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The Colonies Come of Age 79

After growing up on a Massachusetts farm, John Adams found city life

in Boston distracting. In 1759 he wrote,

A PERSONAL

VOICE JOHN ADAMS

“ Who can study in Boston Streets? I am unable to observe

the various Objects that I meet, with sufﬁcient Precision.

My Eyes are so diverted with Chimney Sweeps, Carriers

of Wood, Merchants, Ladies, Priests, Carts, Horses, Oxen,

Coaches, Market men and Women, Soldiers, Sailors, and

my Ears with the Rattle Gabble of them all that I cant think

long enough in the Street upon any one Thing to start and

pursue a Thought.

”

—The Diary and Autobiography of John Adams

Adams’s description illustrates the changes that trans-

formed the New England and Middle colonies during the 18th

century. The growth of thriving commercial cities made the North

radically different from the agricultural South. In addition, interest in

education was on the rise, partially due to intellectual and religious move-

ments. These movements brought about social changes that contributed to

the colonies’ eventual break with England.

Commerce Grows in the North

The theory of mercantilism held that colonies existed to help the home country

amass wealth. However, the American colonies found their own economy pros-

pering more. From 1650 to 1750, the colonies’ economy grew twice as fast as

Great Britain’s economy did. Much of this growth occurred in the New England

and middle colonies.

A DIVERSIFIED ECONOMY

Unlike farms in the South, those in the New

England and middle colonies usually produced several crops instead of a single

one. Cold winters and rocky soil restricted New Englanders to small farms. In the

more fertile areas of the middle colonies, such as New York and Pennsylvania,

Terms & Names

MAIN IDEA

One American's Story

The Commercial North

•Enlightenment

•Benjamin Franklin

•Jonathan Edwards

•Great Awakening

The Northern colonies

developed a predominantly

urban society, based on

commerce and trade.

The states that were once the

Northern colonies remain

predominantly urban today.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

John Adams

p0079-84aspe-0103s3 10/16/02 3:51 PM Page 79

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farmers raised a variety of crops and livestock, including wheat, corn, cattle, and

hogs. They produced so much that they sold their surplus food to the West Indies,

where raising sugar cane produced such tremendous proﬁts that planters did not

want to waste land growing food for the slaves who worked their ﬁelds.

A diverse commercial economy also developed in the New England and

Middle colonies. Grinding wheat, harvesting ﬁsh, and sawing lumber became

thriving industries. Colonists also manufactured impressive numbers of ships and

quantities of iron. By 1760, the colonists had built one-third of all British ships

and were producing more iron than England was. While at times the North’s

economy dipped, many colonists prospered. In particular, the number of mer-

chants grew. By the mid-1700s, merchants were one of the most powerful groups

in the North.

URBAN LIFE

The expansion in trade caused port cities to grow. Only one major

port, Charles Town, existed in the South. In contrast, the North boasted Boston,

New York City, and Philadelphia. In fact, Philadelphia eventually became the sec-

ond largest city (after London) in the British empire. Philadelphia was the ﬁrst

large city since ancient Roman times to be laid out on a gridlike street plan. For

colonists accustomed to the winding medieval streets of European cities, this kind

of rational urban planning must have appeared startling and new. Inﬂuenced by

Sir Christopher Wren’s designs for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire

of 1666, Philadelphia included a number of open squares intended for public use.

Both the grid plan and the parklike square would become important elements of

American urban design in the centuries to come.

With its parks, police patrols, paved streets, and whale-oil lamps to light the

sidewalks, Philadelphia was a sophisticated city. However, the high concentration

of people without adequate public services caused problems. Firewood and clean

water could be hard to come by, whereas garbage was abundant.

80 CHAPTER 3

Daily Urban Life in Colonial Times

The house known as Cliveden, also in Philadelphia, was built in

1767. In contrast to the artisan or lower-middle-class housing of

Elfreth’s Alley, this large, freestanding mansion shows the kind of

building that the rich could afford.

By the mid-18th century, colonial cities were prosperous and growing. Brick rowhouses

were replacing the wooden structures of the 17th centur y, while large mansions and

churches, built of brick or stone, were rising everywhere.

English colonists had brought with them a preference for houses (as opposed

to apartments, which were the norm in the cities of other European countries).

As in Britain, the size of the house indicated the social position of its occupant.

