Fill - Form 1: City-States in Mesopotamia

Early River Valley Civilizations 29

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

INTERACTION WITH

ENVIRONMENT The earliest

civilization in Asia arose in

Mesopotamia and organized

into city-states.

The development of this

civilization reflects a settlement

pattern that has occurred

repeatedly throughout history.

•Fertile

Crescent

• Mesopotamia

• city-state

• dynasty

• cultural

diffusion

• polytheism

• empire

• Hammurabi

Problem

olution

se a

hart to identif

Sumer's

nvironmenta

pro

ems

eir so

utions

roblem

Solu

ion

TAKING NOTES

SETTING THE STAGE Two rivers flow from the mountains of what is now

Turkey, down through Syria and Iraq, and finally to the Persian Gulf. Over six

thousand years ago, the waters of these rivers provided the lifeblood that allowed

the formation of farming settlements. These grew into villages and then cities.

Geography of the Fertile Crescent

A desert climate dominates the landscape between the Persian Gulf and the

Mediterranean Sea in Southwest Asia. Yet within this dry region lies an arc of

land that provided some of the best farming in Southwest Asia. The region’s

curved shape and the richness of its land led scholars to call it the

Fertile

Crescent. It includes the lands facing the Mediterranean Sea and a plain that

became known as

Mesopotamia (MEHS•uh•puh•TAY•mee•uh). The word in

Greek means “land between the rivers.”

The rivers framing Mesopotamia are the Tigris (TY•grihs) and Euphrates

(yoo•FRAY•teez). They flow southeastward to the Persian Gulf. (See the map on

page 30.) The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flooded Mesopotamia at least once a

year. As the floodwater receded, it left a thick bed of mud called silt. Farmers

planted grain in this rich, new soil and irrigated the fields with river water. The

results were large quantities of wheat and barley at harvest time. The surpluses

from their harvests allowed villages to grow.

Environmental Challenges People first began to settle and farm the flat,

swampy lands in southern Mesopotamia before 4500

B.C. Around 3300 B.C., the

people called the Sumerians, whom you read about in Chapter 1, arrived on the

scene. Good soil was the advantage that attracted these settlers. However, there

were three disadvantages to their new environment.

• Unpredictable flooding combined with a period of little or no rain. The

land sometimes became almost a desert.

•With no natural barriers for protection, a Sumerian village was nearly

defenseless.

• The natural resources of Sumer were limited. Building materials and other

necessary items were scarce.

City-States in Mesopotamia

Page 1 of 6

Solving Problems Through Organization Over a long period of time, the people

of Sumer created solutions to deal with these problems.

•To provide water, they dug irrigation ditches that carried river water to their

fields and allowed them to produce a surplus of crops.

•For defense, they built city walls with mud bricks.

• Sumerians traded their grain, cloth, and crafted tools with the peoples of the

mountains and the desert. In exchange, they received raw materials such as

stone, wood, and metal.

These activities required organization, cooperation, and leadership. It took many

people working together, for example, for the Sumerians to construct their large

irrigation systems. Leaders were needed to plan the projects and supervise the dig-

ging. These projects also created a need for laws to settle disputes over how land

and water would be distributed. These leaders and laws were the beginning of

organized government—and eventually of civilization.

Sumerians Create City-States

The Sumerians stand out in history as one of the first groups of people to form a

civilization. As you learned in Chapter 1, five key characteristics set Sumer apart

from earlier human societies: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) com-

plex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) improved technology. All the later

peoples who lived in this region of the world built upon the innovations of

Sumerian civilization.

30 Chapter 2

IRAQ

IRAN

KUWAIT

SAUDI ARABIA

Present-day Persian Gulf

In 2500 B.C., the Persian Gulf

was larger than it is today.

Over time the Tigris and

Euphrates have joined together

and filled in this shallow area.

The ancient coastline is shown

above with a blue line.

