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Terms & Names

MAIN IDEA

•Joseph Stalin

•totalitarian

•Benito Mussolini

•fascism

•Adolf Hitler

•Nazism

•Francisco Franco

•Neutrality Acts

The rise of rulers with total

power in Europe and Asia led

to World War ll.

Dictators of the 1930s and

1940s changed the course of

history, making world leaders

especially watchful for the

actions of dictators today.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

734 C

HAPTER 24

One American's Story

Martha Gellhorn arrived in Madrid in 1937 to cover the

brutal civil war that had broken out in Spain the year

before. Hired as a special correspondent for Collier’s Weekly,

she had come with very little money and no special protec-

tion. On assignment there, she met the writer Ernest

Hemingway, whom she later married. To Gellhorn, a young

American writer, the Spanish Civil War was a deadly strug-

gle between tyranny and democracy. For the people of

Madrid, it was also a daily struggle for survival.

A PERSONAL VOICE MARTHA GELLHORN

“ You would be walking down a street, hearing only the city

noises of streetcars and automobiles and people calling to

one another, and suddenly, crushing it all out, would be the

huge stony deep booming of a falling shell, at the corner. There was no place to

run, because how did you know that the next shell would not be behind you, or

ahead, or to the left or right?

”

—The Face of War

Less than two decades after the end of World War I—“the war to end all

wars”—ﬁghting erupted again in Europe and in Asia. As Americans read about dis-

tant battles, they hoped the conﬂicts would remain on the other side of the world.

Nationalism Grips Europe and Asia

The seeds of new conﬂicts had been sown in World War I. For many nations,

peace had brought not prosperity but revolution fueled by economic depression

and struggle. The postwar years also brought the rise of powerful dictators driven

by the belief in nationalism—loyalty to one’s country above all else—and dreams

of territorial expansion.

Dictators Threaten

World Peace

▼

Martha Gellhorn,

one of the ﬁrst

women war

correspondents,

began her career

during the

Spanish Civil War.

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 734

Page 1 of 8

FAILURES OF THE WORLD WAR I PEACE SETTLEMENT

Instead of securing

a “just and secure peace,” the Treaty of Versailles caused anger and resentment.

Germans saw nothing fair in a treaty that blamed them for starting the war. Nor

did they ﬁnd security in a settlement that stripped them of their overseas colonies

and border territories. These problems overwhelmed the Weimar Republic, the

democratic government set up in Germany after World War I. Similarly, the

Soviets resented the carving up of parts of Russia. (See map, Chapter 19, p. 606.)

The peace settlement had not fulﬁlled President Wilson’s hope of a world

“safe for democracy.” New democratic governments that emerged in Europe after

the war ﬂoundered. Without a democratic tradition, people turned to authoritar-

ian leaders to solve their economic and social problems. The new democracies

collapsed, and dictators were able to seize power. Some had great ambitions.

JOSEPH STALIN TRANSFORMS THE SOVIET UNION

In Russia, hopes for

democracy gave way to civil war, resulting in the establishment of a communist

state, ofﬁcially called the Soviet Union, in 1922. After V. I. Lenin died in 1924,

Joseph Stalin, whose last name means “man of steel,” took control of the coun-

try. Stalin focused on creating a model communist state. In so doing, he made

both agricultural and industrial growth the prime economic goals of the Soviet

Union. Stalin abolished all privately owned farms and replaced them with collec-

tives—large government-owned farms, each worked by hundreds of families.

Stalin moved to transform the Soviet Union from a backward rural nation into

a great industrial power. In 1928, the Soviet dictator outlined the ﬁrst of several

“ﬁve-year plans,” to direct the industrialization. All economic activity was placed

under state management. By 1937, the Soviet Union had become the world’s sec-

ond-largest industrial power, surpassed in overall production only by the United

States. The human costs of this transformation, however, were enormous.

In his drive to purge, or eliminate, anyone who threatened his power, Stalin

did not spare even his most faithful supporters. While the ﬁnal toll will never be

known, historians estimate that Stalin was responsible for the deaths of 8 million

to 13 million people. Millions more died in famines caused by the restructuring

of Soviet society.

By 1939, Stalin had ﬁrmly established a totalitarian government that

maintained complete control over its citizens. In a totalitarian state, individuals

have no rights, and the government suppresses all opposition.

