the Cold
War and had their own perspec-
tives. In 1951, the prime minister
of India, Jawaharlal Nehru (shown
above), had this to say about the
Korean War:
“This great struggle between
the United States and Soviet
Russia is hardly the proper role
in this world for those great
powers. . . . Their role should be
to function in their own territories
and not be a threat to others.”
ANOTHER
P
E
R
S
P
E
C
T
I
V
E
P
E
R
S
P
E
C
T
I
V
E
Vocabulary
conspirator: a
person who takes
part in secretly
planning
something
unlawful
General Douglas
MacArthur (left)
and President
Truman (right)
strongly
disagreed about
how best to
proceed in the
Korean War.
▼
MAIN IDEA
MAIN IDEA
D
Comparing
How did
Truman and
MacArthur differ
over strategy in
the Korean War?
D. Answer
MacArthur
wanted to wage
full-scale
nuclear war
against China.
Truman wanted
to limit the war.
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 820
Page 6 of 7
SETTLING FOR STALEMATE
As the MacArthur contro-
versy died down, the Soviet Union unexpectedly suggested
a cease-fire on June 23, 1951. Truce talks began in July 1951.
The opposing sides reached agreement on two points: the
location of the cease-fire line at the existing battle line and
the establishment of a demilitarized zone between the
opposing sides. Negotiators spent another year wrangling
over the exchange of prisoners. Finally, in July 1953, the
two sides signed an armistice ending the war.
At best, the agreement was a stalemate. On the one
hand, the North Korean invaders had been pushed back,
and communism had been contained without the use of
atomic weapons. On the other hand, Korea was still two
nations rather than one.
On the home front, the war had affected the lives of
ordinary Americans in many ways. It had cost 54,000
American lives and $67 billion in expenditures. The high
cost of this unsuccessful war
was one of many factors lead-
ing Americans to reject the
Democratic Party in 1952 and
to elect a Republican admin-
istration under World War II
hero Dwight D. Eisenhower.
In addition, the Korean War
increased fear of communist
aggression and prompted a
hunt for Americans who
might be blamed for the
communist gains.
Cold War Conflicts 821
N
O
W
N
O
W
T
H
E
N
T
H
E
N
THE TWO KOREAS
Korea is still split into North
Korea and South Korea, even
after 50 years. South Korea is
booming economically, while
North Korea, still communist,
struggles with severe shortages
of food and energy.
Periodically, discussions about
reuniting the two countries
resume. In 2000, South Korean
President Kim Dae-jung won the
Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts
to improve ties with North Korea.
The two nations met in North
Korea for the first time since
the nations were established
in 1948. Although economic
and political differences con-
tinue to keep the two coun-
tries apart, there is renewed
hope that one day Korea will
become a united nation.
•Chiang Kai-shek
•Mao Zedong
•Taiwan
•38th parallel
•Korean War
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
MAIN IDEA
2. TAKING NOTES
On a time line such as the one
shown below, list the major events
of the Korean War.
Choose two events and explain how
one event led to the other.
CRITICAL THINKING
3. HYPOTHESIZING
What might have happened if
MacArthur had convinced Truman to
expand the fighting into China? How
might today’s world be different?
4. ANALYZING EVENTS
Many Americans have questioned
whether fighting the Korean War was
worthwhile. What is your opinion?
Why? Think About:
• the loss of American lives
• the fear of communism that
enveloped the country at the time
• the stalemate that ended the war
5. EVALUATING DECISIONS
At the end of China’s civil war, the
United States refused to accept the
communist People’s Republic of
China as China’s true government.
What were the advantages of such
a policy? What were the
disadvantages? Do you agree with
this decision? Why or why not?
event one event three
event two event four
Vocabulary
demilitarize: to
ban military forces
in an area or
region
South Korean President Kim
Dae-jung waves to cheering
North Koreans on June 13, 2000.
▼
p0815-821aspe-0726s2 10/17/02 9:13 AM Page 821
Page 7 of 7
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