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I
GUIDE TO STUDENT
RESEARCH AND HISTORICAL
ARGUMENTATION
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS EDITORS
Vivian Awumey
Cheryl Lederle
Stacie Moats
NATIONAL HISTORY DAY EDITORS
Cathy Gorn, Ph.D.
Lynne M. O’Hara, National Board Certified Teacher
Becky Butz
Ashley Foley Dabbraccio
Christopher Hamner, Ph.D.
Marion Touzel
THIS BOOK WAS CO-PRODUCED BY THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
AND NATIONAL HISTORY DAY
4511 Knox Road
Suite 205
College Park, MD 20740
Phone: 301-314-9739
Fax: 301-314-9767
Email: info@nhd.org
Website: nhd.org
/nationalhistoryday @nhdcontest @nationalhistory /nationalhistoryday
©2021 National History Day. May be duplicated for educational purposes. Not for resale.
ISBN: 978-1-7350104-6-5
AUTHORS
The Library of Congress and National History Day are grateful for the teachers who developed the content for this guide.
Jill Berge, National Board Certied Teacher
Lake Washington High School
Kirkland, Washington
Erin Coggins, Ed.S.
Sparkman High School
Harvest, Alabama
Aditi Doshi
Van Nuys High School
Van Nuys, California
Wendy Harris
Metro Deaf School
St. Paul, Minnesota
Melissa Lawson, National Board Certied Teacher
Folsom Middle School
Folsom, California
Jean Molloy
Irving A. Robbins Middle School
Farmington, Connecticut
Lisa Prueter, Ed.D.
Newark Charter School
Newark, Delaware
Liz Taylor
Julia R. Masterman Laboratory and Demonstration School
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Brian Weaver
Central Bucks High School West
Doylestown, Pennsylvania
Aerial view of the Library of Congress Thomas Jeerson Building, Washington, D.C., 2007. Library of Congress (2007684212).
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 6
CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCHING WITH THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 8
Using Primary Sources in Original Research 8
Eective Research Strategies Using Primary Sources 10
Finding Resources from the Library of Congress 12
Conclusion 15
Coming Next 15
Bibliography 16
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: NARROWING DOWN A RESEARCH TOPIC 18
Selecting a Topic for Further Inquiry 18
Activity: Funneling the Topic 20
Bibliography 27
CHAPTER TWO: IS THIS A GOOD QUESTION?: GENERATING AND REFINING QUESTIONS
TO GUIDE THE RESEARCH PROCESS 28
In the Last Chapter 28
The Importance of Asking Questions 28
Generating Questions 29
Activity One: Question Formulation Technique 30
Conducting Preliminary Research 33
Activity Two: Conducting Preliminary Research 34
Fine-Tuning Questions 38
Activity Three: Peer Reviewing the Research Question 39
Identifying Your Research Question 42
Coming Next 42
Bibliography 43
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: USING PRIMARY SOURCES TO CONNECT THE PRESENT TO THE PAST 44
Connecting Primary Sources to Student Experiences 45
Activity: Then and Now 46
Bibliography 49
2
3
CHAPTER THREE: DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN 50
In the Last Chapter 50
What Is Inquiry? 50
The Inquiry Process 51
Activity One: Inquiry Step-by-Step 52
Conducting Historical Research 61
Activity Two: Creating a Research Plan 63
Identifying Primary Sources for Research 66
Identifying Secondary Sources for Research 66
Organizing and Citing Research 67
Activity Three: Organizing and Citing Research 69
Coming Next 74
Bibliography 75
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES 77
Primary or Secondary? 77
Activity One: Primary or Secondary? 79
Bibliography 85
CHAPTER FOUR: USING SECONDARY SOURCES IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH 86
In the Last Chapter 86
What Are Secondary Sources? 86
Why Are Secondary Sources Important? 86
Using Secondary Sources to Establish Historical Context 87
Activity One: Making Sense of the Past with Contextual Information 88
Secondary Sources: Models of the Discipline of History 97
Activity Two: Competing Interpretations of the Causes of the First World War 99
Finding Secondary Sources at the Library of Congress 104
Coming Next 105
Bibliography 106
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDING PRIMARY SOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 108
In the Last Chapter 108
What Are Primary Sources? 108
Where Do I Find Primary Sources? 109
Activity One: Exploring Library of Congress Primary Source Sets 110
How Do I Find Primary Sources from the Library of Congress? 114
Activity Two: Expanding the Search for Primary Sources 116
Coming Next 119
Bibliography 120
4
CHAPTER SIX: ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 121
In the Last Chapter 121
How Do We Analyze Primary Sources? 121
Activity One: Observe-Reect-Question 123
How Do We Understand the Larger Narrative? 132
Coming Next 132
Bibliography 133
CHAPTER SEVEN: THREE CS OF SCHOLARLY THINKING: CONTEXT, CLOSE READING,
AND CORROBORATION 134
In the Last Chapter 134
Scholarly Thinking Skills 134
Establishing Historical Context 134
Activity One: Constructing Meaning with Context 138
Close Reading Routines 143
Activity Two: Reading Routines with Wilson 145
Corroboration: Putting the Pieces Together 151
Activity Three: Corroborating with Mason and Jay 152
Concluding Comments on the Three Cs 159
Coming Next 159
Bibliography 160
CHAPTER EIGHT: THROUGH THE RIGHT LENS: RELIABILITY,
RELEVANCE, PERSPECTIVE, AND MISSING NARRATIVES 163
In the Last Chapter 163
Reliability 163
Reliability of Secondary Sources 164
Reliability of Primary Sources 165
Relevance 166
Activity One: Conrming Reliability and Relevance 168
Perspective 184
Activity Two: Identifying Perspective 187
“Reading Against the Grain”: Missing Narratives in History 192
Activity Three: Reading Against the Grain 194
Coming Next 195
Bibliography 195
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: DEVELOPING HISTORICAL EMPATHY 198
Connect to Shared Experiences of a Community 198
Activity: Cultivating Historical Empathy 200
Bibliography 211
5
CHAPTER NINE: BECAUSE “I SAID SO” ISN’T GOOD ENOUGH:
CONSTRUCTING AN ARGUMENT IN THE HISTORY CLASSROOM 213
In the Last Chapter 213
Historical Argumentation 213
The Beginnings of an Argument: Making Inferences 214
Activity One: Making Inferences about Resistance to Slavery 215
Making a Historical Argument 224
Activity Two: Writing Theses, Making Arguments 226
Where Is the Proof? 234
Good Preliminary Thesis! Strongly Supported! So What? 239
Conclusion 241
Coming Next 241
Bibliography 242
CHAPTER TEN: MAKING YOUR CASE: CRAFTING A HISTORICAL
ARGUMENT IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS 245
In the Last Chapter 245
In the Historical Courtroom 245
Have a Point, Have a Plan 245
Organizing Your Thoughts 246
Which Sources Stay, Which Sources Go 248
Activity One: Bobby’s Greatest Day 249
Finding the Right Presentation Method 252
Presentation Method One: Exhibit 252
Presentation Method Two: Website 254
Presentation Method Three: Documentary 256
Activity Two: Take Two! 259
Conclusion 267
Coming Next 267
Bibliography 268
CHAPTER ELEVEN: REFLECTING ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND
NATIONAL HISTORY DAY PROJECTS 271
In the Last Chapter 271
Reecting on an NHD Research Project 271
Metacognition 271
Activity: Student Reection Activity 273
Receiving and Responding to Feedback throughout the Project 278
Teacher Reection 279
Reecting on Student Learning 280
Conclusion 285
Bibliography 286
INTRODUCTION
CHRISTOPHER HAMNER, Ph.D., GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY
  . In fact, if you are dedicated enough to teach it, you probably love history.
I would be willing to bet that somewhere along the way, you had a fantastic encounter with the past that brought it to life for you.
Sitting down to read a great book, listening to a thoughtful lecture about history, or discovering a primary source image is, in many
ways, like sitting down to an incredible meal in a fancy restaurant. Everything is perfect. The chef prepared the entrée exquisitely.
The avors in the side dishes meld perfectly with the main course. The plating is impeccable. Every part of the experience works
toward a singular goal: creating a superlative meal for guests to savor. The unanswered question is, How does that happen?
Demystifying the process of historical research is much like stepping from the dining room into the kitchen, where a helpful team of
chefs stands waiting to explain each part of their process. This book is a collaborative eort between the Library of Congress and
National History Day® (NHD). The Library of Congress (loc.gov) is the largest library in the world, with more than 170 million items
including books, sound recordings, motion pictures, photographs, maps, and manuscripts. NHD (nhd.org) is a non-prot organization
that annually engages over a half-million middle and high school students worldwide in conducting original research.
From developing a research question to nding sources to making an argument to organizing the ideas into a coherent project, the
authors of these chapters—with more than a century of classroom experience among them—will help you explain the components
of historical research to your students and guide them over the hurdles they are likely to encounter along the way.
Reading a well-written piece of history is a magical experience. It can be inspiring to have your eyes opened to the past by an
extraordinary book or an exceptionally gifted teacher. The experience can be both thrilling and life-changing. But for students
attempting their own research projects, the experience can be frustrating. It is not unlike our enthusiastic diner, who tries to prepare
the meal on his or her own. The gap between the starting point and the desired end product is enormous, mysterious, and even a
little scary.
For students who have encountered research only as consumers of history, the challenge of becoming producers of history can be
frustrating at times. This book provides a recipe that breaks down the processes into simplied steps that make sense. It provides
a set of concrete steps that anyone can practice to become a better historian and a better researcher—and, in the end, to produce
better research projects.
If you want to start at the beginning and read straight through, you will follow a complete step-by-step guide to learning the process
of historical research. If, however, a particular part of the process challenges your students, feel free to jump straight to that chapter.
Every chapter includes activities that explore some of the incredible sources available from the Library of Congress. Also, all of the
examples in these chapters are templates. You can drop in a dierent set of sources and use the same basic activity structure with
your students. For instance, if your curriculum does not include the Harlem Renaissance, the model template will work just as well
with sources from the Progressive Era, the War of 1812, or the Emancipation Proclamation. Look for sidebars and hints throughout
the chapters to help you search the Library of Congress and integrate its primary and secondary sources into your lessons and your
students’ research.
The rst two chapters provide an overview of the inquiry process and resources available through the Library of Congress as well
as strategies for developing research questions and inquiry plans. The next ve chapters explore the role of primary and secondary
sources in research. These chapters cover locating and making smart use of both primary and secondary sources in a research
project, and then focusing on historical thinking skills. They are followed by two chapters that exemplify how to build a historical
argument based on research—both the process of thinking through ideas and claims and the nuts-and-bolts work of crafting an
argument in dierent mediums. The concluding chapter explains the value of reecting on the research process and how it is part
6
of the long-term endeavor to become a more careful and critical thinker. The nal chapter contains an opportunity for teachers to
reect at each stage of the research process to consider logistics, pedagogy, and equity issues.
You also will nd four Skills Spotlight features throughout the book. These activities focus on skills that often challenge students,
including narrowing down a research topic, distinguishing primary and secondary sources, using primary sources to draw
connections across time, and developing historical empathy.
We hope the resources collected in these pages help you share with your students the satisfaction of performing their own historical
research and the excitement of making their own discoveries while minimizing the confusion and frustration they encounter in the
process. That satisfaction, the sensation that physicist Richard Feynman called “the pleasure of nding things out,” is one of the
greatest gifts that those of us who love history can share with our students.
View from above the Main Reading Room showing researcher desks in the Thomas Jeerson Building of the Library of Congress in Washington,
D.C., 2007. Library of Congress (2007687187).
7
-
-
CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCHING WITH THE
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
Imagine yourself researching a historical topic in the world’s largest library. What do you envision? For teachers and students alike,
historical research often brings to mind a lone scholar sitting at a desk, perhaps with a laptop, surrounded by stacks of books and
papers.
Our experiences as Library of Congress educators, working with the Library’s universal collections and world-renowned experts,
continuously inform our understanding of research. Whether engaging with students or teachers, we frequently describe the
research process using words like creative, reective, collaborative, and iterative. Of course, the strongest characteristic of research is
inquiry. Curiosity sparks and sustains research, yet as learners we all sometimes overlook the importance of asking questions—of
documents and of experts—in our quest for knowledge.