World War Looms 735

Germany was expected to pay off huge

debts while dealing with widespread

poverty. By 1923, an inﬂating economy

made a ﬁve-million German mark worth

less than a penny. Here children build

blocks with stacks of useless German

marks.

▼

A. Answer

A lack of demo-

cratic tradition,

failure of the

Treaty of

Versailles and

economic dev-

astation.

B. Answer

Complete con-

trol over citizens

and ruthless

suppression of

opposition.

MAIN IDEA

Identifying

Problems

Why did the

new democracies

set up after World

War I fail?

MAIN IDEA

Summarizing

What are the

characteristics of

a totalitarian

state?

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 735

Page 2 of 8

THE RISE OF FASCISM IN ITALY

While Stalin was consolidating his power in

the Soviet Union, Benito Mussolini was establishing a totalitarian regime in

Italy, where unemployment and inﬂation produced bitter strikes, some commu-

nist-led. Alarmed by these threats, the middle and upper classes demanded

stronger leadership. Mussolini took advantage of this situation. A powerful speak-

er, Mussolini knew how to appeal to Italy’s wounded national pride. He played on

the fears of economic collapse and communism. In this way, he won the support

of many discontented Italians.

By 1921, Mussolini had established the Fascist

Party. Fascism (

fBshPGzQEm) stressed nationalism and

placed the interests of the state above those of individ-

uals. To strengthen the nation, Fascists argued, power

must rest with a single strong leader and a small group

of devoted party members. (The Latin fasces—a bundle

of rods tied around an ax handle—had been a symbol of

unity and authority in ancient Rome.)

In October 1922, Mussolini marched on Rome with

thousands of his followers, whose black uniforms gave them the name “Black

Shirts.” When important government ofﬁcials, the army, and the police sided

with the Fascists, the Italian king appointed Mussolini head of the government.

Calling himself Il Duce, or “the leader,” Mussolini gradually extended Fascist

control to every aspect of Italian life. Tourists marveled that Il Duce had even

“made the trains run on time.” Mussolini achieved this efﬁciency, however, by

crushing all opposition and by making Italy a totalitarian state.

736 C

HAPTER 24

“ Italy wants peace,

work, and calm.

I will give these

things with love if

possible, with force

if necessary.”

BENITO MUSSOLINI

Rome

Berlin

London

Paris

Moscow

Tokyo

Madrid

Yellow

Sea

Sea of

Japan

East

China

Sea

PACIFIC

OCEAN

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Tropic of Cancer

Arctic Circle

45°E 165°E

0°

75°N

60°N

45°N

FRANCE

ITALY

GERMANY

JAPAN

CHINA

SOVIET UNION

SPAIN

GREAT

BRITAIN

Fascist dictatorship

Communist dictatorship

Imperialist military regime

0 750 1,500 kilometers

750 1,500 miles

The Rise of Nationalism, 1922–1941

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER

Region In which countries did authoritarian leaders come to power?

Who were the leaders?

Location What geographic features might have led Japan to expand?

Francisco Franco leads the

rebel Nationalist army to victory

in Spain and gains complete

control of the country in 1939.

Benito Mussolini rises to power

in 1922 and attempts to restore

Italy to its former position as a

world power.

Joseph Stalin grabs control of the

Soviet Union in 1924 and squelches

all opposition after V. I. Lenin, founder

of the communist regime, dies.

Hideki Tojo, the force behind Japanese

strategy, becomes Japan’s prime

minister in 1941. Emperor Hirohito

becomes a powerless ﬁgurehead.

Adolf Hitler offers economic stability

to unemployed Germans during the

Great Depression and becomes

chancellor in 1933.

Skillbuilder

Answers

1. Germany—

Adolph Hitler;

Spain—

Francisco

Franco; Italy—

Benito

Mussolini;

Soviet Union—

Joseph Stalin;

Japan—Hideki

Tojo.

2. Its status as

island nation.

C. Answer

Italians pride

was hurt, rising

inﬂation, unem-

ployment, and

social unrest.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Causes

What factors

led to the rise of

Fascism in Italy?

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 736

Page 3 of 8

THE NAZIS TAKE OVER GERMANY

In Germany, Adolf Hitler had followed

a path to power similar to Mussolini’s. At the end of World War I, Hitler had been

a jobless soldier drifting around Germany. In 1919, he joined a struggling group

called the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, better known as the Nazi

Party. Despite its name, this party had no ties to socialism.