Fertile Crescent

Sumer

Direction of flow

of the Tigris and

Euphrates

ANATOLIA

EGYPT

SUMER

AKKAD

SYRIAN

DESERT

ARABIAN DESERT

Mediterranean

Sea

Dead

Sea

Jordan River

50°

°E

30°E

40°N

30°N

Kish

Lagash

Uruk

Umma

Babylon

Agade

0 250 Miles

0 500 Kilometers

The Fertile Crescent, 2500 B.C.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps

1. Location Where are the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys found?

2. Place What is the most likely cause of the change in the Persian Gulf coastline?

Summarizing

What are three

solutions to the

environmental

challenges of

Mesopotamia?

Page 2 of 6

By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had built a number of cities, each surrounded by

fields of barley and wheat. Although these cities shared the same culture, they

developed their own governments, each with its own rulers. Each city and the sur-

rounding land it controlled formed a

city-state. A city-state functioned much as an

independent country does today. Sumerian city-states included Uruk, Kish,

Lagash, Umma, and Ur. As in Ur, the center of all Sumerian cities was the walled

temple with a ziggurat in the middle. There the priests and rulers appealed to the

gods for the well-being of the city-state.

Priests and Rulers Share Control Sumer’s earliest governments were controlled

by the temple priests. The farmers believed that the success of their crops depended

upon the blessings of the gods, and the priests acted as go-betweens with the gods.

In addition to being a place of worship, the ziggurat was like a city hall. (See page

22 for a ziggurat.) From the ziggurat the priests managed the irrigation system.

Priests demanded a portion of every farmer’s crop as taxes.

In time of war, however, the priests did not lead the city. Instead, the men of the

city chose a tough fighter who could command the city’s soldiers. At first, a com-

mander’s power ended as soon as the war was over. After 3000

B.C., wars between

cities became more and more frequent. Gradually, Sumerian priests and people

gave commanders permanent control of standing armies.

In time, some military leaders became full-time rulers. These rulers usually

passed their power on to their sons, who eventually passed it on to their own heirs.

Such a series of rulers from a single family is called a

dynasty. After 2500 B.C.,

many Sumerian city-states came under the rule of dynasties.

The Spread of Cities Sumer’s city-states grew prosperous from

the surplus food produced on their farms. These surpluses allowed

Sumerians to increase long-distance trade, exchanging the extra

food and other goods for items they needed.

By 2500

B.C., new cities were arising all over the Fertile Crescent,

in what is now Syria, northern Iraq, and Turkey. Sumerians

exchanged products and ideas, such as living in cities, with neigh-

boring cultures. This process in which a new idea or a product

spreads from one culture to another is called

cultural diffusion.

Sumerian Culture

The belief systems, social structure, technology, and arts of the

Sumerians reflected their civilization’s triumph over its dry and

harsh environment.

A Religion of Many Gods Like many peoples in the Fertile

Crescent, the Sumerians believed that many different gods con-

trolled the various forces in nature. The belief in more than one god

is called

polytheism (PAHL•ee•thee•IHZ•uhm). Enlil, the god of

storms and air, was among the most powerful gods. Sumerians

feared him as “the raging flood that has no rival.” Demons known

as Ugallu protected humans from the evil demons who caused dis-

ease, misfortune, and misery.

Sumerians described their gods as doing many of the same things

humans do—falling in love, having children, quarreling, and so on.

Yet the Sumerians also believed that their gods were both immortal

and all-powerful. Humans were nothing but their servants. At any

moment, the mighty anger of the gods might strike, sending a fire, a

flood, or an enemy to destroy a city. To keep the gods happy, the

▼

Iku-Shamagen,

King of Mari, a

city-state in

Sumer, offers

prayers to the

gods.

Analyzing Causes

How did mili-

tary leaders gain

power in the

city-states?

Early River Valley Civilizations 31

Page 3 of 6

32 Chapter 2

Sumerians built impressive ziggurats for them and offered

rich sacrifices of animals, food, and wine.

Sumerians worked hard to earn the gods’ protection in

this life. Yet they expected little help from the gods after

death. The Sumerians believed that the souls of the dead

went to the “land of no return,” a dismal, gloomy place

between the earth’s crust and the ancient sea. No joy awaited

souls there. A passage in a Sumerian poem describes the fate

of dead souls: “Dust is their fare and clay their food.”