Student researchers embark on a National History Day
®
(NHD) project with varying levels of experience and understanding of the
research process. Explicitly introducing these foundational building blocks will help students better understand how to shape a
research question; select and use primary and secondary sources; think like a historian; consider multiple perspectives; and engage
in a community of scholars.
In this chapter, we will dene primary and secondary sources and their roles in research, explore eective research strategies, and
oer considerations for nding primary sources from the Library of Congress.
INQUIRY MODELS
C3 FRAMEWORK
The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K 12
Civics, Geography, and History provides a framework to help educators understand the inquiry arc. National Council for
t
he Social Studies (NCSS) is a Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources (TPS) Consortium member.
To learn more, visit socialstudies.org/standards/c3.
STRIPLING MODEL OF INQUIRY
Using primary sources with inquiry empowers students to ask their own questions, construct their own
understandings, draw conclusions, create new knowledge, and share the knowledge with others. Barbara Stripling,
former Director of Library Services for the New York City Department of Education and past president of the American
Library Association, discusses why primary sources are essential to the inquiry process. To watch the video, visit loc.
gov/item/webcast-7037.
USING PRIMARY SOURCES IN ORIGINAL RESEARCH
The Library of Congress describes primary sources as “the raw materials of history—original documents and objects that were
created at the time under study. They are dierent from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually
at a distance of time or place.”
1
What does that mean for a researcher? What can be learned from each type of source? How can a
“Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress, accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-
sources/.
8
1
researcher most eectively use each type of source? What roles can the collections and expertise of the Library of Congress play in
developing a National History Day project?
One key to unlocking the power of primary sources is understanding the phrase “at the time under study.” Interpreting primary
sources requires understanding them in the context of the time in which they were created. It is more helpful for a researcher to
think about the context of an item and its relationship to the time under study in order to get to the crucial questions: What could the
person creating the item have known about the event or topic being represented? Was the creator’s perspective representative of
the time and place under study?
WHEN IS A SOURCE A PRIMARY SOURCE?
This example, The Declaration Committee (loc.gov/item/91795008/), was published by Currier & Ives in 1876. Drawing
on prior knowledge or quick research in secondary sources situates the signing of the Declaration of Independence in
1776, 100 years before the image was created. A researcher might consider:
› What would the artist have known about the drafting of the Declaration of Independence?
› Where did the artist get that information?
› How did the centennial anniversary inuence the artist’s choices?
Most researchers would conclude that because the image was not created at the time of the event, it would not be
considered a primary source for learning about drafting of the Declaration. On the other hand, a researcher comparing
how people regarded the work of the Declaration Committee on the centennial of the event to current views on the
topic might nd this depiction very useful. As it was created at the time of the centennial, it would be a primary source
for learning about attitudes and perspectives from 1876.
Because individual primary sources are incomplete, they can be very engaging, like a puzzle, and also frustrating because they
often raise more questions than they answer. Primary sources can humanize history in a way that secondary sources cannot and
foster authentic learning. Investigating and analyzing multiple primary sources with dierent points of view further enriches and
complicates the narrative, oering both layers of evidence and multiple perspectives. Each primary source snippet represents a
mystery that invites students to seek additional evidence, either in other primary sources or in secondary sources. Knowing how
to use each type of source will help researchers to ll in gaps of understanding, generating more questions to focus and direct
additional research.
Teachers and students alike may be familiar with a research approach that relies on consulting secondary sources before primary
sources to identify existing historical arguments and context. After all, why piece together information when someone more qualied
has already done that thinking?
On the other hand, this is precisely why primary sources are crucial both to original research and to students’ development
as researchers. Primary sources have not been interpreted by someone else. They oer opportunities for students to develop
deep understandings and ask questions, unmediated by another’s opinion, yet informed by secondary sources and other primary
9
sources. Teachers can guide students to primary sources not only to support student explorations, but also to help students develop
researchable questions and defensible arguments.
Teachers can guide students through secondary sources to see what other scholars have concluded to put ideas in context.
Secondary sources are crucial for lling in background, developing context, and understanding how communities of scholars have
interpreted events. Examining a variety of secondary sources can reveal varying interpretations of historical events and competing
arguments.
EFFECTIVE RESEARCH STRATEGIES USING PRIMARY
SOURCES
Analyzing primary sources is a critical step in the research process. Teachers can help students internalize the basic process of
observing an item, reecting on their own personal knowledge, and, nally, generating questions. The Library of Congress oers
a Primary Source Analysis Tool for students and a related set of teacher guides with questions to focus and deepen learning and
engagement.
2
Explicitly teaching additional strategies, such as those developed in other chapters of this book, can help student
researchers build on that foundational analysis and construct new knowledge and understandings.
PRIMARY SOURCE ANALYSIS TOOL
FURTHER NVESTGATON:
ADDTONAL NOTES:
OBSERVE REFLECT QUESTON
NAME:
LOC.gov/teachers
R
E
F
L
E
C
T
Q
U
E
S
T
I
O
N
O
B
S
E
R
V
E
The Library of Congress Primary Source Analysis Tool.
“Teacher’s Guides and Analysis Tool,” Library of Congress, accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-
sources/guides/.
10
2
-
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -
Questions drive successful research, whether it is for a school assignment, a National History Day project, or a major purchase.
Researchers begin with a question and rene it or consider additional questions as they learn more and connect information from
primary and secondary sources. Primary sources inherently pique curiosity and inspire researchers to wonder and want to learn
more. Harnessing that power early in the process can inspire students to explore and learn through original research. Teachers
play a crucial role in selecting and presenting intriguing primary sources and helping students shape the questions to make them
researchable.
Rebecca Newland, school librarian and former teacher in residence at the Library of Congress, indicates that one eective approach
for using primary sources to help student researchers develop questions is to begin with a single primary source. Allow time for
students to observe the item, reect on their thinking about it, and record questions sparked by the primary source. Then introduce
additional information, such as the item record and related primary sources, to deepen inquiry and understanding. This approach
immediately engages students in deep thinking and slows and structures their thinking.
3
Applying historical thinking skills of sourcing and contextualizing can help researchers situate each resource in time and place.
Ask students: Who created this? Why was it created? What qualications does the person who created this have that give them credibility and
authority? This approach is particularly helpful when weighing conicting accounts.
4
As researchers delve into additional resources, they might discover primary sources that present conicting accounts. Encourage
student researchers to use the conicts to think more deeply and investigate each information source, gleaning evidence to support
and strengthen their thesis. Newland calls such conicts “productive discrepancies.”
5
Grappling with primary sources that present
multiple perspectives oers opportunities to evaluate the sources themselves and the implications for the research. Encountering
these complexities can engage and promote critical thinking skills and support researchers in recognizing bias in the sources and in
their own work.
Comparing accounts and corroborating with other sources can help researchers develop a more complete understanding of a
complicated narrative, informed by the richness of complex primary sources. Slowing down and questioning assumptions can focus
a researcher’s thinking and lend purpose to further research. Teachers can guide and encourage student researchers to rene their
initial thesis as they learn more about their topics and gather evidence to reconcile discrepancies.
PRIMARY SOURCES AND RESEARCH
To learn more about the role of primary sources in research, visit the Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog for a
three part series of posts written by Rebecca Newland. The series explores inspiring research questions, sourcing and
contextualizing to strengthen analysis, and evaluating sources using evidence.
Rebecca Newland, “Inspiring Research Questions with Library of Congress Primary Sources” (February 20, 2014)
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/library-of-congress-primary-sources-inspiring-research-questions/
Rebecca Newland, “Primary Sources and Research Part II: Sourcing and Contextualizing to Strengthen Analysis”
(March 6, 2014)
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/03/primary-sources-and-research-part-ii-sourcing-and-contextualizing-to-
strengthen-analysis/
Rebecca Newland, “Primary Sources and Research Part III: Evaluating Sources and Using Evidence”
(February 20, 2014)
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/05/primary-sources-and-research-part-iii-evaluating-sources-and-using-
evidence-2
To explore information they might nd in dierent types of resources, ask students rst to look at this diary page (loc.gov/resource/
mtaft.mtaft3/?sp=104). Scanning the page for names and dates can help them situate it at the end of the American Civil War.
Focusing on the nal entry on the page oers insights into the writer’s visceral response to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.
Students might read both the handwritten original and the text transcription (loc.gov/resource/mtaft.mtaft3/?sp=104&st=text)
and discuss their reactions to each. They might also compare the private response of the diary entry to excerpts from this speech
(loc.gov/resource/lcrbmrp.t0c12/?sp=14) by Frederick Douglass, a public response, created much later than the diary page.
3 Rebecca Newland, “Inspiring Research Questions with Library of Congress Primary Sources,” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog, February 20, 2014.
https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/library-of-congress-primary-sources-inspiring-research-questions/.
4 Chapter Nine expands on ways to help student researchers develop these skills.
5 Rebecca Newland, “Primary Sources and Research Part III: Evaluating Sources and Using Evidence,” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog, May 6, 2014.
https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/05/primary-sources-and-research-part-iii-evaluating-sources-and-using-evidence-2/.
11
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—
-
—
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Finally, students might look up how the assassination is described in secondary sources, such as a textbook or encyclopedia. Ask
them to reect on what they did—and did not—learn from each source, and each type of source, and how each item contributed to
their understanding. How might that guide their research for an NHD project?
FINDING RESOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
The Library of Congress is the main research arm of the U.S. Congress and the home of the U.S. Copyright Oce. The largest
library in the world, it has millions of books, recordings, photographs, newspapers, maps, and manuscripts on more than 850 miles
of shelves. Millions of those items have been digitized and are freely available online at loc.gov to users everywhere.
Successful searches of the online collections of the Library of Congress, as with any archival research institution, begin with
an understanding of what is likely to be found. Many considerations, including copyright, collection strengths, and how materials
were acquired, factor into what can be digitized and made available online. Understanding these considerations can help guide
researchers in nding primary sources.
The Library’s digitized collections are strongest in the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century. Many older items did not
survive, either because they were fragile or because at the time they did not meet the criteria of collection policies. The physical
collections are up-to-date, with approximately 10,000 items being added each working day. Digitization decisions, however, are
guided in part by copyright, which protects intellectual property rights. The Library does not own the rights to most of those items,
and so it cannot make them available online.
SHORTCUTS TO FINDING PRIMARY SOURCES
Useful shortcuts for nding primary sources in a variety of formats, including photographs, maps, newspapers, and
sound recordings include:
Primary Source Sets—sets of primary sources on specic topics
loc.gov/programs/teachers/classroom-materials/primary-source-sets/
Free to Use and Reuse—themed content that is in the public domain
loc.gov/free-to-use/
Topics Guides in Chronicling America—expert guides to select topics in historical newspapers
guides.loc.gov/newspapers-periodicals
Be aware that students exploring the Library’s collection are likely to encounter adult content that could be disturbing even
for mature high school students. To prepare students for content they might encounter when searching an archival collection,
emphasize that primary sources reect the time in which they were created, and may or may not reect modern norms or attitudes.
Depending on the individual student, the online research experience may need to be scaolded or monitored.
6
Searching loc.gov for primary sources using keywords may seem like the fastest and most direct shortcut to nding primary
sources, but such searches often produce overwhelming results, especially for a researcher in the early stages of a project. The
Library’s collection includes some useful approaches for nding items and shaping a research topic.
Today in History (loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/about-this-collection/) oers an accessible entry point into the Library’s
digital collections with expert commentary. Each entry, as the name suggests, describes historical events by date. This collection
highlights items from across Library collections paired with brief essays written by experts on sta, fact-checked and updated
regularly, with search tips and links to more resources. Today in History can be valuable to researchers seeking to identify or dene a
topic as well as to researchers seeking more information on a topic.
Another strategy is to start with an item from a dened set of materials, such as those listed in the “Shortcuts” sidebar. In addition
to analyzing the item, researchers can mine the item record for information. Possible information might include who created the
item, when it was created, why it was created, and perhaps notes to help put the item into context. All of that is useful for better
understanding the value of the primary source and can contribute to shaping a research question and strategy.
Chapter Nine provides resources for teaching about challenging topics in history.
12
6
This is the title of the photograph.
Creation date, if known.
These “Subject Headings” can be
used to search for more sources.
Click here to see the options for
downloading this image.
Read the “Notes” for more
information.
Click the hyperlinked “Subjects”
for more sources.
Explore more resources in the
same format here.
Explore more resources on the
topic here.
