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HAPTER 1

Terms & Names

MAIN IDEA

European Societies

Around 1492

Political, economic, and

intellectual developments in

western Europe in the 1400s

led to the Age of Exploration.

European settlement in the

Americas led to the founding

of the United States.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

During the early decades of the 15th century, Prince Henry of

Portugal, often called “Henry the Navigator,” sent Portuguese ships to

explore the west coast of Africa. According to his biographer, Prince

Henry’s driving motivation was the need to know.

A PERSONAL VOICE GOMES EANES DE ZURARA

“ The noble spirit of this Prince . . . was ever urging him both to begin

and to carry out very great deeds. For which reason . . . he had also a

wish to know the land that lay beyond the isles of Canary and that

Cape called Bojador, for that up to his time, neither by writings, nor by

the memory of man, was known with any certainty the nature of the

land beyond that Cape. . . . it seemed to him that if he or some other

lord did not endeavor to gain that knowledge, no mariners or mer-

chants would ever dare to attempt it. . . .

”

—The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea

Prince Henry’s curiosity was typical of the “noble spirit” of the

Renaissance,

(rDnQG-sänsP) a period when Europeans began investi-

gating all aspects of the physical world. The term Renaissance means

“rebirth” of the kind of interest in the physical world that had charac-

terized ancient Greece and Rome. With his burning desire for knowl-

edge, Prince Henry helped launch the era of European expansion.

The European Social Order

In the late 1400s, most Europeans, like most Native Americans and most Africans,

lived in small villages, bound to the land and to ancient traditions.

THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY

European communities were based on social hier-

archy, that is, they were organized according to rank. Monarchs and nobles held

most of the wealth and power at the top of the hierarchy. At the bottom labored

the peasants, who constituted the majority of the people. The nobility offered

•Prince Henry

•Renaissance

•hierarchy

•nuclear family

•Crusades

•Reformation

Prince Henry the Navigator

▼

One European's Story

p0020-0025aspe-0101s4 10/16/02 3:47 PM Page 20

Page 1 of 6

their peasants land and protection. In return, the peasants supplied the nobles

with livestock or crops—and sometimes with military service.

Within the social structure, few individuals moved beyond the position into

which they were born. Europeans generally accepted their lot as part of a larger

order ordained by God and reflected in the natural world. Writing in the late 1500s,

William Shakespeare expressed the fixed nature of this order in one of his plays.

A PERSONAL VOICE WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

“ The heavens themselves, the planets, and this center [earth]

Observe degree, priority, and place . . .

Take but degree away, untune that string,

And hark! what discord follows. . . .

”

—Troilus and Cressida

One group that did experience social mobility was composed of artisans and

merchants, the people who created and traded goods for money. Although this

group was relatively small in the 1400s, the profit they earned from trade would

eventually make them a valuable source of tax revenue. Monarchs needed them

to finance costly overseas exploration and expansion.

THE FAMILY IN SOCIETY

While Europeans recognized and respected kinship

ties, the extended family was not as important for them as it was for Native

American and African societies at this time. Instead, life centered around the

nuclear family, the household made up of a mother and father and their chil-

dren. As in other societies, gender largely determined the

division of labor. Among peasant families, for exam-

ple, men generally did most of the field labor and

herded livestock. Women did help in the fields,

but they also handled child care and house-

hold labor, such as preparing and preserving

the family’s food.

Three Worlds Meet 21

MAIN IDEA

Forming

Generalizations

Why did

artisans and

merchants

experience social

mobility?

A. Answer

Their skills and

products were

in demand, and

their affluence

allowed them to

rise in the social

hierarchy.

History Through

JUNE, FROM LES TRÈS RICHES

HEURES DU DUC DE BERRY

This miniature painting, representing the month of June, is

a page from a prayer book calendar made by the Limbourg

brothers around the year 1416. The book, made for a younger

son of the French king, tells us a great deal about the aristo-

cratic view of the European social order.

In the background, the walls of the city of Paris protect a

palace and the royal chapel, buildings that represent the two

most powerful institutions in medieval European society: church

and aristocracy.