Hitler proved to be such a powerful public speaker and organizer that he

quickly became the party’s leader. Calling himself Der Führer—“the Leader”—he

promised to bring Germany out of chaos.

In his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle], Hitler set forth the basic beliefs of

Nazism that became the plan of action for the Nazi Party. Nazism (

nätPsGzQEm),

the German brand of fascism, was based on extreme nationalism. Hitler, who had

been born in Austria, dreamed of uniting all German-speaking people in a great

German empire.

Hitler also wanted to enforce racial “puriﬁcation” at home. In his view,

Germans—especially blue-eyed, blond-haired “Aryans”—formed a “master race”

that was destined to rule the world. “Inferior races,” such as Jews, Slavs, and all

nonwhites, were deemed ﬁt only to serve the Aryans.

A third element of Nazism was national expansion. Hitler believed that for

Germany to thrive, it needed more lebensraum, or living space. One of the Nazis’

aims, as Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf, was “to secure for the German people the

land and soil to which they are entitled on this earth,” even if this could be

accomplished only by “the might of a victorious sword.”

The Great Depression helped the Nazis come to power. Because of war debts

and dependence on American loans and investments, Germany’s economy was

hit hard. By 1932, some 6 million Germans were unemployed. Many men who

were out of work joined Hitler’s private army, the storm troopers (or Brown Shirts).

The German people were desperate and turned to Hitler as their last hope.

By mid 1932, the Nazis had become the strongest political party in Germany.

In January 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor (prime minister). Once in power,

Hitler quickly dismantled Germany’s democratic Weimar Republic. In its place he

established the Third Reich, or Third German Empire. According to Hitler, the Third

Reich would be a “Thousand-Year Reich”—it would last for a thousand years.

World War Looms 737

Background

According to Hitler

there were three

German empires:

the Holy Roman

Empire; The

German Empire of

1871–1918; and

The Third Reich.

▼

Left to right:

Benito Mussolini,

Adolf Hitler,

Joseph Stalin

The Faces of Totalitarianism

Fascist Italy Nazi Germany Communist Soviet Union

• Extreme nationalism

• Militaristic expansionism

• Charismatic leader

• Private property with strong

government controls

• Anticommunist

• Extreme nationalism and racism

• Militaristic expansionism

• Forceful leader

• Private property with strong

government controls

• Anticommunist

• Create a sound communist state

and wait for world revolution

• Revolution by workers

• Eventual rule by working class

• State ownership of property

D. Answer

To reunite all

Germans;

Germans were a

master race;

other “races”

were inferior;

Germany need-

ed more living

space.

MAIN IDEA

Summarizing

What were the

key ideas and

goals that Hitler

presented in Mein

Kampf ?

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 737

Page 4 of 8

Addis Ababa

Rome

ITALY

ETHIOPIA

Mediterranean Sea

Red

Sea

INDIAN

OCEAN

Tropic of Capricorn

Equator

0° 0°

15°N

15°S

0 400 800 kilometers

0 400 800 miles

Tokyo

Mukden

KOREA

JAPAN

SOVIET UNION

MONGOLIA

MANCHURIA

CHINA

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Yellow

Sea

East China

Sea

Sea of

Japan

Tropic of Cancer

135°E

0 200 400 kilometers

0 200 400 miles

MILITARISTS GAIN CONTROL IN JAPAN

Halfway around the world, national-

istic military leaders were trying to take control of the imperial government of

Japan. These leaders shared in common with Hitler a belief in the need for more

living space for a growing population. Ignoring the protests of more moderate

Japanese ofﬁcials, the militarists launched a surprise attack and seized control of

the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. Within several months, Japanese

troops controlled the entire province, a large region about twice the size of Texas,

that was rich in natural resources.

The watchful League of Nations had been established after World War I to pre-

vent just such aggressive acts. In this greatest test of the League’s power, represen-

tatives were sent to Manchuria to investigate the situation. Their report condemned

Japan, who in turn simply quit the League. Meanwhile, the success of the

Manchurian invasion put the militarists ﬁrmly in control of Japan’s government.

AGGRESSION IN EUROPE AND AFRICA

The failure of the League of Nations

to take action against Japan did not escape the notice of Europe’s dictators. In

1933, Hitler pulled Germany out of the League. In 1935, he began a military

buildup in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. A year later, he sent troops into

the Rhineland, a German region bordering France and Belgium that was demili-

tarized as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. The League did nothing to stop Hitler.

