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Terms & Names

MAIN IDEA

•Panama Canal

•Roosevelt

Corollary

•dollar diplomacy

•Francisco

“Pancho” Villa

•Emiliano Zapata

•John J. Pershing

The Russo-Japanese War,

the Panama Canal, and the

Mexican Revolution added

to America’s military and

economic power.

American involvement in

conflicts around 1900 led to

involvement in World War I and

later to a peacekeeper role in

today’s world.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Joseph Bucklin Bishop, a policy adviser to the canal’s

chief engineer, played an important role in the build-

ing of the Panama Canal. As editor of the Canal

Record, a weekly newspaper that provided Americans

with updates on the project, Bishop described a frus-

trating problem that the workers encountered.

A P

ERSONAL VOICE JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP

“ The Canal Zone was a land of the fantastic and the

unexpected. No one could say when the sun went

down what the condition of the Cut would be when

[the sun] rose. For the work of months or even years

might be blotted out by an avalanche of earth or the

toppling over of a mountain of rock. It was a task to

try men’s souls; but it was also one to kindle in them

a joy of combat . . . and a faith in ultimate victory

which no disaster could shake.

”

—quoted in The Impossible Dream: The Building of the Panama Canal

The building of the Panama Canal reflected America’s new role as a world

power. As a technological accomplishment, the canal represented a confident

nation’s refusal to let any physical obstacle stand in its way.

Teddy Roosevelt and the World

The assassination of William McKinley in 1901 thrust Vice-President Theodore

Roosevelt into the role of a world leader. Roosevelt was unwilling to allow the

imperial powers of Europe to control the world’s political and economic destiny.

In 1905, building on the Open Door notes to increase American influence in East

Asia, Roosevelt mediated a settlement in a war between Russia and Japan.

America as a

World Power

One American's Story

▼

Workers digging

the Panama Canal

faced hazardous

landslides and

death from

disease.

America Claims an Empire 565

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Page 1 of 7

ROOSEVELT THE PEACEMAKER

In 1904, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia declared

war on Japan, Russia’s neighbor in East Asia. Russia and Japan were both imperi-

alist powers, and they were competing for control of Korea. The Japanese took the

first action in the war with a surprise attack on the Russian Pacific fleet. To every-

one’s surprise, Japan destroyed it. Japan then proceeded to destroy a second fleet

sent as reinforcement. Japan also won a series of land bat-

tles, securing Korea and Manchuria.

As a result of these battles, Japan began to run out of

men and money, a fact that it did not want to reveal to

Russia. Instead, Japanese officials approached President

Roosevelt in secret and asked him to mediate peace negoti-

ations. Roosevelt agreed, and in 1905, Russian and Japanese

delegates convened in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

The first meeting took place on the presidential yacht.

Roosevelt had a charming way of greeting people with a

grasp of the hand, a broad grin, and a hearty “Dee-lighted.”

Soon the opposing delegates began to relax and cordially

shook hands.

The Japanese wanted Sakhalin Island, off the coast of

Siberia, and a large sum of money from Russia. Russia

refused. Roosevelt persuaded Japan to accept half the island

and forgo the cash payment. In exchange, Russia agreed to

let Japan take over Russian interests in Manchuria and

Korea. The successful efforts in negotiating the Treaty of

Portsmouth won Roosevelt the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.

As U.S. and Japanese interests expanded in East Asia,

the two nations continued diplomatic talks. In later agree-

ments, they pledged to respect each other’s possessions and

interests in East Asia and the Pacific.

PANAMA CANAL

By the time Roosevelt became president,

many Americans, including Roosevelt, felt that the United

States needed a canal cutting across Central America. Such

a canal would greatly reduce travel time for commercial and

military ships by providing a shortcut between the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans. (See Geography Spotlight, page 572.) As

early as 1850, the United States and Britain had agreed to

share the rights to such a canal. In the Hay-Pauncefote

Treaty of 1901, however, Britain gave the United States

exclusive rights to build and control a canal through

Central America.

Engineers identified two possible routes for the pro-

posed canal. One, through Nicaragua, posed fewer obstacles

because much of it crossed a large lake. The other route

crossed through Panama (then a province of Colombia) and

was shorter and filled with mountains and swamps. In the late 1800s, a French

company had tried to build a canal in Panama. After ten years, the company gave

up. It sent an agent, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, to Washington to convince the

United States to buy its claim. In 1903, the president and Congress decided to use

the Panama route and agreed to buy the French company’s route for $40 million.

Before beginning work on the Panama Canal, the United States had to get

permission from Colombia, which then ruled Panama. When these negotiations

broke down, Bunau-Varilla helped organize a Panamanian rebellion against

Colombia. On November 3, 1903, nearly a dozen U.S. warships were present as

Panama declared its independence. Fifteen days later, Panama and the United

566 C

HAPTER 18

A. Answer

Japan received

half of Sakhalin

Island but no

cash payment.