In the foreground, peasants mow the fields in an orderly

world of peace and tranquility. However, the image is a fantasy,

an idealized vision painted to please the aristocracy. There is

no hint of the peasants’ grinding poverty or of the violence of

the Hundred Years’ War that was at that moment devastating

northern France.

SKILLBUILDER

Interpreting Visual Sources

What does the painting tell you about the importance of gender

in the division of labor during the 1400s?

Why might images of poverty have displeased the aristocracy?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R22.

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22 C

HAPTER 1

Christianity Shapes the European Outlook

The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religious institution in western

Europe. The leader of the church—the pope—and his bishops had great political

and spiritual authority. In the spiritual realm, church leaders determined

most

matters of faith. Parish priests interpreted the scriptures and urged the faithful to

endure earthly sufferings in exchange for the promise of eternal life in heaven,

or salvation. Priests also administered important rituals called the sacraments—

such as baptism and communion—that were thought to ensure salvation.

Hand in hand with the belief in salvation was the call to convert people of

other faiths. This missionary call spurred Europe to reach out beyond its borders

first to defend, and then to spread, the faith.

CRUSADING CHRISTIANITY

By the early 700s, Muslim armies had seized

huge areas of Asia and North Africa, along with most of the Iberian Peninsula,

where Spain and Portugal sit. To regain this territory, Spanish Christians waged a

campaign called the reconquista, or reconquest. By 1492, the forces of the com-

bined kingdoms of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon, who

married in 1469, finally drove the Muslims from the peninsula. This victory

ended more than seven centuries of religious warfare. A

united Spain stood ready to assert itself internationally and

to spread Christianity around the globe.

Meanwhile, Christian armies from all over western

Europe responded to the church’s call to force the Muslims

out of the Holy Land around Jerusalem. From 1096 to 1270,

Europeans launched the Crusades, a series of military

expeditions to the Middle East in the name of Christianity.

In the end, these bloody Crusades failed to “rescue”

the Holy Land, but they had two consequences that

encouraged European exploration and expansion. First,

they sparked an increase in trade, as crusaders returned

home with a new taste for products from Asia. Second, the

Crusades weakened the power of European nobles, many

of whom lost their lives or fortunes in the wars. Monarchs

were able to take advantage of the nobles’ weakened ranks

by consolidating their own power. Eventually, monarchs

sponsored overseas exploration in order to increase their

wealth and power.

DECLINE IN CHURCH AUTHORITY

The Crusades had a

third long-term consequence: the decline of the power of

the pope. The ultimate failure of these campaigns weakened

the prestige of the papacy (the office of the pope), which

had led the quest. Power struggles in the 1300s and 1400s

between the church and European kings further reduced

papal authority and tipped the balance of power in favor of

the monarchies.

Disagreements over church authority, along with out-

rage over corrupt practices among the clergy, led to a reform

movement in the early 1500s. This movement, known as

the Reformation, divided Christianity in western Europe

between Catholicism and Protestantism. This split deepened

the rivalries between European nations during the period of

American colonization and sent newly formed Protestant

sects across the Atlantic to seek religious freedom.

“KING ISABELLA”

1451–1504

Queen Isabella, who played a

central role in European explo-

ration by sponsoring Christopher

Columbus’s voyages to the

Americas, made her mark on the

Old World as well. As co-ruler of

Spain, Isabella participated in

her country’s religious and mili-

tary matters.

The queen often defied the

pope to ensure that her candi-

dates were appointed to posi-

tions in the Spanish church. In

addition, Isabella tasted battle

more frequently than most rulers,

either male or female. The queen

rode among her troops in full

armor, personally commanding

them in Ferdinand’s absence.

Whenever Isabella appeared, her

troops shouted, “Castile, Castile,

for our King Isabella!”

Background

In Christian

theology, salvation

is the deliverance

from the power or

penalty of sin.

MAIN IDEA

Recognizing

Effects

How did

religious changes

in Europe affect

the European

colonization of

the Americas?