Some of the richest accounts of Mesopotamian myths

and legends appear in a long poem called the Epic of

Gilgamesh. (See a selection from the Gilgamesh epic on

page 83.)

Life in Sumerian Society With civilization came the begin-

ning of what we call social classes. Kings, landholders, and

some priests made up the highest level in Sumerian society.

Wealthy merchants ranked next. The vast majority of ordi-

nary Sumerian people worked with their hands in fields and

workshops. At the lowest level of Sumerian society were the

slaves. Some slaves were foreigners who had been captured

in war. Others were Sumerians who had been sold into slav-

ery as children to pay the debts of their poor parents. Debt

slaves could hope to eventually buy their freedom.

Social class affected the lives of both men and women.

Sumerian women could work as merchants, farmers, or artisans. They could hold

property in their own names. Women could also join the priesthood. Some upper-class

women did learn to read and write, though Sumer’s written records mention few

female scribes. However, Sumerian women had more rights than women in many later

civilizations.

Sumerian Science and Technology Historians believe that Sumerians invented

the wheel, the sail, and the plow and that they were among the first to use bronze.

Many new ideas and inventions arose from the Sumerians’ practical needs.

• Arithmetic and geometry In order to erect city walls and buildings, plan

irrigation systems, and survey flooded fields, Sumerians needed arithmetic

and geometry. They developed a number system in base 60, from which

stem the modern units for measuring time (60 seconds = 1 minute) and the

360 degrees of a circle.

• Architectural innovations Arches, columns, ramps, and the pyramid

shaped the design of the ziggurat and permanently influenced

Mesopotamian civilization.

• Cuneiform Sumerians created a system of writing. One of the first known

maps was made on a clay tablet in about 2300

B.C.Other tablets contain

some of the oldest written records of scientific investigations in the areas of

astronomy, chemistry, and medicine.

The First Empire Builders

From 3000 to 2000 B.C., the city-states of Sumer were almost constantly at war

with one another. The weakened city-states could no longer ward off attacks from

the peoples of the surrounding deserts and hills. Although the Sumerians never

recovered from the attacks on their cities, their civilization did not die. Succeeding

sets of rulers adapted the basic ideas of Sumerian culture to meet their own needs.

Vocabulary

epic: a long heroic

poem that tells the

story of a historical

or legendary figure

▲

This gold and

lapis ram with a

shell fleece was

found in a royal

burial tomb.

Page 4 of 6

Sargon of Akkad About 2350 B.C., a conqueror named Sargon defeated the

city-states of Sumer. Sargon led his army from Akkad (AK•ad), a city-state north

of Sumer. The Akkadians had long before adopted most aspects of Sumerian cul-

ture. Sargon’s conquests helped to spread that culture even farther, beyond the

Tigris-Euphrates Valley.

By taking control of both northern and southern Mesopotamia, Sargon created

the world’s first

empire. An empire brings together several peoples, nations, or

previously independent states under the control of one ruler. At its height, the

Akkadian Empire loosely controlled land from the Mediterranean Coast in the west

to present-day Iran in the east. Sargon’s dynasty lasted only about 200 years, after

which it declined due to internal fighting, invasions, and a famine.

Babylonian Empire In about 2000 B.C., nomadic warriors known as Amorites

invaded Mesopotamia. Gradually, the Amorites overwhelmed the Sumerians and

established their capital at Babylon, on the Euphrates River. The Babylonian

Empire reached its peak during the reign of

Hammurabi, from 1792 B.C.to

1750

B.C.Hammurabi’s most enduring legacy is the code of laws he put together.

Hammurabi’s Code Hammurabi recognized that a single, uniform code of laws

would help to unify the diverse groups within his empire. He collected existing

rules, judgments, and laws into the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi had the code

engraved in stone, and copies were placed all over his empire.

Early River Valley Civilizations 33

Contrasting

How does an

empire differ from

a city-state?

PRIMARY SOURCE

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS

1. Making Inferences Why might the punishments for the crimes be based on social class?

2. Forming Opinions What do you think the value was in making the punishments for the

crimes known to all?