Russia agreed

to let Japan take

over Russian

interests in

Manchuria and

Korea. In future

years, the two

nations contin-

ued diplomatic

talks. Roosevelt

won the 1906

Nobel Peace

Prize.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Effects

What were

the results of

Roosevelt’s

negotiations with

the Japanese and

Russians?

THEODORE ROOSEVELT

1858–1919

Rimless glasses, a bushy mus-

tache, and prominent teeth made

Roosevelt easy for cartoonists to

caricature. His great enthusiasm

for physical activity—boxing, ten-

nis, swimming, horseback riding,

and hunting—provided cartoon-

ists with additional material.

Some cartoons portrayed

Roosevelt with the toy teddy bear

that he inspired.

Roosevelt had six children, who

became notorious for their rowdy

antics. Their father once sent a

message through the War

Department, ordering them to

call off their “attack” on the

White House. Roosevelt thrived

on the challenges of the presi-

dency. He wrote, “I do not believe

that anyone else has ever

enjoyed the White House as

much as I have.”

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Page 2 of 7

States signed a treaty in which the United States agreed to pay Panama $10 mil-

lion plus an annual rent of $250,000 for an area of land across Panama, called the

Canal Zone. The payments were to begin in 1913.

CONSTRUCTING THE CANAL

Construction of the Panama Canal ranks as one

of the world’s greatest engineering feats. Builders fought diseases, such as yellow

fever and malaria, and soft volcanic soil that proved difficult to remove from

where it lay. Work began in 1904 with the clearing of brush and draining of

swamps. By 1913, the height of the construction, more than 43,400 workers were

employed. Some had come from Italy and Spain; three-quarters were blacks from

the British West Indies. More than 5,600 workers on the canal died from accidents

or disease. The total cost to the United States was about $380 million.

On August 15, 1914, the canal opened for business, and more than 1,000

merchant ships passed through during its first year. U.S.-Latin American relations,

however, had been damaged by American support of the rebellion in Panama.

The resulting ill will lasted for decades, despite Congress’s paying Colombia $25

million in 1921 to compensate the country for its lost territory.

Gold Hill

Continental Divide

Gatún Locks

Miraflores

Locks

Pedro Miguel

Locks

Pacific Ocean

Gatún Lake

Atlantic Ocean

Galliard Cut

85 feet above sea level

America Claims an Empire 567

Science

THE PANAMA CANAL

Locks are used to raise and lower ships a total of 170 feet during the 51-mile trip through

the Panama Canal. For example, ships from the Atlantic Ocean are lifted by the Gatún

Locks to the level of Gatún Lake. The ships cross the human-made lake, then move through

another waterway, the Galliard Cut. The Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks then lower the

ships to the level of the Pacific Ocean.

▼

This photo shows a ship that has

entered the canal from the Pacific

Ocean side and is heading north

through the Miraflores Locks. Ships

and boats can also enter the canal

through the Atlantic Ocean side and

head south through the Gatún Locks.

B. Answer

Builders fought

diseases and

the difficult

removal of soft

volcanic soil.

They also had to

clear brush and

drain swamps.

A ship enters a lock when

the lower gates are open.

When all gates are shut, water is let into

the lock through a sluice (small gate).

When the water has risen, the upper

gates are opened, and the ship passes

through the lock to the next level.

MAIN IDEA

Identifying

Problems

What

problems did

canal workers

encounter in

constructing the

canal?

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Page 3 of 7

Analyzing

THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY

Financial factors drew the United States further

into Latin American affairs. In the late 19th century, many Latin American

nations had borrowed huge sums from European banks to build railroads and

develop industries. Roosevelt feared that if these nations defaulted on their loans,

Europeans might intervene. He was determined to make

the United States the predominant power in the

Caribbean and Central America.

Roosevelt reminded European powers of the Monroe

Doctrine, which had been issued in 1823 by President

James Monroe. The Monroe Doctrine demanded that

European countries stay out of the affairs of Latin

American nations. Roosevelt based his Latin America

policy on a West African proverb that said, “Speak softly

and carry a big stick.” In his December 1904 message to

Congress, Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary to

the Monroe Doctrine. He warned that disorder in Latin

America might “force the United States . . . to the exer-

cise of an international police power.” In effect, the

corollary said that the United States would now use force

to protect its economic interests in Latin America.

DOLLAR DIPLOMACY

During the next decade, the

United States exercised its police power on several occa-

sions. For example, when a 1911 rebellion in Nicaragua

left the nation near bankruptcy, President William H. Taft, Roosevelt’s successor,

arranged for American bankers to loan Nicaragua enough money to pay its debts.