To nd additional items, a researcher might use other features of the item record. For example, most records include “Part of” and
“Subject” terms that can be clicked to explore a collection or a set of items on the same subject. Each item also includes suggestions
of “More like this” for additional items in the same format and “You might also like” for items related by topic. Exploring and sifting
and analyzing these items can help a researcher rene his or her thinking and identify key words for further searches.
When selecting or scaling a topic, rst consider what the Library has in its collections. Of course, more current topics have roots in
the past that might inform the shape of research and of a project. One approach, then, to searching the Library’s online collections
is to think about those historical roots. For example, understanding the role of Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution contributes to
understanding some of the events that led to the Cold War.
13
- - -
Primary sources within Library of Congress collections are presented without alteration. The materials may be in an unfamiliar
language or in cursive writing without a transcription available. Keyword searching will not work for those materials. In such
instances, it may be helpful to think of the searching process as similar to a researcher browsing through a folder, page by page in
a physical archive. In those cases, researchers might turn to the nding aids developed by Library experts that accompany many
collections. Look for Finding Aids in the “Expert Resources” section on the home page of collections that have them. These guides
to the contents of a collection can help to identify a folder as a starting place. Though paging through folders takes more time than a
keyword search, it can also lead to rich and unexpected discoveries.
Finding Aid
Articles and Essays
Library experts are as valuable a resource to researchers as the materials in the collections. In addition to Finding Aids, Library
experts develop secondary sources to guide researchers, including interpretive materials accompanying online collections. Digital
collections typically include a description of the scope of the collection and many collections also include articles and essays, which
can be invaluable for understanding collection strengths.
Student researchers always have the option of tapping into the expertise of Library of Congress reference librarians and other
specialists by using the “Ask a Librarian” feature (ask.loc.gov/). Frequently asked questions are available for browsing but specic
questions can be directed to specialists by subject and format. A few areas even oer online chat services during select times.
Library sta will not do the research but rather will help to inform the process by oering suggestions and resources for further
investigation.
In addition to the “Ask a Librarian” service, hundreds of research guides created by Library of Congress subject experts are available
(guides.loc.gov/). These guides may be searched by subject, research center, or keyword. Researchers should note, however,
that these guides include materials that are not digitally available. Such information can still be valuable to researchers in providing
search terms, related collections, and more. National History Day students may nd it helpful to reference “Using the Library of
Congress Online: A Guide for Middle and High School Students” for helpful tips on accessing and using the Library’s digital primary
and secondary sources at guides.loc.gov/student-resources.
COPYRIGHT AND NATIONAL HISTORY DAY PROJECTS
Students and teachers who want to use or reuse materials found on loc.gov need to be aware of copyright and other
rights restrictions. Copyright is a type of intellectual property that protects original works of authorship as soon as an
author xes the work in a tangible form of expression for a period of time. The online record for each digitized item
includes a rights statement. Researchers must decide whether the chosen materials are allowed to be used under
copyright laws.
For more about copyright, visit loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/copyright/.
14
CONCLUSION
Many of the techniques introduced in this chapter are applied systematically in the remainder of this book. National History Day
teachers have proven these methods for incorporating primary sources into research to be eective based on their collective
experience and expertise working with students on NHD projects nationwide. For more teaching strategies, primary sources, and
related materials, subscribe to the Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog (blogs.loc.gov/teachers/) or check out professional
development live events and recordings available at loc.gov/programs/teachers/professional-development/.
The research process can be both frustrating and rewarding, carefully constructed yet often serendipitous, and ultimately lead
to as many questions as answers. Encouraging students to embrace the complex, iterative nature of research may help them to
see history and the work of historians in a new light. As Jason Reynolds, the National Ambassador for Young People’s Literature,
described so eloquently, “. . . let’s not just give presentations on the great people who have shaped our country and our world; let’s
also work to gure out what questions they may have asked to do so, and what questions we should be asking now—right now—to
make history ourselves, every day.”
7
COMING NEXT
With the introduction to the resources of the Library of Congress, teachers will now share strategies to help students narrow down
their topic and develop research questions.
Jason Reynolds, “Jason Reynolds: Grab the Mic Newsletter, Black History Month Edition,” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog, February 2, 2021. https://
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2021/02/jason-reynolds-grab-the-mic-newsletter-black-history-month-edition/.
15
7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTION
Today in History. Collection. Library of Congress. https://loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/about-this-collection/.
MANUSCRIPT
The Diary of Horatio Nelson Taft, 1861–1865. Volume 3, January 1, 1864–May 30, 1865. Diary Entry. April 6, 1865. Library of
Congress (mtaft.mtaft3). https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtaft.mtaft3/?sp=104.
MANUSCRIPT TRANSCRIPTION
The Diary of Horatio Nelson Taft, 1861–1865. Volume 3, January 1, 1864–May 30, 1865. Transcription of diary entry. April 6, 1865.
Library of Congress (mtaft.mtaft3). https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtaft.mtaft3/?sp=104&st=text.
PRINT
Currier & Ives. The Declaration Committee. Print. 1876. Library of Congress (91795008). https://www.loc.gov/item/91795008/.
SPEECH
Douglass, Frederick. Oration by Frederick Douglass, delivered on the occasion of the unveiling of the Freedmen’s Monument in memory of
Abraham Lincoln, in Lincoln Park, Washington, D.C., April 14th, 1876. Transcript of a speech. April 14, 1876. Reprinted in the Daniel Murray
Pamphlet Collection, Library of Congress (12006733). https://www.loc.gov/resource/lcrbmrp.t0c12/?sp=14.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOG POSTS
Newland, Rebecca. “Inspiring Research Questions with Library of Congress Primary Sources.” Teaching with the Library of
Congress Blog. February 20, 2014. http://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/library-of-congress-primary-sources-inspiring-research-
questions/.
Newland, Rebecca. “Primary Sources and Research Part II: Sourcing and Contextualizing to Strengthen Analysis.” Teaching with the
Library of Congress Blog. March 6, 2014. http://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/03/primary-sources-and-research-part-ii-sourcing-
and-contextualizing-to-strengthen-analysis/.
Newland, Rebecca. “Primary Sources and Research Part III: Evaluating Sources and Using Evidence.” Teaching with the Library of
Congress Blog. February 20, 2014. http://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/library-of-congress-primary-sources-inspiring-research-
questions/.
Reynolds, Jason. “Jason Reynolds: Grab the Mic Newsletter, Black History Month Edition,” Teaching with the Library of Congress
Blog. February 2, 2021. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2021/02/jason-reynolds-grab-the-mic-newsletter-black-history-month-
edition/.
BOOK
College, Career & Civic Life C3 Framework for Social Studies State Standards. Silver Spring: National Council for the Social Studies, 2017.
https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/les/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies-rev0617.pdf.
RESEARCH GUIDES
“Index of Library of Congress Research Guides.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://guides.loc.gov/.
“Newspapers & Current Periodicals.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://guides.loc.gov/newspapers-
periodicals.
16
“Using the Library of Congress Online: A Guide for Middle and High School Students.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26,
2021. https://guides.loc.gov/student-resources.
VIDEO
Teacher Resource: Inquiry & Primary Sources Overview. Video [3:39]. November 19, 2015. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/item/
webcast-7037.
WEBSITES
“Ask a Librarian.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://ask.loc.gov/.
“Citing Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-
with-primary-sources/citing/.
“Copyright and Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/copyright/.
“Free to Use and Reuse Sets.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/free-to-use/.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/.
“Primary Sources Sets.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/classroom-
materials/primary-source-sets/.
“Teacher’s Guides and Analysis Tool.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 26, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
17
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: NARROWING DOWN A
RESEARCH TOPIC
The Bonus Army encampment in Washington, D.C., June 14, 1932. Library of Congress (2017648540).
SELECTING A TOPIC FOR FURTHER INQUIRY
Intrigued by primary sources, students will start to develop their historical curiosity. The next step is to help them narrow down a
topic for further inquiry. To move forward, students must decide what they want to learn about.
Sometimes students start with a time period. They want to know more about the French Revolution, the American Civil War, the
Progressive Era, or the Great Depression. Other times they start from a broader interest, perhaps the history of sports, fashion, or
the military. Or, they might be inspired by a book, movie, or television show.
Primary sources might catch a student’s eye. Perhaps they might see a source in class that intrigues them, or they want to learn
more about a particular type of source (such as World War II propaganda posters or letters from explorers). Sometimes students
are captivated by powerful secondary sources—a book or a lecture they saw at the local historical society or on YouTube. No matter
the inspiration, they need to funnel a broad topic into a manageable sub-topic to begin learning more.
18
One way to gauge this knowledge is to start a unit with a survey or K-W-L activity.
1
The purpose is to nd what interests students
most about a topic. After establishing students’ prior knowledge, a funnel chart can help students brainstorm keywords and develop
questions to research.
Remind students that early in the process, all topics are tentative. Often a student’s topic will be rened or adjusted during the
inquiry process. Sometimes the topic will change completely. Help students understand that these shifts are part of the process, and
research is often a pathway that shifts in directions that the researcher never imagined.
To learn more about literacy strategies developed by the National Council of Teachers of English, a Library of Congress
TPS Consortium member, visit readwritethink.org/.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, teachers will model funneling a research topic based on a current unit of study with students. Students
can then apply this model to help narrow down a topic that they would like to research.
A K-W-L chart is What you Know, What you Want to Know, and What you Learned. To learn more and download an organizer to use this strategy, visit “K-W-L
Chart,” ReadWriteThink, National Council of Teachers of English, updated 2020, accessed September 4, 2020. http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-
resources/printouts/chart-a-30226.html.
19
1
20
ACTIVITY: FUNNELING THE TOPIC
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Photograph, [Bonus Army encampment in Washington D.C.: rude huts, squalid living conditions], June 14, 1932
Underwood & Underwood
Library of Congress (2017648540)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017648540/
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
Primary Source Analysis Tool
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer
Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer Sample Key
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Make two copies of the Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
BRAINSTORMING AND MODELING (30 MINUTES)
› Distribute one copy of the Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer to each student. Project the organizer to the
class.
› Model the process with the students to brainstorm and complete the graphic organizer using a current or recently
completed unit of study. A Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer Sample Key is provided as a model for
teachers or students as needed.
› Allow students to use textbooks, secondary sources, or internet research at each stage to help brainstorm potential
topics and potential subtopics.
› Allow the class to lead the direction, select a topic, and then select a subtopic.
› Project the Library of Congress website (loc.gov). Using the class topic, model how to nd a primary source and allow
students to generate questions from that source.
- - - - - -
- - -
APPLICATION (30 MINUTES)
› Distribute one copy of the Funneling a Topic Research Graphic Organizer to each student. Allow students to work in
groups or individually (at teacher’s discretion).
› Allow students time and resources to brainstorm and funnel a potential topic for a National History Day project. Use the
funnel created by the class as a model.
› Once a student selects a primary source from the Library of Congress, distribute the Library of Congress Primary
Source Analysis Tool. Instruct students to use the tool to analyze their source and add additional questions to their
graphic organizer.
For ideas on how to introduce primary source analysis, see “Core Strategies for Working with Primary Sources:
Primary Source Analysis” blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2020/04/core-strategies-for-working-with-primary-
sources-primary-source-analysis/.
Need help searching the Library of Congress? See Chapters Five and Six for search strategies.
ADAPTATIONS
Some students may need additional support to generate keywords. Consider providing a few examples to get
students started or have some students work directly with a school librarian or paraprofessional to help guide
this process.
21
FUNNELING A TOPIC RESEARCH GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Overall Topic:
Potential Key Words or Subtopics
Keywords to Research This Subtopic
Subtopic of interest:
Potential research topic:
Research questions:
22
Primary source that makes me want to learn more:
Questions generated by this primary source:
23
24
FUNNELING A TOPIC RESEARCH GRAPHIC ORGANIZER SAMPLE KEY
Overall Topic: Great Depression
Potential Key Words or Subtopics
› Herbert Hoover
› Al Smith
› 1929 Stock Market Crash
› Smoot–Hawley Tari
› Rugged individualism
› Hoovervilles
› Bonus Army
› Franklin D. Roosevelt
› Eleanor Roosevelt
› Brain Trust
› New Deal
› Repeal of Prohibition
› Hundred Days
› “Alphabet Soup” Agencies
› Civilian Conservation Corps
› Works Progress Administration
› Frances Perkins and the Labor
Department
› Drought and the Dust Bowl
› Rural electrication
› Social Security
› Wagner Act
› Packing the Court
› Keynesian economics
Subtopic of interest:
Bonus Army
Keywords to Research This Subtopic
› World War I veterans
› Bonus Expeditionary Force
› Executive Order 3669
› World War Adjusted Compensation Act
› Veterans of Foreign Wars
› Wright Patman Bonus Bill
› Herbert Hoover
› William D. Mitchell
› Douglas MacArthur
› Dwight D. Eisenhower
› GI Bill
Potential research topic:
Bonus Army March on Washington, D.C.