738 C

HAPTER 24

Background

Military

government had

centuries-old roots

in Japan. The

shogun lords of

the Middle Ages

had been military

leaders.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER

Location What countries were aggressors

during this period?

Movement Notice the size and location of

Italy and of Japan with respect to the country

each invaded. What similarities do you see?

Japan Invades Manchuria, 1931

Italy Invades Ethiopia, 1935–1936

Skillbuilder Answers

1. Italy, Germany, Japan

2. They were both small nations

that invaded larger countries.

E. Answer To

gain “living

space” and

resources for

people.

In 1910, Korea

was brought under

Japanese control.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Motives

Why did Japan

invade Manchuria?

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 738

Page 5 of 8

Meanwhile, Mussolini began building his new Roman

Empire. His ﬁrst target was Ethiopia, one of Africa’s few

remaining independent countries. By the fall of 1935, tens

of thousands of Italian soldiers stood ready to advance on

Ethiopia. The League of Nations reacted with brave talk of

“collective resistance to all acts of unprovoked aggression.”

When the invasion began, however, the League’s

response was an ineffective economic boycott—little more

than a slap on Italy’s wrist. By May 1936, Ethiopia had fall-

en. In desperation, Haile Selassie, the ousted Ethiopian

emperor, appealed to the League for assistance. Nothing

was done. “It is us today,” he told them. “It will be you

tomorrow.”

CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT IN SPAIN

In 1936, a group of

Spanish army ofﬁcers led by General Francisco Franco,

rebelled against the Spanish republic. Revolts broke out all

over Spain, and the Spanish Civil War began. The war

aroused passions not only in Spain but throughout the

world. About 3,000 Americans formed the Abraham

Lincoln Battalion and traveled to Spain to ﬁght against

Franco. “We knew, we just knew,” recalled Martha

Gellhorn, “that Spain was the place to stop fascism.”

Among the volunteers were African Americans still bitter

about Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia the year before.

Such limited aid was not sufﬁcient to stop the spread of

fascism, however. The Western democracies remained neu-

tral. Although the Soviet Union sent equipment and advis-

ers, Hitler and Mussolini backed Franco’s forces with troops,

weapons, tanks, and ﬁghter planes. The war forged a close

relationship between the German and Italian dictators, who

signed a formal alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis.

After a loss of almost 500,000 lives, Franco’s victory in 1939

established him as Spain’s fascist dictator. Once again a

totalitarian government ruled in Europe.

World War Looms 739

HISTORICAL

AFRICAN AMERICANS STAND

BY ETHIOPIANS

When Mussolini invaded Ethiopia,

many Europeans and Americans—

especially African Americans—

were outraged. Almost overnight,

African Americans organized

to raise money for medical sup-

plies, and a few went to ﬁght in

Ethiopia. Years later, the Ethiopian

emperor Haile Selassie (shown

above) said of these efforts,

“We can never forget the help

Ethiopia received from Negro

Americans during the terrible

crisis. . . . It moved me to

know that Americans of African

descent did not abandon their

embattled brothers, but stood

by us.”

A French journalist

escapes from Spain to

France with a child he

rescued from a street

battle. Fighting would

soon engulf not only

France but the rest of

Europe and parts of

Asia.

▼

F. Answer

Germany and

Italy on the side

of Franco; the

Soviet Union in

support of the

Spanish govern-

ment.

MAIN IDEA

Summarizing

What foreign

countries were

involved in the

Spanish Civil War?

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 739

Page 6 of 8

The United States Responds Cautiously

Most Americans were alarmed by the international conﬂicts of the mid-1930s but

believed that the United States should not get involved. In 1928, the United

States had signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The treaty was signed by 62 countries

and declared that war would not be used “as an instrument of national policy.”

Yet it did not include a plan to deal with countries that broke their pledge. The

Pact was, therefore, only a small step toward peace.

AMERICANS CLING TO ISOLATIONISM

In the early 1930s, a ﬂood of books

argued that the United States had been dragged into World War I by greedy

bankers and arms dealers. Public outrage led to the creation of a congressional

committee, chaired by North Dakota Senator Gerald Nye, that held hearings on

these charges. The Nye committee fueled the controversy by documenting the

large proﬁts that banks and manufacturers made during the war. As the furor grew

over these “merchants of death,” Americans became more determined than ever to

avoid war. Antiwar feeling was so strong that the Girl Scouts of America changed

the color of its uniforms from khaki to green to appear less militaristic.