B. Answer

The split

between

Catholicism and

Protestantism

deepened the

rivalries

between

European

nations and sent

Protestant sects

to seek religious

freedom in the

Americas.

p0020-0025aspe-0101s4 10/16/02 3:47 PM Page 22

Page 3 of 6

ENGLAND

FRANCE

AFRICA

HUNGARY

HOLY

ROMAN

EMPIRE

PORTUGAL

SPANISH STATES

(Castile, Aragon,

and Granada)

VENICE

PAPAL STATES

NAPLES

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

North

Sea

Black Sea

40°N

50°N20°W

10°W

Limit of Islamic influence

Limit of Roman Catholic influence

Limit of Eastern Orthodox influence

0 250 500 kilometers

250 500 miles

European Powers in 1492

Three Worlds Meet 23

Changes Come to Europe

As the 1400s began, European societies were still recovering from a series of dis-

asters during the previous century. From 1314 to 1316, heavy rain and disease

wiped out crops and livestock. Thousands of peasants died of starvation. Then,

beginning in the 1340s, an epidemic of plagues killed over 25 million people—

a fourth of Europe’s population. Meanwhile, long wars also raged across the

continent, including the Hundred Years’ War between England and France.

However, amid this turmoil, modern Europe began to take shape. After the

plague, Europe experienced vigorous growth and change. The expansion of

Europe pushed Europeans to look to other lands.

THE GROWTH OF COMMERCE AND POPULATION

The Crusades opened up

Asian trade routes and whetted the European appetite for Eastern luxuries, such

as silk, porcelain, tea, and rugs. Merchants in Italian city-states were the first to

profit from trade with Asia. They traded with the Muslim merchants who con-

trolled the flow of goods through much of the Middle East. As trade opportunities

increased, new markets were established and new trade routes were opened.

By the end of the 1400s, Europe’s population had rebounded from the plagues.

This increase stimulated commerce and encouraged the growth of towns. The

return to urban life (which had been largely neglected after the fall of Rome)

brought about far-reaching social and cultural change. The new urban middle class

would assume increasing political power, especially in Britain and its colonies.

THE RISE OF NATIONS

The Crusades weakened the nobility and strengthened

monarchies. Western European monarchs began exerting more control over their

lands by collecting new taxes, raising professional armies, and strengthening cen-

tral governments. Among the new allies of the monarchs were merchants, who

willingly accepted taxes on their newfound wealth in exchange for the protection

or expansion of trade. By the late 1400s, four major nations were taking shape in

western Europe: Portugal, Spain, France, and England.

Only the king or queen of a unified nation had enough power and resources

to finance overseas exploration. Monarchs had a powerful motive to encourage

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER

Region What were the most important

European powers at this time?

Location Why were Portugal and

Spain particularly well placed for

overseas exploration?

MAIN IDEA

Developing

Historical

Perspective

In what ways

would the revival

of the cities

have affected

European social

and cultural life?

C. Answer

The revival

of cities estab-

lished new trade

opportunities

and new

markets.

Skillbuilder

Answers

1. Portugal,

Spain, France,

England, and the

Holy Roman

Empire

2. They both

had long coast-

lines and were

the farthest

south and west

of the European

powers.

p0020-0025aspe-0101s4 10/16/02 3:47 PM Page 23

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24 C

HAPTER 1

the quest for new lands and trading routes: they needed money to maintain

standing armies and large bureaucracies. So, the monarchs of Portugal, Spain,

France, and England began looking overseas for wealth.

THE RENAISSANCE

“Thank God it has been permitted to us to be born in this

new age, so full of hope and promise,” exclaimed Matteo Palmieri, a scholar in

15th-century Italy. Palmieri’s optimism captured the enthusiastic spirit of the

Renaissance. The Renaissance led to a more secular spirit, an interest in worldly

pleasures, and a new confidence in human achievement. Starting in Italy, a region

stimulated by commercial contact with Asia and Africa, the Renaissance soon

spread throughout Europe. Renaissance artists rejected the flat, two-dimensional

images of medieval painting in favor of the deep perspectives and fully rounded

forms of ancient sculpture and painting. Although their themes were still often

religious in nature, Renaissance artists portrayed their subjects more realistically

than had medieval artists, using new techniques such as perspective. European

scholars reexamined the writings of ancient philosophers, mathematicians, geog-

raphers, and scientists. They also studied scholarly Arab works brought home

from the Crusades.