Research questions:
› Why did veterans demand their bonus early?
› What events in 1932 led to the march?
› How did political leaders handle the marchers?
› Why did the Wright Patman Bonus Bill fail in Congress?
› What role did military leaders play in this case?
› What happened to the Bonus Marchers?
› How did this event lead to a dierent approach for veterans returning from World War II?
25
Primary source that makes me want to learn more:
Photograph, [Bonus Army encampment in Washington D.C.: rude huts, squalid living conditions], June 14, 1932
Underwood & Underwood
Library of Congress (2017648540)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017648540/
Questions generated by this primary source:
› Why did the Bonus Marchers come to Washington, D.C.?
› Did they all live like this? How long did the marchers live like this?
› What does this image show about the marchers’ commitment to their cause?
› How does this image reect order and organization?
26
-
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - -
- -
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - -
- - = - - =
- - - -
- - -
- -
-
- - -
The Great Depression was a decade long, worldwide economic downturn following the 1929 stock market crash.
The Library of Congress has a variety of rich resources that catalog the American experience during the 1930s.
ARTICLES
“Art and Entertainment in the 1930s and 1940s”
loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-sourc
e-timeline/great-depression-and-world-war-
ii-1929-1945/art-and-entertainment-in-1930s-1940s/
“NAACP: A Century in the Fight to Freedom: The Great Depression”
loc.gov/exhibits/naacp/the-great-depression.html
“Race Relations in the 1930s and 1940s”
loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/great-depression-and-world-war-
ii-1929-1945/race-relations-in-1930s-and-1940s/
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Cartoon Drawings: Herblock Collection
loc.gov/collections/herblock-cartoon-drawings/?fa-access-restricted:false%7Conline-format:image&st-gallery
Great Depression and New Deal: A General Resource Guide
guides.loc.gov/great-depression-new-deal/digital-collections
PRIMARY SOURCE SETS
Dust Bowl Migration
loc.gov/classroom-materials/dust-bowl-migration/
The New Deal
loc.gov/classroom
-materials/new-deal/
RIGHT SIZING THE TOPIC
The previous activity allows students to follow their interests and narrow a research topic. The abundance of primary
sources can be overwhelming if the researcher does not limit his or her focus. The key is to help students nd a
manageable topic to begin the research process.
RESEARCH STARTER TIP
If students are struggling to nd a research topic or a source from the Library of Congress, two great places to start
are:
› The Library’s (growing) collection of Online Exhibitions (loc.gov/exhibits/all/)
›
Primary Source Sets (loc.gov/programs/teachers/classroom-materials/primary-source-sets/).
These resources give students collections of some of the Library’s best resources while keeping the materials
manageable and accessible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Cartoon Drawings: Herblock Collection. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/herblock-cartoon-
drawings/?fa=access-restricted:false%7Conline-format:image&st=gallery.
Great Depression and New Deal: A General Resource Guide. Collection. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/great-depression-new-
deal/digital-collections.
PHOTOGRAPH
Underwood & Underwood. [Bonus Army encampment in Washington D.C.: rude huts, squalid living conditions]. Photograph. June 14, 1932.
Library of Congress (2017648540). https://www.loc.gov/item/2017648540/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SETS
Dust Bowl Migration. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/dust-bowl-migration/.
The New Deal. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/new-deal/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
WEBSITES
“All Exhibitions.” Library of Congress. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/all/.
“K-W-L Chart.” ReadWriteThink, National Council of Teachers of English. Updated 2020. Accessed September 4, 2020. http://www.
readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/chart-a-30226.html.
“NAACP: A Century in the Fight to Freedom: The Great Depression.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 19, 2020. https://
www.loc.gov/exhibits/naacp/the-great-depression.html.
“Primary Source Analysis Tool.” Library of Congress. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
“Race Relations in the 1930s and 1940s.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 19, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-
materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/great-depression-and-world-war-ii-1929-1945/race-relations-in-1930s-and-
1940 s/.
“Read Write Think.” National Council of Teachers of English. Accessed September 8, 2020. http://www.readwritethink.org/.
27
CHAPTER TWO: IS THIS A GOOD QUESTION?:
GENERATING AND REFINING QUESTIONS TO
GUIDE THE RESEARCH PROCESS
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapter One, we dened primary and secondary sources and their roles in research, explored eective research strategies,
and oered considerations for nding primary sources from the Library of Congress. For the research process to be eective and
ecient, students need to devise and rene a research question to guide the process. In this chapter, students will engage in a model
Question Formulation Technique (QFT), conduct preliminary research to determine if their research question is too broad or narrow,
and then use peer editing to rene their research question.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ASKING QUESTIONS
Choosing the right topic is not only good learning but also the foundation of solid research. Students who connect to a topic they
are not only interested in but also passionate about will tap into the energy and drive to persevere through the challenges of an
extended research project.
However, taking a topic and turning it into a road map for research requires the critical skill of questioning. While we all know
that toddlers and preschoolers are adept at asking constant questions, the irony is that middle and high schoolers often lose that
willingness to voice their curiosity. Newsweek’s “The Creativity Crisis” found that “Preschool children, on average, ask their parents
about 100 questions a day . . . By middle school they’ve pretty much stopped asking.”
1
Yet, it is not a lack of engagement that leads
to this drop in questioning, but the reverse. When students stop asking questions, they lose interest. So it becomes a critical task for
teachers to engage students in the process of questioning.
As teachers, it is essential to remember that students sometimes do not have the background knowledge to know what is available
for them to research. For example, Yoseph and Hannah knew they wanted to explore Native American history for their National
History Day project but they were overwhelmed with options. I encouraged them to investigate a local Native American nation and
contact a local cultural center for the Duwamish Tribe in Seattle. This contact opened a whole new world to them. One of the tribal
elders volunteered to meet with them in my classroom, and they spent an hour questioning her about the Duwamish’s experience
gaining federal recognition. Ultimately, they crafted a historical performance about the Duwamish experience, taking their project to
the state NHD contest. Students have a natural curiosity and engagement but need a little help in determining how to ask the right
questions.
So how can we entice our students to use their interests to ask good questions? We have to give them the time and freedom to
brainstorm questions before ne-tuning the questions that lead to good research. Warren Berger, a self-proclaimed questionologist,
outlines four barriers to students asking quality questions:
› knowledge (already knowing everything)
› coolness (too cool to ask questions)
› fear (of speaking out)
› time (or lack of it).
2
1 Po Bronson and Ashley Merryman, “The Creativity Crisis,” Newsweek, July 10, 2010. https://www.newsweek.com/creativity-crisis-74665.
2 Warren Berger, Nurturing the Ability to Question, video le, Avenues: The World School, March 9, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-8nBo1WTf4.
28
-
- -
Addressing these challenges with eective teaching strategies can help students learn the critical thinking skill of asking questions.
GENERATING QUESTIONS
Just as brainstorming is an essential part of choosing a topic, so is generating questions. The Library of Congress TPS Consortium
member, The Right Question Institute, adapted the Question Formulation Technique (QFT) to help students through the questioning
process. QFT is an excellent strategy to help students generate questions. It guides students through a process of encouraging
all questions, thereby addressing the fear of speaking out and motivating students to push past the feeling that they already know
enough. Engaging students in questioning as a group helps overcome the feeling of being too cool to participate.
The QFT is useful because it focuses students on the questioning process. It encourages divergent thinking (thinking creatively or
dierently), convergent thinking (categorizing information and making connections), and metacognitive thinking (prioritizing their
questions and determining their relative values).
3
While teachers often feel limited in time, using one class period to help students
engage in the QFT process will pay o in the quality of questions students craft and help build an action plan for their research.
RIGHT QUESTION INSTITUTE
To learn more about the Question Formulation Technique, visit the Right Question Institute at rightquestion.org/what-
is-the-qft/. The Institute allows teachers to access materials with a free login.
When considering sources for the QFT process, make sure they are accessible and appropriate. Longer narrative pieces or very
complicated image sources might overwhelm students. The example used in this activity is a political cartoon on the Napoleonic
Wars. The Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division contains one of the largest collections of British political cartoons
in the United States. The activity highlights one of the many primary sources available in the collection. To find more, visit loc.gov/
collections/british-cartoon-prints/about-this-collection/. The Political Cartoons and Public Debates Primary Source Set (loc.gov/
classroom-materials/political-cartoons-and-public-debates) also contains some options for this activity.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity One, students will use the Question Formulation Technique to formulate a list of questions about a primary
source. They will then evaluate and prioritize their questions.
“What is the QFT?,” Right Question Institute, updated 2020, accessed November 19, 2020. https://rightquestion.org/what-is-the-qft/.
29
3
ACTIVITY ONE: QUESTION FORMULATION TECHNIQUE
TIME: 45 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Political Cartoon, The Plumb-pudding in danger, or, State epicures taking un petit souper, February 26, 1805
James Gillray (engraver)
Library of Congress (2001695072)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001695072/
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into groups of four or ve students each.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
PROVIDE BACKGROUND AND GENERATE QUESTIONS (15 MINUTES)
› Explain to students that today they will practice the critical skill of asking questions. Explain that changing questions is
essential in any research project.
› Review the rules for formulating questions with students.
› Ask as many questions as you can.
› Do not stop to answer, judge, or discuss.
› Write down every question exactly as stated.
› Change any statements into questions.
› Project a copy of the political cartoon, The Plumb-pudding in danger, or, State epicures taking un petit souper.
› Allow each group ve minutes to independently generate as many questions as they can. Ask students to number their
list of questions (1. What is . . . ?, 2. Is this . . . ?, etc.).
WORK WITH CLOSED AND OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS (10 MINUTES)
› Explain the dierence between closed-ended questions and open-ended questions.
› Closed-ended questions can be answered with a yes, no, or one-word answer.
› Open-ended questions require more explanation and tend to be more thought-provoking questions.
› Ask groups to label their questions as “C” for closed-ended or “O” for open-ended.
› Discuss with students the advantages of closed-ended questions and open-ended questions.
› Ask each group to take one closed-ended question and change it into an open-ended question.
› Ask each group to take one open-ended question and change it into a closed-ended question.
› Discuss the process students chose to accomplish this task. Ask students why they made the changes they did.
› Reinforce with students that this step of the process practices intellectual exibility. The way we phrase questions
aects how they are heard and what responses they receive. Remind students that there are no good or bad
questions.
30
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- - - - - -
- -
OPEN AND CLOSED QUESTIONS
To learn more about open and closed questions, read Amara L. Alexander’s blog post, “Helping Students to Ask
the Right Questions,” on the Teaching with the Library of Congress blog: blogs.loc.gov/
teachers/2020/07/
helping-students-to-ask-the-right-questions/.
REWORK AND PRIORITIZE QUESTIONS, AND THEN REFLECT (20 MINUTES)
› Give students time to review their group’s list. Groups may choose to rework or edit any questions and add them to the
bottom of the list.
› Ask groups to prioritize their list of questions.
› Have each group select three priority questions they feel could guide a research project.
› Allow time for groups to share their priority questions and the rationale for selecting those questions.
› Ask students to reect on the sequence of their questions in their original list. Were their priority questions at the top
of the list or near the end? Why is that?
› Ask students to pause and individually reect on the process in their groups as an exit ticket. Ask students:
› What did you learn?
› What did you notice about the quality of your questions?
ADAPTATIONS
› Students may need additional support during the lesson defining the types of questions that could guide
re
search.
› Heterogeneous groups for this activity can help model brainstorming strategies. During the brainstorming
process, ensure that all students have the opportunity to contribute to the group.
› For additional resources to scaffold the QFT process for students with learning challenges, see “Tips for
Making the QFT Work Well for All Students” at rightquestion.org/resources/tips-making-the-qft-work-
well-for-all-students/.
31
Cartoon, The Plumb-pudding in danger, or, State epicures taking un petit souper, February 26, 1805
James Gillray (engraver)
Library of Congress (2001695072)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001695072/
32
CONDUCTING PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
Often students feel that once they have decided on a research question, they are committed to it and cannot change it. However,
researchers are continually adjusting their questions based on what they uncover. Students should understand that ne-tuning and
adjusting their questions is what expert researchers do.
