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828 C

HAPTER 26

One American's Story

Writer Annie Dillard was one of thousands of children who grew up in the 1950s

with the chilling knowledge that nuclear war could obliterate their world in an

instant. Dillard recalls practicing what to do in case of a nuclear attack.

A PERSONAL

VOICE ANNIE DILLARD

“ At school we had air-raid drills. We took the drills

seriously; surely Pittsburgh, which had the nation’s steel,

coke, and aluminum, would be the enemy’s ﬁrst target. . . .

When the air-raid siren sounded, our teachers stopped

talking and led us to the school basement. There the gym

teachers lined us up against the cement walls and steel

lockers, and showed us how to lean in and fold our arms

over our heads. . . . The teachers stood in the middle

of the room, not talking to each other. We tucked

against the walls and lockers. . . . We folded our skinny

arms over our heads, and raised to the enemy a clatter

of gold scarab bracelets and gold bangle bracelets.

”

—An American Childhood

The fear of nuclear attack was a direct result of the Cold War. After the Soviet

Union developed its atomic bomb, the two superpowers embarked on an arms

race that enormously increased both the number and the destructive power of

weapons.

Brinkmanship Rules U.S. Policy

Although air-raid drills were not common until the Eisenhower years

(1953–1961), the nuclear arms race began during Truman’s presidency. When the

Soviet Union exploded its ﬁrst atomic bomb in 1949, President Truman had to

make a terrible decision—whether to develop an even more horrifying weapon.

Terms & Names

MAIN IDEA

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

•H-bomb

•Dwight D.

Eisenhower

•John Foster Dulles

•brinkmanship

•Central

Intelligence

Agency (CIA)

•Warsaw Pact

•Eisenhower

Doctrine

•Nikita Khrushchev

•Francis Gary

Powers

•U-2 incident

During the 1950s, the United

States and the Soviet Union

came to the brink of nuclear

war.

The Cold War continued into the

following decades, affecting U.S.

policies in Cuba, Central America,

Southeast Asia, and the Middle

East.

Two Nations Live

on the Edge

▼

A father helps his

daughter practice

getting into a

bomb shelter.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 828

Page 1 of 6

RACE FOR THE H-BOMB

The scientists

who developed the atomic bomb had

suspected since 1942 that it was possible to

create an even more destructive thermo-

nuclear weapon—the hydrogen bomb, or

H-bomb. They estimated that such a

bomb would have the force of 1 million

tons of TNT (67 times the power of the

bomb dropped on Hiroshima). But they

argued vehemently about the morality of

creating such a destructive weapon.

Despite such concerns, the United

States entered into a deadly race with

the Soviet Union to see which country

would be the ﬁrst to produce an H-

bomb. On November 1, 1952, the

United States won the race when it

exploded the ﬁrst H-bomb. However,

the American advantage lasted less

than a year. In August 1953, the

Soviets exploded their own ther-

monuclear weapon.

THE POLICY OF BRINKMANSHIP

By the time both countries had the

H-bomb, Dwight D. Eisenhower

was president. His secretary of state,

John Foster Dulles, was staunchly

anti-Communist. For Dulles, the Cold War was a moral crusade

against communism. Dulles proposed that the United States could prevent the

spread of communism by promising to use all of its force, including nuclear

weapons, against any aggressor nation. The willingness of the United States,

under President Eisenhower, to go to the edge of all-out war became known as

brinkmanship. Under this policy, the United States trimmed its army and navy

and expanded its air force (which would deliver the bombs) and its buildup of

nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union followed suit.

The threat of nuclear attack was unlike any the American people had ever

faced. Even if only a few bombs reached their targets, millions of civilians would

die. Schoolchildren like Annie Dillard practiced air-raid procedures, and some

families built underground fallout shelters in their back yards. Fear of nuclear war

became a constant in American life for the next 30 years.

The Cold War Spreads Around the World

As the nation shifted to a dependence on nuclear arms, the Eisenhower adminis-

tration began to rely heavily on the recently formed Central Intelligence

Agency (CIA) for information. The CIA used spies to gather information abroad.

The CIA also began to carry out covert, or secret, operations to weaken or over-

throw governments unfriendly to the United States.

COVERT ACTIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND LATIN AMERICA

One of the

CIA’s ﬁrst covert actions took place in the Middle East. In 1951, Iran’s prime min-

ister, Mohammed Mossadegh, nationalized Iran’s oil ﬁelds; that is, he placed the

formerly private industries (owned mostly by Great Britain) under Iranian

control. To protest, the British stopped buying Iranian oil. As the Iranian economy

Cold War Conﬂicts 829

▼

A dramatic civil

defense poster

shows the fear of

nuclear attack.