Americans’ growing isolationism eventually had an impact on President

Roosevelt’s foreign policy. When he had ﬁrst taken ofﬁce in 1933, Roosevelt felt

comfortable reaching out to the world in several ways. He ofﬁcially recognized

the Soviet Union in 1933 and agreed to exchange ambassadors with Moscow. He

continued the policy of nonintervention in Latin America—begun by Presidents

Coolidge and Hoover—with his Good Neighbor Policy and withdrew armed

forces stationed there. In 1934, Roosevelt pushed the Reciprocal Trade Agreement

Act through Congress. This act lowered trade barriers by giving the president the

power to make trade agreements with other nations and was aimed at reducing

740 C

HAPTER 24

Analyzing

“IT AIN'T WHAT IT USED TO BE”

During the late 1930s, Americans were divided

about becoming involved in “Europe's quarrels.”

Some people felt that the United States should be

more involved in the economic and political problems

occurring across the Atlantic. Isolationists—people

who believed the United States should stay com-

pletely out of other nations’ affairs except in the

defense of the United States—strictly opposed inter-

vening. The idea that America and Europe were two

separate worlds divided by an ocean that could

guarantee safety was quickly eroding.

SKILLBUILDER

Analyzing Political Cartoons

What does Uncle Sam’s turning his back on

Europe show about American attitudes in the

late 1930s?

What U.S. policy does the cartoon imply?

Why might the Atlantic Ocean have appeared to

shrink in the late 1930s?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Causes

What factors

contributed to

Americans’

growing

isolationism?

G. Answer

Evidence that

large proﬁts had

been made by

banks and arms

industries dur-

ing World War I;

regret over hav-

ing been

involved in that

war; hatred of

militarism.

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 740

Page 7 of 8

MAIN IDEA

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a web diagram like the one

below, ﬁll it in with the main

ambition of each dictator.

What ambitions did the dictators

have in common?

CRITICAL THINKING

3. ANALYZING CAUSES

How did the Treaty of Versailles sow

the seeds of instability in Europe?

Think About:

• effects of the treaty on Germany

and the Soviet Union

• effects of the treaty on national

pride

• the economic legacy of the war

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Why do you think Hitler found

widespread support among the

German people? Support your

answer with details from the text.

5. FORMING GENERALIZATIONS

Would powerful nations or weak

nations be more likely to follow an

isolationist policy? Explain.

tariffs by as much as 50 percent. In an effort to keep the United States out of

future wars, beginning in 1935, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts. The

ﬁrst two acts outlawed arms sales or loans to nations at war. The third act was

passed in response to the ﬁghting in Spain. This act extended the ban on arms

sales and loans to nations engaged in civil wars.

NEUTRALITY BREAKS DOWN

Despite congressional efforts to legislate neu-

trality, Roosevelt found it impossible to remain neutral. When Japan launched a

new attack on China in July 1937, Roosevelt found a way around the Neutrality

Acts. Because Japan had not formally declared war against China, the president

claimed there was no need to enforce the Neutrality Acts. The United States con-

tinued sending arms and supplies to China. A few months later, Roosevelt spoke

out strongly against isolationism in a speech delivered in Chicago. He called on

peace-loving nations to “quarantine,” or isolate, aggressor nations in order to stop

the spread of war.

A PERSONAL VOICE FRANLKIN DELANO ROOSEVELT

“ The peace, the freedom, and the security of 90 percent of the population of the

world is being jeopardized by the remaining 10 percent who are threatening a

breakdown of all international order and law. Surely the 90 percent who want to

live in peace under law and in accordance with moral standards that have

received almost universal acceptance through the centuries, can and must ﬁnd

some way . . . to preserve peace.

”

—“Quarantine Speech,” October 5, 1937

At last Roosevelt seemed ready to take a stand against aggression—that is, until

isolationist newspapers exploded in protest, accusing the president of leading the

nation into war. Roosevelt backed off in the face of criticism, but his speech did

begin to shift the debate. For the moment the conﬂicts remained “over there.”

World War Looms 741

Stalin: Hitler:

Mussolini: Franco:

Dictator’s

Ambitions

•Joseph Stalin

•totalitarian

•Benito Mussolini

•fascism

•Adolf Hitler

•Nazism

•Francisco Franco

•Neutrality Acts

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its signiﬁcance.

p0734-741aspe-0724s1 10/17/02 9:08 AM Page 741

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