Similar to using a topic funnel introduced in Skills Spotlight: Narrowing Down a Research Topic, students can use a similar process
to ne-tune their research question. Before they do so, however, it might be helpful for them to do some preliminary research.
Future chapters will focus on practical research techniques using both primary and secondary sources. An initial exploration of the
topic and research question can help students identify whether they have chosen a rich enough research question.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Two, students will survey one or two academic digital sources to determine resources available to them
during their research to help them decide if their research question is suitable or needs revision.
33
ACTIVITY TWO: CONDUCTING PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
ACTIVITY TIME: 45 MINUTES
DIGITAL RESOURCES AND DATABASES
Digital encyclopedia database (accessed through the school or local library). An example is Britannica School.
Digital periodical database (accessed through the school or local library). Examples include ABC-CLIO, ELibrary, Opposing
Viewpoints, Proquest, or SIRS.
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Database Access Instruction Guide
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Determine which databases are available through your school portal or through open access. Familiarize yourself with
how the databases operate and how to search them eectively. Ask for assistance from a librarian or fellow teacher if
needed.
› Make one copy of the Database Access Instruction Guide for each student.
› Teacher Tip: Your school or local public librarian is your best friend. Ask this person to see what students can
access using school or community resources.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
MODELING (20 MINUTES)
› Explain to students the following:
› Developing good research questions is essential to good research.
› As we learn more through research, we will continue to adjust and ne-tune our research question.
› Today we want to do some preliminary research to evaluate our research question.
› Our goal is to nd two secondary sources on our research question using keywords that we generate.
› For example, if my research question was “How did European Imperialism inuence the United States?,” then I might
decide to search using the following keywords: Europe, Napoleonic Wars, and the United States. I would focus my
search from 1803 to 1815.
› Distribute one copy of the Database Access Instruction Guide to each student. Ask each student to complete Part One of
the Database Access Instruction Guide.
› Teacher Tip: Students developed a tentative research question in Activity One of this chapter.
› Choose one student’s tentative research question to model the research process using the keywords that the class
generates.
› In Part Two of the Database Access Instruction Guide, model for students how to access the database and conduct a
search.
› When students nd a potential source in the database, ask the following questions:
› Is this source relevant to my topic? Why or why not?
› Does it t the period that I am studying?
› Is this source worth saving (downloading, printing, etc.) to read in more detail? Why or why not?
› Model a source worth saving and one that would not be relevant to the research topic.
34
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH (25 MINUTES)
› Students will work independently in Part Three.
› Direct students to work with one database to nd a source related to their research question. Monitor to assist students
who struggle.
› Teacher Tip: Based on your students’ level and their research skills, you can either give students free choice of
the databases or direct students to specic databases.
› Repeat the process with a dierent database. Help students evaluate which sources to explore in further depth and
which to ignore.
ADAPTATION
Some databases allow for an advanced search option to sort results or limit results by reading level. If that is
available, teach students how to use this feature to provide preliminary research within their reading level. That
way, they can avoid frustration early in the research process.
35
DATABASE ACCESS INSTRUCTION GUIDE
Part One: Keywords
Write your tentative research question here:
What is the date range for your topic (for example, 1785–1789, 1890–1925, etc.)?
Brainstorm keywords to use when searching this topic:
Part Two: Accessing Databases
Databases are online collections of thousands of articles from newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, and other sources.
Libraries pay a subscription to access them. Some databases contain primary sources, some secondary sources, and others
include both primary and secondary sources.
Digital encyclopedia database (accessed through the school or local library).
An example is Britannica School.
Databases available at our school:
Digital periodical database (accessed through the school or local library).
Examples include ABC-CLIO, ELibrary, Opposing Viewpoints, Proquest, or SIRS.
Databases available at our school:
Notes on How to Access My School Library’s Databases Notes on How to Access My Local Library’s Databases
Searching a database can be a tricky process. If you do not nd what you are looking for in a database, consider the
following strategies:
› If you get too many responses, type in more search terms.
› If you get too few responses, broaden your search terms, or use dierent keywords.
› Not all search results will work. Sometimes you need to look at a source and say no.
Remember to cite your source! Most databases have a “Cite Now” button that will format the correct citation for you in the
format you choose.
36
Part Three: Preliminary Research
Source One
Database where you found this source:
Citation (copy this from the database):
Summary: Write a two-sentence summary of this source.
Evaluation:
Is this source relevant to my topic? Why or why not?
Does this source t the time I am studying?
Is this source worth saving (downloading, printing, etc.)
to read in more detail? Why or why not?
Source Two
Database where you found this source:
Citation (copy this from the database):
Summary: Write a two-sentence summary of this source.
Evaluation:
Is this source relevant to my topic? Why or why not?
Does this source t the time I am studying?
Is this source worth saving (downloading, printing, etc.)
to read in more detail? Why or why not?
37
- -
FINE-TUNING QUESTIONS
Once students have completed some preliminary research, they should be ready to ne-tune their research question. Often,
students start with a question that is either too broad or too narrow. It is essential to evaluate a research question for focus,
feasibility, scope, and value.
› Focus: Is it clear what the student(s) will research? Is it too complicated? Too simplistic? Is it clear to others what the project
will include?
› Feasibility: Is it possible to research the topic in the available time frame? Is it too broad (i.e., the Napoleonic Wars) or too
narrow (i.e., one obscure conict on one day in the American Civil War)? Is research available to support this topic?
› Scope: Does the question have clear parameters (start and end dates)? Is this topic local, national, or international in scope?
› Value: Is this project inherently interesting? Is there value in knowing the answer to the question?
DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION
Note that it is appropriate to evaluate topics based on students’ age and level in a class. A reasonable research question
for an eleventh grade student will most likely be more sophisticated and complicated than one for a sixth grade
student. Teachers can adapt complexity as a key to dierentiating instruction for students and meeting individual needs.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Three, students review each other’s revised research questions in a kinesthetic fashion. Students will be
encouraged to rene their research questions based on focus, feasibility, scope, and value.
38
- -
ACTIVITY THREE: PEER REVIEWING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
ACTIVITY TIME: 20 MINUTES
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Evaluating and Fine-Tuning a Research Question Handout
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Identify a space where students can line up facing each other in parallel lines.
› Make one copy of the Evaluating and Fine-Tuning a Research Question Handout for each student.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
› Review with students the concepts of focus, feasibility, scope, and value related to the research question.
› Distribute the Evaluating and Fine-Tuning a Research Question Handout to each student. Ask each student to write his or
her research question at the top.
› Teacher Tip: It can be helpful for students to have clipboards or notebooks for this activity.
› Explain the peer-review procedure to students:
› They will line up facing each other.
› Students on the left side will read their questions to the person facing them.
› Students on the right side will have two minutes to ask questions about scope, feasibility, focus, and value, while the
students on the left record their comments and suggestions in Part One of the handout.
› After two minutes, roles will reverse. Students on the right will read their questions; students on the left will ask
questions.
› After both students have had a chance to hear questions and get feedback, the rst student on the right will go to the
end of the line, and everyone on the right side will move up one space. Students will repeat the process.
› Allow time for three to ve rounds of feedback.
› Have students return to their seats. Ask them to respond to the reection questions in Part Two of the handout and
make changes to their research question.
› Teacher Tip: Provide teacher feedback to students after they engage in the peer-review process. Many of the
comments you would make may have already been made by peers. That allows you to reinforce feedback (or
oer an alternative if needed).
› Debrief the process by asking:
› How many of you made changes to your research question?
› Did you make changes based on focus, feasibility, scope, or value? Why?
› What did you nd helpful in the peer-review process?
ADAPTATIONS
This exercise can be helpful because students get to stand up, move, and talk to each other. Students can move
from desk to desk or use a speed dating style format if space constraints limit movement.
Some students may need assistance from a paraprofessional, librarian, or teacher to help interpret and
implement peer feedback.
39
EVALUATING AND FINE-TUNING A RESEARCH QUESTION HANDOUT
4
Your Initial Research Question:
Part One: Peer Review
Prompt Questions Feedback from Peer
Focus
› Is it clear what you plan to research?
› Is your question complicated enough not to be
answered with a simple yes or no or a factual
summary?
› Do others understand what you are researching?
Feasibility
› What is the length of your research project? Can you
reasonably complete this project in the allotted time
frame? Is it too big or too small?
› Have you narrowed the topic down to a manageable
sub-topic?
› Is research available to support your topic (books,
articles, websites)?
Scope
› Is your question specic enough? Does it dene time,
place, and population?
› Where did your topic happen? Is it a local, national, or
international event?
Value
› Who would want to know the answer to your
research question?
› Is this an important research question?
This chart is adapted with permission from Paul Henry, “Fine-Tuning Your Research Question Presentation,” Advanced Placement Summer Institute,
Vancouver, Washington, August 2018.
40
4
Part Two: Reflection Questions
› Is your research question focused enough? Why or why not?
› Is your research question feasible for the period of the project? Why or why not?
› Is your research question at the right scope? Does it dene the time, place, and population? Why or why not?
› Is your research question of value? Who would nd it most valuable? What makes you think so?
› What changes are you making to your research question? Write your revised research question here.
› What questions did this activity generate in your mind?
41
IDENTIFYING YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION
For extended research projects, such as a National History Day project, determining an essential research question is crucial as it
will lead to the thesis that drives the entire project. Developing a key research question deserves recognition. Consider marking the
moment with an in-class celebration. This event gives students an ocial launch point for their research and a deadline for making
a decision. While it is important to mark the moment, it is equally important that students understand that their question will continue
to change along the way. As they learn and research, they should continue to adjust and ne-tune their question. That is part of the
research process. So celebrate, but maintain intellectual exibility.
Two critically important components of the research process are now complete. Students have chosen a topic based on their
passion and interest. They have brainstormed various questions about that topic and then narrowed the focus to a research
question that will guide them through a multi-stage research process.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students generate and rene research questions, ask them to reect on the research process:
› What did you accomplish in these activities?
› How can you improve your skills to develop a strong research question?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
Now that students have generated and rened a research question through preliminary research and peer review, they are ready to
begin researching. In Chapter Three, teachers will help students set up a research plan and conduct initial research into their topic.
42
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTION
Cartoon Prints, British. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/british-cartoon-prints/about-this-collection/.
POLITICAL CARTOON
Gillray, James (engraver). The Plumb-pudding in danger, or, State epicures taking un petit souper. Political Cartoon. February 26, 1805.
Library of Congress (2001695072) https://www.loc.gov/item/2001695072/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Political Cartoons and Public Debates. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://loc.gov/classroom-materials/political-cartoons-
and-public-debates.
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLE
Bronson, Po and Ashley Merryman. “The Creativity Crisis.” Newsweek, July 10, 2010. https://www.newsweek.com/creativity-
crisis-74665.
BLOG POST
Alexander, Amara L. “Helping Students Ask the Right Questions.” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog. July 14, 2020. https://
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2020/07/helping-students-to-ask-the-right-questions/.
BOOK
Berger, Warren. The Book of Beautiful QuestionsThe Powerful Questions That Will Help You Decide, Create, Connect, and Lead. London:
Bloomsbury, 2018.
TEACHER CREATED MATERIAL
Henry, Paul. “Fine-Tuning Your Research Question Presentation.” Advanced Placement Summer Institute, Vancouver, Washington.
August 2018.
VIDEO
Berger, Warren. Nurturing the Ability to Question. Video File. Mary 9, 2018. Avenues: The World School. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=P-8nBo1WTf4.
WEBSITES
“Right Question Institute.” https://www.rightquestion.org.
“Teacher’s Guides and Analysis Tool.” Library of Congress. Accessed October 8, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
“Tips for Making the QFT Work Well for All Students.” Right Question Institute. Accessed November 19, 2020. https://rightquestion.
org/resources/tips-making-the-qft-work-well-for-all-students/.
“What is the QFT?” Right Question Institute. Updated 2020. Accessed November 19, 2020. https://rightquestion.org/what-is-the-qft/.
43
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: USING PRIMARY
SOURCES TO CONNECT THE PRESENT TO
THE PAST
Bert the Turtle, featured in Duck and Cover, part of the Library of Congress National Film Registry (1836081).