Background

From ancient

times until 1935,

Iran was known as

Persia. Persia

once ruled a great

empire that

stretched from the

Mediterranean

Sea to India’s

Indus River.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Causes

How did the

U.S. and the

Soviet Union start

the arms race?

A. Answer

By developing

more powerful

weapons,

including the

H-bomb.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 829

Page 2 of 6

faltered, the United States feared that Mossadegh might turn to the Soviets for

help. In 1953, the CIA gave several million dollars to anti-Mossadegh supporters.

The CIA wanted the pro-American Shah of Iran, who had recently been forced to

ﬂee, to return to power. The plan worked. The Shah returned to power and turned

over control of Iranian oil ﬁelds to Western companies.

In 1954, the CIA also took covert actions in Guatemala, a Central American

country just south of Mexico. Eisenhower believed that Guatemala’s government

had Communist sympathies because it had given more than 200,000 acres of

American-owned land to peasants. In response, the CIA trained an army, which

invaded Guatemala. The Guatemalan army refused to defend the president, and

he resigned. The army’s leader then became dictator of the country.

THE WARSAW PACT

In spite of the growing tension between the superpowers,

U.S.-Soviet relations seemed to thaw following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.

The Soviets recognized West Germany and concluded peace treaties with Austria

and Japan. However, in 1955, when West Germany was allowed to rearm and join

NATO, the Soviet Union grew fearful. It formed its own military alliance, known

as the Warsaw Pact. The Warsaw Pact linked the Soviet Union with seven

Eastern European countries.

A SUMMIT IN GENEVA

In July 1955, Eisenhower traveled to Geneva,

Switzerland, to meet with Soviet leaders. There Eisenhower put forth an “open

skies” proposal. The United States and the Soviet Union would allow ﬂights over

each other’s territory to guard against surprise nuclear attacks. Although the

Soviet Union rejected this proposal, the world hailed the “spirit of Geneva” as a

step toward peace.

830 C

HAPTER 26

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

North

Sea

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

DENMARK

ITALY

HUNGARY

FINLAND

NORWAY

SWEDEN

SPAIN

ROMANIA

TURKEY

POLAND

SOVIET

UNION

FRANCE

WEST

GERMANY

EAST

GERMANY

PORTUGAL

GREECE

BULGARIA

AUSTRIA

SWITZERLAND

IRELAND

YUGOSLAVIA

UNITED

KINGDOM

ICELAND

ALBANIA

LUXEMBOURG

BELGIUM

NETHERLANDS

50°N

60°N

10°E30°E

0°10°W

40°N

Warsaw Pact countries

European NATO members

Nonaligned nations

0 300 600 kilometers

0 300 600 miles

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER

Region Which nations shown on the map

belonged to NATO, and which to the Warsaw Pact?

Region Which nations shown on the map did

not belong to either defense alliance?

The Warsaw Pact and NATO, 1955

MAIN IDEA

Summarizing

What was the

role of the CIA in

the Cold War?

B. Answer

To gather

intelligences

and to carry out

secret opera-

tions against

unfriendly

governments.

Skillbuilder

Answers

1. NATO: Great

Britain,

Netherlands,

Belgium,

France,

Luxembourg,

West Germany,

Denmark,

Norway,

Greece, Turkey,

Portugal, Italy.

Warsaw Pact:

East Germany,

Poland,

Czechoslovakia,

Hungary,

Romania,

Bulgaria,

Albania,

Soviet Union.

2. Spain,

Switzerland,

Austria,

Yugoslavia,

Sweden,

Finland, Ireland.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 830

Page 3 of 6

THE SUEZ WAR

In 1955, the same year in which the

Geneva Summit took place, Great Britain and the United

States agreed to help Egypt ﬁnance construction of a dam at

Aswan on the Nile River. However, Gamal Abdel-Nasser,

Egypt’s head of government, tried to play the Soviets and

the Americans against each other, by improving relations

with each one in order to get more aid. In 1956, after learn-

ing that Nasser was making deals with the Soviets, Dulles

withdrew his offer of a loan. Angered, Nasser responded by

nationalizing the Suez Canal, the Egyptian waterway that

was owned by France and Great Britain. The French and the

British were outraged.