In return, the bankers were given the right to recover their money by collecting

Nicaragua’s customs duties. The U.S. bankers also gained control of Nicaragua’s

state-owned railroad system and its national bank. When Nicaraguan citizens

heard about this deal, they revolted against President Adolfo Díaz. To prop up

Vocabulary

corollary: an

additional

statement that

follows logically

from the first one

“ Speak softly and

carry a big stick; you

will go far.”

THEODORE ROOSEVELT

“THE WORLD’S CONSTABLE”

This cartoon, drawn by Louis Dalrymple in

1905, shows Teddy Roosevelt implementing

his new world diplomacy. The cartoon implies

that Roosevelt has the right to execute police

power to keep the countries of Europe (shown

on the right) out of the affairs of Latin

American countries (shown on the left).

SKILLBUILDER

Analyzing Political Cartoons

How does the cartoonist portray President

Roosevelt?

Why is "The World’s Constable" a good title

for this cartoon?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK,

PAGE R24.

568 C

HAPTER 18

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Page 4 of 7

Díaz’s government, some 2,000 marines were sent to Nicaragua. The revolt was

put down, but some marine detachments remained in the country until 1933.

The Taft administration followed the policy of using the U.S. government to

guarantee loans made to foreign countries by American businesspeople. This pol-

icy was called dollar diplomacy by its critics and was often used to justify keep-

ing European powers out of the Caribbean.

Woodrow Wilson’s Missionary Diplomacy

The Monroe Doctrine, issued by President James Monroe in 1823, had warned

other nations against expanding their influence in Latin America. The Roosevelt

Corollary asserted, in 1904, that the United States had a right to exercise interna-

tional police power in the Western Hemisphere. In 1913, President Woodrow

Wilson gave the Monroe Doctrine a moral tone.

According to Wilson’s “missionary diplomacy,” the United States had a moral

responsibility to deny recognition to any Latin American government it viewed

as oppressive, undemocratic, or hostile to U.S. interests. Prior to this policy, the

United States recognized any government that controlled a nation, regardless of

that nation’s policies or how it had come to power. Wilson’s policy pressured

nations in the Western Hemisphere to establish democratic governments. Almost

immediately, the Mexican Revolution put Wilson’s policy to the test.

THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION

Mexico had been ruled for more than three

decades by a military dictator, Porfirio Díaz. A friend of the United States, Díaz

had long encouraged foreign investments in his country. As a result, foreigners,

mostly Americans, owned a large share of Mexican oil wells, mines, railroads, and

ranches. While foreign investors and some Mexican landowners and politicians

had grown rich, the common people of the country were desperately poor.

In 1911, Mexican peasants and workers led by Francisco Madero overthrew

Díaz. Madero promised democratic reforms, but he proved unable to satisfy the

conflicting demands of landowners, peasants, factory workers, and the urban

middle class. After two years, General Victoriano Huerta took over the govern-

ment. Within days Madero was murdered. Wilson refused to recognize the gov-

ernment that Huerta formed. He called it “a government of butchers.”

INTERVENTION IN MEXICO

Wilson adopted a plan of

“watchful waiting,” looking for an opportunity to act

against Huerta. The opportunity came in April 1914, when

one of Huerta’s officers arrested a small group of American

sailors in Tampico, on Mexico’s eastern shore. The

Mexicans quickly released them and apologized, but Wilson

used the incident as an excuse to intervene in Mexico and

ordered U.S. Marines to occupy Veracruz, an important

Mexican port. Eighteen Americans and at least 200

Mexicans died during the invasion.

The incident brought the United States and Mexico

close to war. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile stepped in to

mediate the conflict. They proposed that Huerta step down

and that U.S. troops withdraw without paying Mexico for

damages. Mexico rejected the plan, and Wilson refused to

recognize a government that had come to power as a result

of violence. The Huerta regime soon collapsed, however,

and Venustiano Carranza, a nationalist leader, became pres-

ident in 1915. Wilson withdrew the troops and formally

recognized the Carranza government.

America Claims an Empire 569

ANOTHER

INTERVENTION IN MEXICO

Most U.S. citizens supported

American intervention in Mexico.

Edith O’Shaughnessy, wife of an

American diplomat in Mexico City,

had another perspective. After

touring Veracruz, O’Shaughnessy

wrote to her mother:

“I think we have done a great

wrong to these people; instead

of cutting out the sores with a

clean, strong knife of war . . .

and occupation, . . . we have

only put our fingers in each

festering wound and inflamed

it further.”

C. Answer

Wilson was fol-

lowing his policy

of missionary

diplomacy. He

considered

Huerta a mur-

derer because

Huerta had

ordered

rebel leader

Francisco

Madero

executed.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Motives

Why did

President Wilson

refuse to

recognize Huerta’s

government?