Many of us have heard those dreaded three words, “history is boring.” Students hear the word history, and their minds often go to
memorizing people, events, and dates. They incorrectly believe that history is not relevant to them or their lives, and they tune out. In
doing so, they miss the opportunity to immerse themselves in stories of people who have gone before us.
The study of history can help students connect the present to the past, learn about challenges and failures, and prepare for the
future. From a teacher’s perspective, the skills taught in history classes allow students to interpret evidence, explore multiple
perspectives, and understand that change and continuity over time are essential.
1
For teachers, it is crucial to help students connect
with history. We do not just study history for those rote skills, but rather to learn about people. When we remind students of the
Peter N. Stearns, “Why Study History?,” American Historical Association, last modied 1998, accessed September 1, 2020. https://www.historians.org/about-aha-
and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study-history-(1998),
44
1
45
human connection in history, we help them see that history is relevant. If they can see these links, they are often drawn into the
discussion and become engaged in the historian’s process.
Getting students invested in history means they are more attentive in class as enthusiastic learners and classroom participants.
Ideally, this will lead them to dig deeper into topics and materials that interest and excite them.
CONNECTING PRIMARY SOURCES TO STUDENT EXPERIENCES
Hearing a song from our past can immediately take us back in time to a particular event or experience, whether happy or sad. This
is what the right primary sources can do for our students, allowing them to tap in emotionally, draw conclusions about a particular
time in history, or make a connection between the past and the present.
For example, today’s student is familiar with viewing safety videos and procedures. It was not any dierent for students in the 1950s
and 1960s, living during the Cold War. Duck and Cover, a Civil Defense lm produced in 1951, is an ideal primary source for connecting
to student experiences. In this short lm, students will recognize similarities and dierences between the safety drills and precautions
they experience today and the one students in the 1950s and the 1960s experienced. To learn more about the history of the lm, read
Jake Hughes’ lm essay for Duck and Cover posted by the Library of Congress National Film Registry at loc.gov/static/programs/
national-lm-preservation-board/documents/duck_cover.pdf.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this rst activity, students will identify the similarities and dierences between their experiences and the
experiences of students living during the Cold War by focusing on the nuclear war safety drills of the 1950s. This
activity uses a source from the past to help students connect with today’s shared experiences.
-
_ _ _ _ _ _
ACTIVITY: THEN AND NOW
ACTIVITY TIME: 35 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Film, Duck and Cover, 1951 (9:28)
United States Oce of Civil Defense and Archer Productions
Library of Congress (01836081)
https://www.loc.gov/item/mbrs01836081/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Duck and Cover Graphic Organizer
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Make one copy of the Duck and Cover Graphic Organizer for each student.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
DUCK AND COVER (25 MINUTES)
› Explain to students that the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 showed the enormous
power of nuclear weapons. Explain that just like today’s students undergo safety drills at school, students in the 1950s
and 1960s drilled to prepare for an atomic bomb blast.
› Distribute the Duck and Cover Graphic Organizer for students to complete as they watch the short lm.
› Explain that the students will complete Part One while watching the lm.
› Play Duck and Cover.
› Provide time for students to respond to Part Two individually.
› Project the Duck and Cover Graphic Organizer on the board. Call on students to share their answers. Discuss student
answers.
› Ask students to complete Part Three of the Duck and Cover Graphic Organizer.
› Lead a conversation after Part Three. What do students want to know more about? Where might they begin a search for
answers?
ADAPTATIONS
A closed caption version of Duck and Cover is available through Wikimedia Commons at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Duck_And_Cover_(1951)_Bert_The_Turtle.webm.
46
DUCK AND COVER GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Film, Duck and Cover, 1951 (9:28)
United States Oce of Civil Defense and Archer Productions
Library of Congress (01836081)
https://www.loc.gov/item/mbrs01836081/
Part One
List ve items in the lm that you
would still see today.
List ve items in the lm that you
would not see today.
List ve words that the narrator
uses that make you pay attention
to the lm.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
47
Part Two
In your own words, what is the message of this lm?
Part Three
As you viewed Duck and Cover, you may have laughed at the “cheesiness” of it. In the 1950s, the duck-and-cover safety drill
was a serious matter. Think carefully about each statement before determining your position.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
Since the creators
intended the lm for
school children, Bert the
Turtle was a good idea.
The purpose of the lm
is to prepare school
children for an atomic
bomb attack.
The narrator’s description
of the atomic bomb as
“very dangerous” is
accurate.
The narrator’s description
of what to do if an attack
occurs is good advice.
The Civil Defense and
lm producers believe the
facts they presented in
the lm.
The purpose of the lm
is propaganda to ease
the minds of parents and
children.
Group Discussion Questions
› What do you think is the purpose of this lm?
› What questions does Duck and Cover generate?
› If you could modernize this safety lm, what changes would you make?
48
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
FILMS
United States Oce of Civil Defense and Archer Productions. Duck and Cover. Film. 1951. Library of Congress (mbrs01836081).
https://www.loc.gov/item/mbrs01836081/.
United States Oce of Civil Defense and Archer Productions. Duck and Cover. Film [with closed captioning]. 1951. Wikimedia
Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duck_And_Cover_(1951)_Bert_The_Turtle.webm.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOG POSTS
Stearns, Peter N. “Why Study History?” American Historical Association. 1998. https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-
membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study-history-(1998).
WEBSITE
Hughes, Jake. “Duck and Cover” National Film Registry, Library of Congress. Accessed October 7, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/static/
programs/national-lm-preservation-board/documents/duck_cover.pdf.
49
CHAPTER THREE: DEVELOPING A
RESEARCH PLAN
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapter Two, students formulated and rened a research question based on their selected topic. This chapter will focus on the
research phase of the inquiry process, where students begin identifying and gathering sources and develop a system to organize
their research.
WHAT IS INQUIRY?
During the 2017–2018 school year, I mentored a group of students who created a National History Day performance on the 1962
Cuban Missile Crisis. They were engaged and invested in the study of their topic. Their initial research question asked why the
John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khruschev administrations refused to compromise, driving their respective nations to the brink of war.
After a few months of research through books, academic databases, government documents, and newspaper articles, the students
agreed upon a thesis. They determined that both leaders headed toward the conict to achieve advantageous strategic and political
positions. The students were condent in their research and thesis and ready to begin writing their performance script.
Then they spoke with an education specialist at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, Massachusetts. After nding
additional primary source material from the library’s archive, my students realized that their initial question was fundamentally
awed. Neither Kennedy nor Khruschev was unwilling to compromise, and neither wanted World War III. Instead, both men made
rational decisions in support of their political and military goals without ever intending to sacrice the lives of millions of people.
As my students learned, historical research by nature is recursive and reective. Inquiry is a recursive practice built on repetition.
What is inquiry? Former American Association of School Librarians President Barbara Stripling denes inquiry as a “process of
active learning that is driven by questioning and critical thinking.” She argues that “inquiry based learning empowers students to
develop deep understandings of academic content and a portfolio of thinking strategies and skills that are essential for lifelong
learning.”
1
Students will not master these skills in one day. Students build these skills over time as they reconsider and reevaluate
their ideas as their research advances.
Practicing and internalizing the inquiry process is an essential step in developing students’ research and argumentation skills.
Barbara Stripling, “Teaching Inquiry with Primary Sources,” Teaching with Primary Sources Quarterly 2, no. 3 (2009): 2–4. https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/
teachers/about-this-program/teaching-with-primary-sources-partner-program/documents/inquiry-learning.pdf.
50
1
51
THE INQUIRY PROCESS
Stripling Model of Inquiry, Library of Congress, 2009
The inquiry process is a powerful tool to undergird student historical research. It is exible, authentic, and complex.
The Stripling Model of Inquiry includes six steps:
› Connect: Students identify prior knowledge on a topic and acquire contextual knowledge.
› Wonder: Students develop focus questions to guide their inquiry of primary sources.
› Investigate: Students use historical thinking skills to interpret primary sources and answer their questions.
› Construct: Students organize and draw conclusions from their primary source interpretations.
› Express: Students employ writing, speaking, visual, and technology skills to create a nal project showcasing their inquiry.
› Reect: Students consider what they learned and analyze their successes and challenges during the inquiry process.
This model is recursive. Students will need many opportunities to practice. Within a long-term project, students will go through the
inquiry process multiple times.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will engage in the Stripling Model of Inquiry using primary sources from the Harlem
Renaissance Primary Source Set at the Library of Congress. They can then apply this process to the topic they are
researching.
52
ACTIVITY ONE: INQUIRY STEP-BY-STEP
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Photograph, New York, New York. Harlem apartment house, May–June 1943
Gordon Parks
Library of Congress (2017851520)
https://loc.gov/item/2017851520/
Photograph, Portrait of Bessie Smith, February 3, 1936
Carl Van Vechten
Library of Congress (2004663578)
https://loc.gov/item/2004663578/
Photograph, Portrait of Langston Hughes, 1943
Gordon Parks
Library of Congress (2017858893)
https://loc.gov/item/2017858893/
Photograph, Portrait of Zora Neale Hurston, April 3, 1938
Carl Van Vechten
Library of Congress (2004663047)
https://loc.gov/item/2004663047/
Poem, “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 1938
James Weldon Johnson
Library of Congress (mfd.51004)
loc.gov/item/mfd.51004/
Poem Draft, “Ballad of Booker T,” May 1, 1941
Langston Hughes
Langston Hughes Collection, Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/mcc.024/
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
The Harlem Renaissance Teacher’s Guide
https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/harlem-renaissance/#teachers-guide
Stripling Model of Inquiry, 2009
https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/teachers/about-this-program/teaching-with-primary-sources-partner-program/
documents/inquiry-learning.pdf
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Student Inquiry Notes
All primary sources below can be accessed through The Harlem Renaissance Primary Source Set (https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/harlem-
renaissance/) or downloaded as part of an ebook (https://books.apple.com/us/book/the-harlem-renaissance/id915938644).
2
53
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Make one copy of Student Inquiry Notes and Historical Context section from the The Harlem Renaissance Teacher’s
Guide for each student.
› Make copies of the Library of Congress primary source sets so that each pair of students will receive one set of sources.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
WHAT IS INQUIRY? (10 MINUTES)
› Project the Stripling Model of Inquiry for students to analyze.
› Ask students what they notice about the owchart: What words stand out? What do the arrows indicate?
› Ask students to brainstorm the meanings of the word “inquiry.”
› Write students’ suggestions on the board. Include all critical terms to create an appropriate denition.
› Explain that students will be practicing historical inquiry, using a process that professional historians employ.
CONNECT (10 MINUTES)
› Distribute one copy of Student Inquiry Notes to each student.
› Review the Student Inquiry Notes with the students. Explain that they will be using Library of Congress primary sources
about the Harlem Renaissance to practice the inquiry process’s six steps.
› Model the “Connect” step of the inquiry process.
› Ask students to discuss previous knowledge regarding the Harlem Renaissance. Is the information based on history
or literature?
› Distribute one copy of the Historical Context section from The Harlem Renaissance Teacher’s Guide to each student.
› Read aloud the Historical Context section from The Harlem Renaissance Teacher’s Guide. Highlight for students the
historical convergence of World War I, the Great Migration, and Black artists who came of age in the early twentieth
century. Direct students to read along and take notes in the “Connect” section of their Student Inquiry Notes.
WONDER, INVESTIGATE, CONSTRUCT, EXPRESS (30 MINUTES)
› Organize chairs so that students can eciently work with partners.
› Distribute one set of primary sources to each pair.
› Direct groups to work through the next four steps of the inquiry process (Wonder, Investigate, Construct, Express).
Remind them to take notes on the Student Inquiry Notes page.
› Set a timer, giving students ve minutes for each step. Explain that when using the Guiding Questions on the Student
Inquiry Notes, they can discuss one, some, or all questions, depending on where the conversation takes their group.
REFLECT (10 MINUTES)
› Bring students back together to discuss the nal step of the inquiry process (Reect).
› Ask students to consider what new questions they want to ask about the Harlem Renaissance.
› Ask students to consider which inquiry skills they need to improve and why.
ADAPTATIONS
› Break up the inquiry process steps so that students focus on one or two steps per day.
› Model each step of the inquiry process using primary sources that are already familiar to students before
asking students to complete the process independently.