In contemporary Philadelphia, Elfreth’s Alley preserves the scale and

appearance of a mid-18th-century city street. A neighborhood like this

could have commercial and residential uses. Many people lived above

the shops where they worked.

▼

MAIN IDEA

Forming

Generalizations

What kinds

of industries

developed in

the North?

A. Answer

Grinding wheat,

harvesting ﬁsh,

sawing lumber,

and shipbuilding

were some of

the industries

that developed

in the North.

Vocabulary

proﬁt: the money

left over after

costs are

subtracted from

income

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Northern Society Is Diverse

Northern society was composed of diverse groups with sometimes conﬂicting

interests. Groups whose interests clashed with those of the people in power

included immigrants, African Americans, and women.

INFLUX OF IMMIGRANTS

Even more so than those in the

South, the Northern colonies

attracted a variety of immigrants.

The Germans and the Scots-Irish

were the largest non-English

immigrant groups. Germans

began arriving in Pennsylvania in

the 1680s. Most were ﬂeeing eco-

nomic distress, but some, such as

the Mennonites, came to

Pennsylvania because of William

Penn’s policy of religious freedom

and because they shared the

Quakers’ opposition to war.

The Scots-Irish—descen-

dants of Scottish Protestants

who had colonized northern

Ireland in the 1600s—entered

mostly through Philadelphia.

They commonly arrived as families. Many established farms in frontier areas such

as western Pennsylvania, where they often clashed with Native Americans.

Other ethnic groups included the Dutch in New York, Scandinavians in

Delaware, and Jews in such cities as Newport and Philadelphia. The different groups

did not always mix. Benjamin Franklin, echoing the sentiments of many English

colonists, made the following complaint in 1751.

A PERSONAL VOICE BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

“ Why should the [Germans] be suffered to swarm into our Settlements and, by

herding together establish their Language and Manners to the Exclusion of ours?

Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a Colony of Aliens, who

will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of our Anglifying them?

”

—“Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.”

In spite of this fear of being swamped by non-English speakers, English

colonists found ways of getting along with their new neighbors, thus furthering

the evolution of a truly diverse American society.

SLAVERY IN THE NORTH

Because raising wheat and corn did not require as

much labor as raising tobacco or rice, Northerners had less incentive to turn to

slavery than did Southerners. However, slavery did exist in New England and was

extensive throughout the Middle colonies, as were racial prejudices against

blacks—free or enslaved.

While still considered property, most enslaved persons in New England enjoyed

greater legal standing than slaves elsewhere in the colonies. They could sue and

be sued, and they had the right of appeal to the highest courts. As in the South,

however, enslaved persons in the North led harsh lives and were considered less

than human beings. Laws forbade them to gather or to carry weapons, and there

were no laws to protect them from cruel treatment. Reacting to the harsh con-

ditions, slaves sometimes rebelled. An uprising occurred in 1712 in New York,

Colonial Diversity

Source: The Enduring Vision

African 11%

Dutch 4%

Scottish 3%

Other

European 2%

English/

Welsh 80%

African 20%

German 7%

Scots-Irish 7%

Irish 5%

Scottish 4%

Dutch 3%

Other

European 2%

English/

Welsh 52%

1700 1755

The Colonies Come of Age 81

SKILLBUILDER

Interpreting Graphs

What new ethnic groups had settled in the American colonies by 1755?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R28.

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Effects

What were

the negative and

positive effects of

the growing ethnic

diversity in the

colonies?

B. Answer

Negative:

Conﬂict and dis-

trust between

the different

groups.

Positive:

Creation of a

diverse society.

Skillbuilder

Answer

Germans,

Scots-Irish, Irish

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leading to the execution of 21 people. In 1741, a series of suspicious ﬁres and

robberies led New Yorkers to fear another uprising. They decided to make an

example of the suspected ringleaders, burning alive 13 persons and hanging 18.

WOMEN IN NORTHERN SOCIETY

As in the South, women in the North had

extensive work responsibilities but few legal rights. Most people in the colonies

still lived on farms, where women faced unceasing labor. A colonial wife had vir-

tually no legal rights. She could not vote. Most women could not enter into con-

tracts, buy or sell property, or keep their own wages if they worked outside the

home. Only single women and widows could run their own businesses.

In New England, religion as well as law served to keep women under their

husbands’ rule. Puritan clergymen insisted that wives must submit to their hus-

bands, saying, “Wives are part of the House and Family, and ought to be under a

Husband’s Government: they should Obey their own Husbands.”