8. If a man has stolen an ox, a sheep, a pig, or a boat that belonged to a

temple or palace, he shall repay thirty times its cost. If it belonged to a

private citizen, he shall repay ten times. If the thief cannot pay, he shall

be put to death.

142. If a woman hates her husband and says to him “You cannot be with

me,” the authorities in her district will investigate the case. If she has

been chaste and without fault, even though her husband has

neglected or belittled her, she will be held innocent and may return to

her father’s house.

143. If the woman is at fault, she shall be thrown into the river.

196. If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.

198. If he puts out the eye of freed man or break the bone of a free man,

he shall pay one gold mina.

199. If he put out the eye of a man’s slave, or break the bone of a man’s

slave, he shall pay one-half of its value.

CODE OF HAMMURABI, adapted from a translation by L. W. King

Hammurabi’s Code of Laws

The image at the right shows the top of a pillar that had Hammurabi ‘s Code engraved

on it. Hammurabi’s law code prescribed punishments ranging from fines to death.

Often the punishments were based on the social class of the victim.

Here are some examples of the laws:

Page 5 of 6

34 Chapter 2

The code lists 282 specific laws dealing with everything

that affected the community, including family relations,

business conduct, and crime. Since many people were

merchants, traders, or farmers, for example, many of the

laws related to property issues. Additionally, the laws

sought to protect women and children from unfair treat-

ment. The laws tell us a great deal about the Mesopo-

tamians’ beliefs and what they valued.

Although the code applied to everyone, it set different

punishments for rich and poor and for men and women. It

frequently applied the principle of retaliation (an eye for

an eye and a tooth for a tooth) to punish crimes.

The prologue of the code set out the goals for this body

of law. It said, “ To bring about the rule of righteousness in

the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that

the strong should not harm the weak.” Thus, Hammurabi’s

Code reinforced the principle that government had a

responsibility for what occurred in society. For example,

if a man was robbed and the thief was not caught, the

government was required to compensate the victim.

Nearly two centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, the

Babylonian Empire, which had become much smaller, fell

to the neighboring Kassites. Over the years, new groups

dominated the Fertile Crescent. Yet the later peoples,

including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews, would

adopt many ideas of the early Sumerians. Meanwhile, a

similar pattern of development, rise, and fall was taking

place to the west, along the Nile River in Egypt. Egyptian

civilization is described in Section 2.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

• Fertile Crescent • Mesopotamia • city-state • dynasty • cultural diffusion • polytheism • empire • Hammurabi

USING YOUR NOTES

2. Which of the problems you

listed required the most

complex solution? Explain.

MAIN IDEAS

3. What were the three

environmental challenges to

Sumerians?

4. How did the Sumerians view

the gods?

5. What areas of life did

Hammurabi’s Code cover?

SECTION ASSESSMENT

WRITING A STATUS REPORT

Research the South East Anatolian Water Project in Turkey. The project will place dams on the

Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Create a map and write a status report that summarizes the

current status of the project.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

6. DETERMINING MAIN IDEAS How was Sumerian culture

spread throughout Mesopotamia?

7. R ECOGNIZING EFFECTS Why is the development of a

written code of laws important to a society?

8. ANALYZING CAUSES How did the need to interact with

the environment lead to advances in civilization?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY What

advantages did living in cities offer the people of ancient

Mesopotamia? Do modern cities offer any of the same

advantages? Write a compare-and-contrast essay

supporting your answer with references to the text.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

Hammurabi

? –1750

B.C.

The noted lawgiver Hammurabi was

also an able military leader, diplomat,

and administrator of a vast empire.

Hammurabi himself described some

of his accomplishments:

As for the land of Sumer and

Akkad, I collected the scattered

peoples thereof, and I procured

food and drink for them. In

abundance and plenty I pastured

them, and I caused them to dwell

in peaceful habitation.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on

Hammurabi, go to

classzone.com

Recognizing

Effects

How did

Hammurabi’s law

code advance

civilization?

CONNECT TO TODAY

roble

Solutio

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