54
PRIMARY SOURCE SET A
Photograph, New York, New York. Harlem
apartment house, May–June 1943
Gordon Parks
Library of Congress (2017851520)
https://loc.gov/item/2017851520/
Photograph, Portrait of Bessie Smith, February
3, 1936
Carl Van Vechten
Library of Congress (2004663578)
https://loc.gov/item/2004663578/
55
PRIMARY SOURCE SET B
Poem, “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 1938
James Weldon Johnson
Library of Congress (mfd.51004)
loc.gov/item/mfd.51004/
Photograph, Portrait of Langston Hughes, 1943
Gordon Parks
Library of Congress (2017858893)
https://loc.gov/item/2017858893/
56
PRIMARY SOURCE SET C
Poem Draft, “Ballad of Booker T,” May 1, 1941
Langston Hughes
Langston Hughes Collection, Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/mcc.024/
Photograph, Portrait of Zora Neale Hurston, April 3,
1938
Carl Van Vechten
Library of Congress (2004663047)
https://loc.gov/item/2004663047/
57
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE TEACHER’S GUIDE
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The Harlem Renaissance, also known as the New Negro Movement, was a period of great cultural activity and innovation
among African American artists and writers, one that saw new artists and landmark works appear in the elds of literature,
dance, art, and music. The participants were all ercely individualistic talents, and not all of them saw themselves as being
part of a movement. But in time, writers such as Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes; painters like Jacob Lawrence
and Romare Bearden; and musicians and composers such as Duke Ellington and Bessie Smith became widely known as
members of the Harlem Renaissance.
Much of the foundation of the Harlem Renaissance was laid by earlier generations of African American educators, students,
and intellectuals. In the decades following the Civil War, many racial barriers in education were removed and African
Americans took advantage of the new educational opportunities in great numbers. Dozens of African American colleges and
universities were founded, and African American professors and other intellectuals took increasingly public roles. By the
early 1900s, intellectual leaders like W.E.B. DuBois and James Weldon Johnson were writing, lecturing, and being published
in journals such as The Crisis and The Messenger.
At the same time, African Americans were moving in huge numbers from the South to northern industrial cities, like New
York, where they could nd work and escape some of the institutionalized discrimination and mistreatment caused by the
South’s Jim Crow laws. Innovative young African American writers, painters, and musicians began gathering in a number of
neighborhoods in Manhattan, including Harlem and Greenwich Village, working together, developing new ideas, and gaining
national attention in the years after World War I.
Some of the most prominent works created during the Harlem Renaissance were in the eld of literature. Zora Neale
Hurston, Claude McKay, Jean Toomer, and Langston Hughes produced novels, poetry, short stories and memoirs.
Hurston produced important work in a number of elds. An anthropologist and folklorist, she studied with the eminent
anthropologist Franz Boas at Columbia University, and used the music and stories that she collected as a folklorist to inform
her novels, plays, and other books, including Mules and Men and Their Eyes Were Watching God. She also performed music
based on her folkloric research, and has left a number of recordings along with her manuscripts.
Langston Hughes, best known as a poet, also wrote plays, a novel, short stories, and an autobiography. Many of his poems
were set to music by African American composers, and he collaborated with Zora Neale Hurston on a play, Mule Bone . . .
Another artist who achieved great things in a number of elds was the multitalented Paul Robeson. An honor student and
All-American athlete while at Rutgers University, Robeson went on to graduate from Columbia University Law School, and
soon after became a famed concert singer, recording artist and stage and lm actor. He was an impassioned advocate of
political causes, and his performance tours and activism took him around the world.
Harlem was a center for musical and theatrical performance as well as literary work, as musicians drawn by the
neighborhood’s nightlife collaborated with writers, artists, and each other to create original works. Some of this work drew
on musical forms that had grown from the African American experience—gospel, jazz, and blues. Other African American
musicians worked in classical forms. Bessie Smith was a legendary blues singer, Marian Anderson broke ground as a
classical contralto, and Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington took jazz to new levels of innovation.
Eubie Blake was a prolic composer of the Harlem Renaissance, and was one of the creators of the musical revue Shue
Along. This show was written and produced by African Americans, opened in New York in 1921 to great success, ran for one
year in New York, and then toured for an additional two years. The visual arts were also part of the Harlem Renaissance.
Among the best-known artists of the period were Aaron Douglas, Laura Wheeler Waring, Edward Harleston, and the painter
and collage artist Jacob Lawrence.
Adapted from “The Harlem Renaissance Teacher’s Guide,” Library of Congress, accessed September 11, 2020, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-
materials/harlemrenaissance/#teachers-guide.
3
58
STRIPLING MODEL OF INQUIRY
Stripling Model of Inquiry, Library of Congress, 2009
59
STUDENT INQUIRY NOTES
Guiding Questions Student Notes
Connect
What prior knowledge do you
have about the topic?
What knowledge did you
gain about the topic from the
secondary source?
Was this knowledge presented
from a particular point of
view?
What do you nd most exciting
or intriguing? What do you
want to explore further?
Wonder
What questions do you have
about the primary sources?
Investigate
What are the main ideas
communicated by the primary
sources?
What is the point of view of
each source’s author?
Do you see any evidence
to question the sources’
accuracy?
How do the primary sources
complement or conict with
each other?
60
Construct
How do the primary sources
answer your “Wonder”
questions?
Express
Imagine you are creating a
response to one “Wonder”
question that goes beyond a
standard written response.
What would you make? Why?
Reect
What new questions do you
now want to ask about your
topic?
What inquiry skills do you want
to improve?
61
CONDUCTING HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Applying the inquiry process to primary and secondary sources is at the heart of historical research. What is the dierence between
primary and secondary sources?
According to the Library of Congress, primary sources “are the raw materials of history—original documents and objects which
were created at the time under study.” Secondary sources are “accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance
of place and time.”
4
However, research topics can help determine if a source is primary or secondary.
Consider this image:
Charles Gustrine, True Sons of Freedom, 1918. Library of Congress (93503146).
Is this a primary or secondary source? This poster was created in 1918, during World War I. To determine whether the source is
primary or secondary, students need to know the topic of the research project. If the topic was the experiences of African American
soldiers in Europe during World War I, this poster is an idealized image. Further investigation would be needed. If the research
question asked how governments used African Americans’ heroic depictions to generate support for the war, this would clearly be a
primary source from World War I.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 18, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/. 4
62
As your students begin to locate primary and secondary sources, use a research plan to help them stay organized and promote
thoughtful work.
5
A research plan will help students plan a strategy—what to research and where to look. A research plan also
encourages students to record these decisions and modify them as they proceed with their research.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Researching without a plan can be inecient and slow. Students will brainstorm research topics, terms, and types
of sources related to their research question in this activity. They will also brainstorm potential places to conduct
research.
J. R. Mergendoller and J. W. Thomas, “Managing Project Based Learning: Principles from the Field,” Buck Institute for Education, 2005: 15. 5
63
ACTIVITY TWO: CREATING A RESEARCH PLAN
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Student Research Plan
› Sample Student Research Plan
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Make one copy of the Student Research Plan for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Decide if students will work individually or in small groups.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PLAN? (20 MINUTES)
› Explain that the next step in historical research involves creating a research plan.
› Discuss the goal of a research plan:
› A research plan allows students to brainstorm keywords and concepts related to their research question.
› A research plan helps students develop a strategy for nding relevant primary and secondary sources.
› Ask a volunteer to share a “Wonder” question from the Student Inquiry Notes they developed in Activity One.
› Lead the class to brainstorm keywords, people, events, places, ideas, or dates useful in searching for information about
the question. Make a list that is visible to the students.
› Lead the class to brainstorm places where they could nd primary and secondary sources. Make a list that is visible to
the students.
RESEARCH PLAN COMPLETION (40 MINUTES)
› Organize students into groups if desired.
› Distribute one Student Research Plan to each student and briey introduce the students to the questions.
› Draw attention to the fact that the last question is open-ended.
› Tell students that they will be developing a Student Research Plan.
› Topic: Harlem Renaissance
› Research Question: How did African Americans dene cultural freedom during the Harlem Renaissance?
› Direct students to work individually or in their groups, referring to the Historical Background handout used in Activity
One.
› Monitor and encourage students to choose terms that are as specic as possible. Encourage students to consider using
synonyms.
› Lead a classroom discussion once students have had sucient time to complete their plan, using the Sample Student
Research Plan as your guide.
› Remind students that research and inquiry are recursive and reective. They will be returning to and editing their
research plan as they move through the research process.
64
STUDENT RESEARCH PLAN
Topic:
Research Question:
What are some important keywords, events, ideas, dates, and people related to your topic? These words will help you
search for information. Remember to double-check your spelling.
What kind of secondary sources will be helpful in your research? Check the types of sources you will search for below.
List your own as well.
book database article website academic journal
documentary lm biographies textbook newspaper articles
What kind of primary sources will be helpful in your research? Check the types of sources you will search for below.
List your own as well.
newspaper articles diary/journal government documents photographs
speeches autobiographies material objects sheet music/song lyrics
lms letters eyewitness interviews legal records
Where can you nd these secondary and primary sources?
65
STUDENT RESEARCH PLAN
Topic: The Harlem Renaissance
Research Question: How did African Americans dene cultural freedom during the Harlem Renaissance?
What are some important keywords, events, ideas, dates, and people related to your topic? These words will help you
search for information. Remember to double-check your spelling.
New Negro Harlem 1920s Langston Hughes
Bessie Smith Zora Neale Hurston James Weldon Johnson Carl Van Vechten
Great Migration Jazz Blues New York City
What kind of secondary sources will be helpful in your research? Check the types of sources you will search for below.
List your own as well.
book database article website academic journal
documentary lm biographies textbook newspaper articles
museum guides exhibition materials literary analysis museum blog
What kind of primary sources will be helpful in your research? Check the types of sources you will search for below.
List your own as well.
newspaper articles diary/journal government documents photographs
speeches autobiographies material objects sheet music/song lyrics
lms letters eyewitness interviews legal records
poems
short stories and
novels music recordings paintings
Where can you nd these secondary and primary sources?
Student answers will vary.
66
- = _
- -
IDENTIFYING PRIMARY SOURCES FOR RESEARCH
Primary sources are the essential building blocks of historical research. They help us have a sense of immediacy and closeness to
the past. Primary sources also provide the evidence with which students can construct their historical arguments.
Types of primary sources include newspaper articles, letters, speeches, government documents, photographs, oral histories, material
artifacts, and documentary footage.
ROVAR is one tool to determine the reliability of primary sources.
6
R - Is the source reliable? Was it created during the time of study? Did the creator have direct knowledge of the topic?
O - What is the origin of the source? Is this the original version?
V - Is the source valid? Is it cited and quoted by others? Is it useful for your particular topic?
A - Is the source accurate? Does it line up with generally accepted knowledge or explain discrepancies?
R - Is the source directly relevant to the research topic?
Students often struggle to nd primary sources using search engines. How can students identify and access diverse primary
sources, such as newspaper articles, government records, visual material, oral histories, and others?
7
PRIMARY SOURCES AT THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
The Library of Congress is a treasure trove of primary sources for student use. In addition to its large (and expanding)
digital collection, the Library oers Primary Source Sets for classroom use (loc.gov/classroom materials/?fa partof
type:primary+source+set). Another great resource is the Free to Use and Reuse Sets. These are digitized items on a
wide variety of topics (loc.gov/free to use).
“ASK A LIBRARIAN” AT THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
At the Library of Congress, students can take advantage of the “Ask a Librarian” feature. Students can direct their
questions to librarians with expertise in a specic focus area, program, source format, source language, or region.
Some departments also oer a “Chat with a Librarian” feature. Learn more at ask.loc.gov/.
7
IDENTIFYING SECONDARY SOURCES FOR RESEARCH
Secondary sources were created by someone who did not participate in the event. However, secondary sources use primary
sources by analyzing, critiquing, reporting, summarizing, interpreting, or restructuring the data. For historical research, secondary
sources are generally scholarly books and articles. A secondary source aims to help build the historical research from multiple
perspectives and give historical research context.
8
An example of a secondary source on the Harlem Renaissance is Angela Y. Davis’s Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude “Ma”
Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday. Davis explores a working-class perspective on the Harlem Renaissance, contrasting classic
blues artists’ sensibilities with their middle-class Harlem Renaissance peers.
9
It is essential to help students understand that not all secondary sources carry equal weight. SOCCA is one way to judge the
reliability of secondary sources.
10
6 Historical Argumentation Webinar Series: Historical Thinking Skills (Webinar #1), National History Day, updated July 8, 2020, accessed September 15, 2020, https://www.
nhd.org//library-congress-tps.