The Renaissance encouraged people to regard themselves as individuals, to

have confidence in human capabilities, and to look forward to the fame their

achievements might bring. This attitude prompted many to seek glory through

adventure, discovery, and conquest.

Vocabulary

secular: worldly

rather than

spiritual

MAIN IDEA

Drawing

Conclusions

How might

Renaissance

attitudes and

ideas have

influenced

European

explorers?

D. Answer

The

Renaissance

encouraged

people to value

human achieve-

ments. This

attitude prompt-

ed many to seek

glory through

adventure,

discovery, and

conquest.

Science

The triangular lateen sails, an innovation

borrowed from Muslim ships, allowed the

caravel to sail against the wind. Rigged

with lateens, the ship could tack (sail on

a zigzag course) more directly into the

wind than could earlier European vessels.

THE CARAVEL

The caravel, the ship used by most early Portuguese and

Spanish explorers, had many advantages over earlier vessels.

It was lighter, swifter, and more maneuverable than other ships.

The large hatch

allowed goods to be

stored below deck.

The smaller deck

at the stern provided

protection from the rain.

The sternpost rudder

allowed greater

maneuverability.

The shallow draft (the depth of the

ship below the water line) made the

ship ideal for coastal exploration.

p0020-0025aspe-0101s4 10/16/02 3:47 PM Page 24

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Three Worlds Meet 25

Europe Enters a New Age of Expansion

Although Marco Polo’s journey to China took place in the 1200s, it was not until

1477 that the first printed edition of Polo’s account caused renewed interest in

the East. Like other European merchants, Polo traveled to Asia by land. The

expense and peril of such journeys led Europeans to seek alternative routes.

European merchants and explorers listened to the reports of travelers and reex-

amined the maps drawn by ancient geographers.

SAILING TECHNOLOGY

Europeans, however, needed more than maps to guide

them through uncharted waters. On the open seas, winds easily blew ships off

course. With only the sun, moon, and stars to guide them, few ships ventured

beyond the sight of land. To overcome their fears, European ship captains adopt-

ed the compass and the astrolabe, navigating tools that helped plot direction.

They also took advantage of innovations in sailing technology that allowed ships

such as the caravel to sail against the wind. (See “The Caravel” on page 24.)

PORTUGAL TAKES THE LEAD

Under Prince Henry the Navigator, Portugal

developed and employed these innovations. Although Henry was only an arm-

chair navigator, he earned his nickname by establishing an up-to-date sailing

school and by sponsoring the earliest voyages.

For almost 40 years, Prince Henry sent his captains sailing farther and farther

south along the west coast of Africa. Portuguese explorations continued after

Prince Henry died. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

Vasco da Gama reached India ten years later. By sailing around Africa to eastern

Asia via the Indian Ocean, Portuguese traders were able to cut their costs and

increase their profits.

While cartographers redrew their maps to show the route around Africa, an

Italian sea captain named Christopher Columbus traveled from nation to nation

with his own collection of maps and figures. Columbus believed there was an

even shorter route to Asia—one that lay west across the Atlantic.

In Spain an adviser of Queen Isabella pointed out that support of the proposed

venture would cost less than a week’s entertainment of a foreign official. Isabella

was convinced and summoned Columbus to appear before the Spanish court.

•Prince Henry

•Renaissance

•hierarchy

•nuclear family

•Crusades •Reformation

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

MAIN IDEA

2. TAKING NOTES

Re-create the web below on your

paper. Fill it in with the changes

taking place in western Europe

during the 1400s.

How did these changes help lead to

the European Age of Exploration?

CRITICAL THINKING

3. ANALYZING ISSUES

Which European event of the late

1400s to early 1500s do you think

had the most far-reaching impact on

European lives? Explain and support

your answer. Think About:

• the importance of religion

• the role of adventurers

and explorers

• the increase in prosperity

4. SUMMARIZING

How did advances in technology

open the way for world exploration?

5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Why do you think other European

nations lagged behind Portugal in

the race for overseas exploration?

Support your reasons with details

from the text.

changes

in western

Europe

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