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Page 5 of 7

History Through

REBELLION IN MEXICO

Carranza was in charge, but like others before him, he

did not have the support of all Mexicans. Rebels under the leadership of

Francisco “Pancho” Villa (

vCPE) and Emiliano Zapata (D-mCl-yäPnI zE-päPtE)

opposed Carranza’s provisional government. Zapata—son of a mestizo peasant—

was dedicated to land reform. “It is better to die on your feet than live on your

knees,” Zapata told the peasants who joined him. Villa, a fierce nationalist, had

frequently courted the support and aid of the United States.

A PERSONAL VOICE PANCHO VILLA

“ [A]s long as I have anything to do with the affairs in Mexico there will be no fur-

ther friction between my country and my friends of the North . . . To President

Wilson, the greatest American, I stand pledged to do what I can to keep the faith

he has in my people, and if there is anything he may wish I will gladly do it, for I

know it will be for the good of my country.

”

—New York Times, January 11, 1915

Despite Villa’s talk of friendship, when President Wilson recognized Carranza’s

government, Villa threatened reprisals against the United States. In January 1916,

Carranza invited American engineers to operate mines in northern Mexico.

Before they reached the mines, however, Villa’s men took the Americans off a

train and shot them. Two months later, some of Villa’s followers raided Columbus,

New Mexico, and killed 17 Americans. Americans held Villa responsible.

CHASING VILLA

With the American public demanding revenge, President

Wilson ordered Brigadier General John J. Pershing and an expeditionary force

of about 15,000 soldiers into Mexico to capture Villa dead or alive. For almost a

year, Villa eluded Pershing’s forces. Wilson then called out 150,000 National

Guardsmen and stationed them along the Mexican border. In the meantime,

ZAPATISTAS (1931)

José Orozco, one of Mexico's

foremost artists, painted

these Zapatistas (followers of

Zapata), to honor the peasant

men and women who fought

in the Mexican revolution.

Orozco did many paintings in

support of the revolution.

What aspects of the image

does the artist use to convey

strength and unity?

570 C

HAPTER 18

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Page 6 of 7

Mexicans grew angrier over the

U.S. invasion of their land. In

June 1916, U.S. troops clashed

with Carranza’s army, resulting in

deaths on both sides.

Carranza demanded the

withdrawal of U.S. troops, but

Wilson refused. War seemed

imminent. However, in the end,

both sides backed down. The

United States, facing war in

Europe, needed peace on its

southern border. In February

1917, Wilson ordered Pershing to

return home. Later that year,

Mexico adopted a constitution

that gave the government control

of the nation’s oil and mineral

resources and placed strict regulations on foreign investors.

Although Carranza had called for the constitution of 1917, he failed to carry

out its measures. Instead, he ruled oppressively until 1920 when a moderate

named Alvaro Obregón came to power. Obregón’s presidency marked the end of

civil war and the beginning of reform.

U.S. intervention in Mexican affairs provided a clear model of American

imperialist attitudes in the early years of the 20th century. Americans believed in

the superiority of free-enterprise democracy, and the American government

attempted to extend the reach of this economic and political system, even

through armed intervention.

The United States pursued and achieved several foreign policy goals in the

early 20th century. First, it expanded its access to foreign markets in order to

ensure the continued growth of the domestic economy. Second, the United States

built a modern navy to protect its interests abroad. Third, the United States exer-

cised its international police power to ensure dominance in Latin America.

•Panama Canal

•Roosevelt Corollary

•dollar diplomacy

•Francisco “Pancho” Villa

•Emiliano Zapata

•John J. Pershing

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its significance.

SUMMARIZING

2. TAKING NOTES

In a two-column chart, list ways

Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow

Wilson used American power around

the world during their presidencies.

Choose one example and discuss

its impact with your classmates.

CRITICAL THINKING

3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

What do you think were the similari-

ties and differences between

Roosevelt’s Big Stick policy and

Wilson’s missionary diplomacy? Use

evidence from the text to support

your response. Think About:

• the goal of each of these foreign

policies

• how the policies defined the role

of U.S. intervention in internation-

al affairs

• how the policies were applied

4. EVALUATING DECISIONS

In your opinion, should the United

States have become involved in the

affairs of Colombia, Nicaragua, and

Mexico during the early 1900s?

Support your answer with details.

Think About:

• the effect of the Roosevelt

Corollary

• the results of dollar diplomacy

• the implication of Wilson’s mis-

sionary diplomacy

Using American Power

Roosevelt Wilson

America Claims an Empire 571

▼

Pancho Villa

directs a column

of his troops

through northern

Mexico in 1914.

p0565-571aspe-0518s4 10/17/02 8:56 AM Page 571

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