WITCHCRAFT TRIALS IN SALEM

The strict limitations on women’s roles, com-

bined with social tensions, the strained relations with the Native Americans, and

religious fanaticism, contributed to one of the most bizarre episodes in American

history. In February 1692, several Salem girls accused a West Indian slave woman,

Tituba, of practicing witchcraft. In this Puritan New England town of Salem,

where the constant fear of Native American attacks encouraged a preoccupation

with violence and death, the girls’ accusations drew a great deal of attention.

When the girls accused others of witchcraft, the situation grew out of control, as

those who were accused tried to save themselves by naming other “witches.”

Hysteria gripped the town as more and more people made false accusations.

The accusations highlighted social and religious tensions. Many of the accusers

were poor and brought charges against richer residents. In addition, a high pro-

portion of victims were women who might be considered too independent.

The accusations continued until the girls dared to charge such prominent cit-

izens as the governor’s wife. Finally realizing that they had been hearing false evi-

dence, ofﬁcials closed the court. The witchcraft hysteria ended—but not before 19

persons had been hanged and another person killed by being crushed to death.

Four or ﬁve more “witches” died in jail, and about 150 were imprisoned.

New Ideas Inﬂuence the Colonists

The Salem trials of 1692 caused many people to question the existence of witch-

craft. During the 1700s, individuals began to make other changes in the way they

viewed the world.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

Since before the Renaissance, philosophers in Europe

had been using reason and the scientiﬁc method to obtain knowledge. Scientists

looked beyond religious doctrine to investigate how the world worked. Inﬂuenced

by the observations of Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Sir Isaac Newton,

people determined that the earth revolved around the sun and not vice versa.

They also concluded that the world is governed not by chance or miracles but by

ﬁxed mathematical laws. These ideas about nature gained prevalence in the 1700s

in a movement called the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment ideas traveled from Europe to the colonies and spread quickly

in numerous books and pamphlets. Literacy was particularly high in New England

because the Puritans had long supported public education to ensure that every-

one could read the Bible.

One outstanding Enlightenment ﬁgure was Benjamin Franklin. Franklin

embraced the notion of obtaining truth through experimentation and reasoning.

For example, his most famous experiment—ﬂying a kite in a thunderstorm—

demonstrated that lightning was a form of electrical power.

82 C

HAPTER 3

MAIN IDEA

Analyzing

Causes

What were the

underlying causes

of the Salem witch

hunts in 1692?

C. Answer The

strict limitations

on women’s

roles, combined

with social ten-

sions, the

strained rela-

tionship with

the Native

Americans, and

religious fanati-

cism lay behind

the witch hunts.

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MAIN IDEA

Forming

Generalizations

Why was the

Enlightenment such

a revolutionary

movement?

The Enlightenment also had a profound effect on political thought in the

colonies. Colonial leaders such as Thomas Jefferson used reason to conclude that

individuals have natural rights, which governments must respect. Enlightenment

principles eventually would lead many colonists to question the authority of the

British monarchy.

THE GREAT AWAKENING

By the early 1700s, the Puritan church had lost its

grip on society, and church membership was in decline. The new Massachusetts

charter of 1691 forced Puritans to allow freedom of worship and banned the prac-

tice of permitting only Puritan church members to vote. Furthermore, many peo-

ple seemed to be doing so well in this world that they paid little attention to the

next. As Puritan merchants prospered, they developed a taste for material posses-

sions and sensual pleasures.

Jonathan Edwards, of

Northampton, Massachusetts, was

one member of the clergy who

sought to revive the intensity and

commitment of the original

Puritan vision. Edwards preached

that church attendance was not

enough for salvation; people must

acknowledge their sinfulness and

feel God’s love for them. In his

most famous sermon, delivered in

1741, Edwards vividly described

God’s mercy.

A PERSONAL

VOICE

JONATHAN EDWARDS

“ The God that holds you over

the pit of hell, much as one

holds a spider, or some loath-

some insect over the ﬁre,

abhors [hates] you, and is

dreadfully provoked: His wrath

towards you burns like ﬁre;

He looks upon you as worthy of

nothing else but to be cast into

the ﬁre; . . . and yet it is noth-

ing but His hand that holds you

from falling into the ﬁre every

moment.