Egyptian control of the canal also affected Israel. Nasser

refused to let ships bound for Israel pass through the canal,

even though the canal was supposed to be open to all

nations. Israel responded by sending troops. So did Great

Britain and France. The three countries seized the

Mediterranean end of the canal. The UN quickly stepped

in to stop the ﬁghting. It persuaded Great Britain, France,

and Israel to withdraw. However, it allowed Egypt to keep

control of the canal.

THE EISENHOWER DOCTRINE

The Soviet Union’s pres-

tige in the Middle East rose because of its support for Egypt.

To counterbalance this development, President Eisenhower

issued a warning in January 1957. This warning, known as

the Eisenhower Doctrine, said that the United States

would defend the Middle East against an attack by any

communist country. In March, Congress ofﬁcially approved

the doctrine.

THE HUNGARIAN UPRISING

Even as ﬁghting was raging

in the Middle East, a revolt began in Hungary. Dominated by the Soviet

Union since the end of World War II, the Hungarian people rose in revolt

in 1956. They called for a democratic government.

Imre Nagy, the most popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader,

formed a new government. He promised free elections, denounced the

Warsaw Pact, and demanded that all Soviet troops leave Hungary.

The Soviet response was swift and

brutal. In November 1956, Soviet

tanks rolled into Hungary and killed

approximately 30,000 Hungarians.

Armed with only pistols and bottles,

thousands of Hungarian freedom

ﬁghters threw up barricades in the

streets and fought the invaders to no

avail. The Soviets overthrew the Nagy

government and replaced it with pro-

Soviet leaders. Nagy himself was exe-

cuted. Some 200,000 Hungarians ﬂed

to the west.

Although the Truman Doctrine

had promised to support free peoples

who resisted communism, the United

States did nothing to help Hungary

break free of Soviet control. Many

ISRAEL

On May 14, 1948, the United

Nations created the nation of

Israel by partitioning Palestine into

two states, one Jewish and one

Arab. Thousands of Jews had im-

migrated to Palestine from Europe

before and during World War II,

and Israel became the “promised

land” they had been seeking since

biblical times. The creation of

Israel was one of the few issues

upon which the United States and

the Soviet Union agreed, as the

world reacted uniformly to the hor-

ror that had befallen the Jews in

the Holocaust.

’

Mediterranean

Sea

ISRAEL

JORDAN

LEBANON

SYRIA

EGYPT

SAUDI

ARABIA

Cold War Conﬂicts 831

Crowds surround a

captured Russian tank

during the anti-Communist

revolution in Hungary.

▼

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Effects

What were the

results of the

Suez War?

C. Answer

Great Britain,

France, and

Israel withdrew

from the

Mediterranean

end of the canal

and control of

the canal

passed to Egypt.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 831

Page 4 of 6

Hungarians were bitterly disappointed. The American policy of containment did

not extend to driving the Soviet Union out of its satellites.

No help came to Hungary from the United Nations either. Although the UN

passed one resolution after another condemning the Soviet Union, the Soviet

veto in the Security Council stopped the UN from taking any action.

The Cold War Takes to the Skies

After Stalin’s death in 1953, the Soviet Union

had no well-deﬁned way for one leader to succeed

another. For the first few years, a group of

leaders shared power. As time went by, how-

ever, one man did gain power. That man was

Nikita Khrushchev (

krMshPchDf). Like Stalin,

Khrushchev believed that communism would take

over the world, but Khrushchev thought it could

triumph peacefully. He favored a policy of peaceful

coexistence in which two powers would compete

economically and scientiﬁcally.

THE SPACE RACE

In the competition for inter-

national prestige, the Soviets leaped to an early

lead in what came to be known as the space race.

On October 4, 1957, they launched Sputnik, the

world’s ﬁrst artiﬁcial satellite. Sputnik traveled

around the earth at 18,000 miles per hour, circling

the globe every 96 minutes. Its launch was a tri-

umph of Soviet technology.

Americans were shocked at being beaten and

promptly poured money into their own space pro-

gram. U.S. scientists worked frantically to catch up

to the Soviets. The ﬁrst attempt at an American

satellite launch was a humiliating failure, with

the rocket toppling to the ground. However, on

January 31, 1958, the United States successfully

launched its ﬁrst satellite.