”

—“Sinners in the

Hands of an Angry God”

Other preachers traveled

from village to village, stirring

people to rededicate themselves

to God. Such traveling preachers

attracted thousands, making it

necessary for revival meetings to

be held outdoors. The resulting

religious revival, known as the

Great Awakening, lasted

throughout the 1730s and 1740s.

The Colonies Come of Age 83

D. Answer The

Enlightenment

led people to

conclude that

individuals have

natural rights

that govern-

ments must

respect.

Enlightenment

principles led

many colonists

to question the

authority of

the British

monarchy.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

1706–1790

Benjamin Franklin was one of

the leading champions of

Enlightenment ideals in

America. Like other scientists

and philosophers of the

Enlightenment, Franklin

believed that human beings

could use their intellectual

powers to improve their lot.

Franklin’s observations and

experiments led to a number of

inventions, including the light-

ning rod, bifocals, and a new

kind of heating system that

became known as the Franklin

stove. Inventions like these

proved that knowledge derived

from scientiﬁc experiment

could be put to practical use.

Franklin’s achievements

brought him world renown. In

1756 British scholars elected

him to the Royal Society, and

in 1772 France honored him

with membership in the

French Academy of Sciences.

JONATHAN EDWARDS

1703–1758

Descended from a long line of

Puritan ministers, Jonathan

Edwards denied that humans

had the power to perfect

themselves. He believed that

“however you may have

reformed your life in many

things,” as a sinner you were

destined for hell unless you

had a “great change of heart.”

Edwards was a brilliant

thinker who entered Yale

College when he was only 13.

His preaching was one of the

driving forces of the Great

Awakening. Ironically, when

the religious revival died

down, Edwards’s own congre-

gation rejected him for being

too strict about doctrine.

Edwards moved to

Stockbridge, Massachusetts,

in 1751, where he lived most

of his remaining years as mis-

sionary to a Native American

settlement.

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•Enlightenment •Benjamin Franklin •Jonathan Edwards •Great Awakening

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its signiﬁcance.

MAIN IDEA

2. TAKING NOTES

Re-create the diagram below on your

paper and ﬁll it in with historical

examples that illustrate the main

idea at the top.

Name the advantages and the dis-

advantages of this kind of society.

CRITICAL THINKING

3. COMPARING

What positive and negative trends

that emerged in the Northern

colonies during the 1700s do you

think still affect the United States

today? Support your responses with

details from the text. Think About:

• the growth of cities

• the inﬂux of immigrants

• the status of women and

African Americans

• the effects of the Enlightenment

and the Great Awakening

4. MAKING INFERENCES

How do you think a person who

believed in the ideas of the

Enlightenment might have assessed

the Salem witchcraft trials? Support

your response with reasons.

5. CONTRASTING

In what ways did the Northern

colonies differ from the Southern

colonies in the 1700s? Use

evidence from the text to support

your response.

84 C

HAPTER 3

The Great Awakening brought many

colonists, as well as Native Americans and

African Americans, into organized Christian

churches for the ﬁrst time. As the movement

gained momentum, it also challenged the

authority of established churches. Some

colonists abandoned their old Puritan or

Anglican congregations. At the same time,

independent denominations, such as the

Baptists and Methodists, gained new mem-

bers. The Great Awakening also led to an

increased interest in higher education, as

several Protestant denominations founded

colleges such as Princeton (originally the

College of New Jersey), Brown, Columbia

(originally King’s College), and Dartmouth

to train ministers for their rapidly growing

churches.

While the Great Awakening and the

Enlightenment emphasized opposing aspects

of human experience—emotionalism and

reason, respectively—they had similar con-

sequences. Both caused people to question

traditional authority. Moreover, both

stressed the importance of the individual—

the Enlightenment by emphasizing human

reason, and the Great Awakening by de-

emphasizing the role of church authority.

These movements helped lead the

colonists to question Britain’s authority over

their lives. The separation between Britain

and the colonies was further hastened by another signiﬁcant event, a North

American war between Great Britain and France, in which the colonists fought on

Britain’s side.

The British minister George Whiteﬁeld was a major force behind

the Great Awakening. In his seven journeys to the American

colonies between 1738 and 1770, Whiteﬁeld preached dramatic

sermons that brought many listeners to tears.

▼

Vocabulary

denomination:

a large group

of religious

congregations

united by shared

beliefs

The Diversity of Northern Colonies

Economy Population

Religious

Groups

examples examples examples

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