A U-2 IS SHOT DOWN

Following the rejection of

Eisenhower’s “open skies” proposal at the 1955

Geneva summit conference, the CIA began making secret high-altitude ﬂights

over Soviet territory. The plane used for these missions was the U-2, which could

ﬂy at high altitudes without detection. As a U-2 passed over the Soviet Union, its

infrared cameras took detailed photographs of troop movement and missile sites.

By 1960, however, many U.S. ofﬁcials were nervous about the U-2 program for

two reasons. First, the existence and purpose of the U-2 was an open secret among

some members of the American press. Second, the Soviets had been aware of the

ﬂights since 1958, as Francis Gary Powers, a U-2 pilot, explained.

A PERSONAL VOICE FRANCIS GARY POWERS

“ We . . . knew that the Russians were radar-tracking at least some of our ﬂights.

. . . We also knew that SAMs [surface-to-air missiles] were being ﬁred at us, that

some were uncomfortably close to our altitude. But we knew too that the

Russians had a control problem in their guidance system. . . . We were concerned,

but not greatly.

”

—Operation Overﬂight: The U-2 Spy Pilot Tells His Story for the First Time

832 C

HAPTER 26

U.S. Budget, 1940–2000

Percentage Spent on Defense

Source: Historical Tables, Budget of the United States Government

1940

18%

1950

32%

1960

52%

2000

16%

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Graphs

By how much did the percentage of

the federal budget for defense

increase between 1950 and 1960?

Why do you think it increased that much?

MAIN IDEA

Comparing

Compare

Joseph Stalin with

Nikita Khrushchev.

How were they

alike? How were

they different?

D. Answer

They both

believed that

communism

would take over

the world.

Unlike Stalin,

Krushchev

believed com-

munism could

triumph

peacefully.

Skillbuilder

Answers

1. 20 percent.

2. The arms race

with the Soviet

Union led to the

increase.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 832

Page 5 of 6

Finally, Eisenhower himself wanted the flights discontinued. He and

Khrushchev were going to hold another summit conference on the arms race on

May 15, 1960. “If one of these aircraft were lost when we were engaged in appar-

ently sincere deliberations, it could . . . ruin my effectiveness,” he told an aide.

However, Dulles persuaded him to authorize one last ﬂight.

That flight took

place on May 1, and

the pilot was Francis

Gary Powers. Four

hours after Powers

entered Soviet airspace,

a Soviet pilot shot

down his plane, and

Powers was forced to

parachute into Soviet-

controlled territory.

The Soviets sentenced

Powers to ten years in

prison.

RENEWED CONFRONTATION

At ﬁrst, Eisenhower

denied that the U-2 had been spying. The Soviets

had evidence, however, and Eisenhower ﬁnally had

to admit it. Khrushchev demanded an apology for

the ﬂights and a promise to halt them. Eisenhower

agreed to stop the U-2 ﬂights, but he would not

apologize.

Khrushchev angrily called off the summit. He

also withdrew his invitation to Eisenhower to visit

the Soviet Union. Because of the U-2 incident, the

1960s opened with tension between the two super-

powers as great as ever.

Cold War Conﬂicts 833

•H-bomb

•Dwight D. Eisenhower

•John Foster Dulles

•brinkmanship

•Central Intelligence Agency

(CIA)

•Warsaw Pact

•Eisenhower Doctrine

•Nikita Khrushchev

•Francis Gary Powers

•U-2 incident

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its signiﬁcance.

MAIN IDEA

2. TAKING NOTES

List Cold War trouble spots in Iran,

Guatemala, Egypt, and Hungary. For

each, write a newspaper headline

that summarizes the U.S. role and

the outcome of the situation.

Choose one headline and write a

paragraph about that trouble spot.

CRITICAL THINKING

3. HYPOTHESIZING

How might the Cold War have

progressed if the U-2 incident had

never occurred? Think About:

• the mutual distrust between

the Soviet Union and the United

States

• the outcome of the incident

4. EVALUATING

Which of the two superpowers do

you think contributed more to Cold

War tensions during the 1950s?

5. FORMING GENERALIZATIONS

Should one nation have the right to

remove another nation’s head of

government from power? If so,

when? If not, why?

Background

After 18 months,

Francis Gary

Powers was

released from the

Soviet Union in

exchange for

Soviet agent

Rudolf Abel,

who had been

convicted of

spying in the

United States.

Trouble Spot Headline

Francis Gary

Powers’s military

identiﬁcation card

▼

Image not available

for use on CD-ROM.

Please refer to the

image in the textbook.

p0828-833aspe-0726s4 10/17/02 9:14 AM Page 833

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