7 “Ask a Librarian Service,” Library of Congress, accessed November 20, 2020. https://ask.loc.gov/.
8 “How to Create an NHD Project,” National History Day, last modied 2018, accessed September 15, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/how-enter-contest.
9 Angela Y. Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998).
10 Historical Argumentation Webinar Series: Historical Thinking Skills (Webinar #1).
67
- - - - - -
- -
S - Is the source suitable for the research topic?
O - Is the source objective? Does it consider multiple perspectives?
C - Is the source credible? Does it have a bibliography? Does it have footnotes or endnotes from recognized sources?
C - Is the source part of the current scholarship?
A - Is the source written by an authority in the eld?
With the assistance of a sound library and online databases, students can successfully access relevant and reliable secondary
sources for their historical research.
11
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS RESOURCES
The Library of Congress integrates several types of secondary sources into its collections. Students can nd short and
accessible secondary sources in the Library of Congress blogs, exhibition narratives, research guides, collection guides,
and teacher’s guides. For example, the blog post “Celebrating Bessie Smith: Empress of the Blues” (blogs.lo
c.gov/
music/2018/04/celebrating-bessie-smith-empress-of-the-blues/) includes biographical and musical background on
blues artist Bessie Smith.
11
The Library also maintains a Today in History digital collection (loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/) connecting
events
from a calendar date to resources to learn more. See Chapter Four for a more in-depth look at the type of
secondary sources available through the Library of Congress and strategies to use them with your students.
ORGANIZING AND CITING RESEARCH
Remember that research and inquiry are recursive and reective. Students will most likely complete multiple rounds of primary and
secondary source research while updating their research plan. They will be conducting these tasks simultaneously, and they will
need help developing organizational systems. At the same time, we want to emphasize the importance of ethical research, including
accurate citations and original student work.
Many free, easy-to-use programs can help students keep track of their research sources, create citations and bibliographies, and
organize their research notes. Paid versions of these programs typically include more collaborative features, individualized citation
help, and built-in note-taking capabilities.
Collaborative digital platforms are also useful for group research, providing students with an easy way to collect and share research.
Collaborative platforms have the added benet of allowing teachers to track student contributions to a group project.
Students need to develop a system, on paper or in a digital format, that allows them to gather, organize, and track the source of their
information. Students are often good at gathering research but then struggle with processing the sources’ information. Before diving
into their independent research projects, practicing these skills is crucial.
11 Cait Miller, “Celebrating Bessie Smith: ‘Empress of the Blues,’ ” In the Muse: Performing Arts Blog, Library of Congress, last modied April 30, 2018, accessed
September 15, 2020. https://blogs.loc.gov/music/2018/04/celebrating-bessie-smith-empress-of-the-blues/.
68
- -
-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
-
CITATIONS
Students need to learn the most accurate and up to date methods of citing sources. Historians cite their work using the
Chicago Manual of Style. Teachers should model the way to cite sources using the proper format.
Helpful Resources include:
National History Day’s Annotated Bibliography Resource
nhd.org/annotated-bibliography
Chicago Style Introduction
Purdue Online Writing Lab, Purdue University
owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/chicago_style_introduction.html
Note that Library of Congress item records include a drop down box called “Cite This Item,” which contains generated
bibliographic references.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Three, students will practice completing source cards for a primary and secondary source in preparation for
independent research in this activity. Modeling will help students identify what to look for when they nd a source and
create a system to organize their information.
69
ACTIVITY THREE: ORGANIZING AND CITING RESEARCH
ACTIVITY TIME: 45 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Playbill, MacBeth, April 1936
William Shakespeare (author) and Orson Welles (director)
Library of Congress (musftpplaybills.200221050.0)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/musftpplaybills.200221050.0
SECONDARY SOURCE
Wendy Smith, “The Play That Electried Harlem,” 1996
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/collections/federal-theatre-project-1935-to-1939/articles-and-essays/play-that-electried-harlem/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Research Notecard
› Research Notecard–Secondary Source Sample
› Research Notecard–Primary Source Sample
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Make two copies of the Research Notecard for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Make one copy of “The Play that Electried Harlem” for each student.
› Make one copy of the MacBeth playbill for each group of students (or distribute electronically).
› Organize students into pairs.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
ANALYZING SOURCES (45 MINUTES)
›
Explain to students that they will model one method to process a research source using two examples from the Library
of Congress.
›
Distribute two copies of the Research Notecard to each student.
›
Teacher Tip: These can be made into templates if using an online organizational system or used as traditional
worksheets.
›
Distribute the article, “The Play That Electried Harlem,” and allow students time to read.
›
Work with the class to complete a Research Notecard together. Compare the class’s notecard to the Research Notecard -
Secondary Source Sample.
›
Distribute the MacBeth playbill to each group of students.
›
Allow students time to analyze the source and complete the second Research Notecard.
›
Project the Research Notecard–Primary Source Sample and ask students to compare their work to the sample.
›
Lead a recap discussion:
›
Do you prefer to organize your research on paper or in an electronic format? Why?
›
How could this method help keep your research organized?
›
How can investing time in this process make creating your nal product easier?
70
RESEARCH NOTECARD TEMPLATE
Title of Source Primary Secondary (check one)
Citation Information URL (if any)
Page Number(s) (if any)
Text
› List four to six important quotations. You MUST
include quotation marks and a page number (if
applicable).
› Highlight the main ideas and vocabulary.
Summary
› Explain it to yourself in words you understand
› Look back at the quotes—got it all?
› Include ve to seven bullet points to summarize this
source.
Analysis
› What is the point of view of the author?
› Do you see any evidence to question the source’s
accuracy?
› How does this source complement or conict with
others you have read?
› What additional question does this source generate?
What can you follow up on?
› How does this source help you answer or modify
your research question?
71
RESEARCH NOTECARD
Title of Source Primary Secondary (check one)
Citation Information URL (if any)
Page Number(s) (if any)
Text Summary
Analysis
72
RESEARCH NOTECARD – SAMPLE SECONDARY SOURCE
Title of Source
The Play that Electried Harlem
Primary Secondary (check one)
Citation Information
Author: Wendy Smith
Source: Library of Congress
Type of Source: article
Title: “The Play that Electried Harlem”
Updated: 1996
Accessed: September 12, 2020
URL (if any)
https://www.loc.gov/collections/federal-theatre-
project-1935-to-1939/articles-and-essays/play-that-
electried-harlem/
Page Number(s) (if any)
n/a
Text
› “Every one of the Lafayette’s 1,223 seats was taken;
scalpers were getting $3 for a pair of 40-cent tickets.
The lobby was so packed people couldn’t get to their
seats; the curtain, announced for 8:45, didn’t rise until
9:30.”
› “The ‘Voodoo Macbeth,’ as this all-black version set
in 19th century Haiti came to be called, was notable
on several counts. It was one of four Manhattan
premieres in the spring of 1936 that solidied the
shaky reputation of the Federal Theater Project,
the most controversial of the Works Progress
Administration’s arts programs. (The project had
been under re since its founding in August 1935
for spending taxpayers’ money on salaries without
actually providing much theater for the public to
see.) Macbeth launched the meteoric directing career
of Orson Welles, not yet 21 when it opened, who
would go on to astonish New York theatergoers with
several more bold stage productions before departing
for Hollywood in 1939. It gave African-American
performers, usually restricted to dancing and singing
for white audiences, a chance to prove they were
capable of tackling the classics.”
› “The Voodoo Macbeth certainly cast a spell
over audiences, which did not share the critics’
reservations. It ran for 10 sold-out weeks at the
Lafayette, then moved downtown for a 10-day run
at the Adelphi Theatre before going on tour to FTP
theaters in Bridgeport, Hartford, Dallas, Indianapolis,
Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland and Syracuse.”
› “When the tour was over, Macbeth had netted
$14,000 - and spent $97,000.”
Summary
› The play was very popular but did not manage to
make a prot.
› The show began in Harlem, but then played to
audiences across the nation.
› Most of the actors were amateurs, and the rehearsal
process was a challenge.
› The show was created under the Federal Theater
Project and directed by Orson Wells (famous for his
radio work).
› Includes images of costume sketches and
photographs.
› Refers to a New York Times review of the play–maybe
I can nd that.
› The article was initially published in Civilization
magazine and was selected to be re-printed on the
Library of Congress website.
Analysis
› How did the other productions compare to this one?
› Maybe I should narrow my research question to,
“How did black theater dene cultural freedom during
the Harlem Renaissance?”
73
RESEARCH NOTECARD TEMPLATE – SAMPLE PRIMARY SOURCE
Title of Source:
MacBeth
Primary Secondary (check one)
Citation Information
Author: William Shakespeare
Director: Orson Wells
Source: Library of Congress
Type of Source: playbill
Date: April 1936
Accessed: September 12, 2020
URL (if any)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/
musftpplaybills.200221050.0/?sp=1
Page Number(s) (if any)
1–2
Text
› The Federal Theater was part of the Works Progress
Administration (WPA), a New Deal relief program.
› This production featured an African American cast
(they use the term “West Indian”) and orchestra
› The play ran at the New Lafayette Theater
› 9 p.m. curtain
› Tickets ranged from 15-40 cents
› Music included a traditional spiritual
Summary
› Macbeth was a 1936 production of the Federal
Theatre Project Negro Unit.
› Performed in Harlem’s New Lafayette Theatre.
› Ticket prices were kept low to meet the Federal
Theatre Project’s goal of accessible theater.
› “West Indian” production featured an African
American cast.
› The review indicates an enthusiastic public response.
Analysis
› MacBeth follows the Harlem Renaissance tradition
of creating black art for black audiences in black
neighborhoods.
› I wonder how many performances the Federal
Theatre Project Negro Unit created and performed?
In which cities? How did audiences receive the
performances?
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students develop a research plan, ask them to reect on the research process:
› What did you accomplish in these activities?
› How can you improve your skills to develop a strong research plan?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
This chapter helped students explore their topics and research questions, identify where to nd sources, and create a research plan
and organization strategy. The next few chapters will dive into how to identify, locate, and use secondary and primary sources from
the Library of Congress in research projects.
74
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITIZED COLLECTION
Free to Use and Reuse Sets. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/free-to-use.
Today in History. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Parks, Gordon. New York, New York apartment house. Photograph. May-June 1943. Library of Congress
(2017851520). https://www.loc.gov/item/2017851520/.
Parks, Gordon. Portrait of Langston Hughes. Photograph. 1943. Library of Congress (2017858893).
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017858893/.
Van Vechten, Carl. Portrait of Bessie Smith. February 1936. Library of Congress (2004663578).
https://www.loc.gov/item/2004663578/.
Van Vechten, Carl. Portrait of Zora Neale Hurston. April 1938. Library of Congress (2004663047).
https://www.loc.gov/item/2004663047/.
POEM
Hughes, Langston. Drafts of Langston Hughes’s poem “Ballad of Booker T.” Poem draft. May 30, 1941. Library of Congress.
https://www.loc.gov/item/mcc.024/.
Johnson, James Weldon. “Lift Every Voice and Sing.” Poem. 1938. Library of Congress (2017770163).
https://www.loc.gov/item/mfd.51004/.
PRINTS
Gustrine, Charles. “True Sons of Freedom.” Print. 1918. Library of Congress (93503146).
https://www.loc.gov/item/93503146/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
The Harlem Renaissance. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/harlem-renaissance/.
TEXTUAL
Shakespeare, William (author), and Orson Welles (director). MacBeth. Playbill. 1936. Library of Congress
(musftpplaybills.200221050.0). https://www.loc.gov/item/musftpplaybills.200221050/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLES
Stripling, Barbara. “Teaching Inquiry with Primary Sources.” Teaching with Primary Sources Quarterly 2, no. 3 (2009): 2–4.
https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/teachers/about-this-program/teaching-with-primary-sources-partner-program/documents/
inquiry-learning.pdf.
Mergendoller, J. R. and J. W. Thomas. “Managing Project Based Learning: Principles from the Field.” Buck Institute for Education,
2005. http://www.dr-hateld.com/science_rules/articles/Managing%20Project%20Based%20Learning.pdf.
75
BLOG
Miller, Cait. “Celebrating Bessie Smith: ‘Empress of the Blues.’ ” Muse: Performing Arts Blog. Library of Congress. April 30, 2018.
https://blogs.loc.gov/music/2018/04/celebrating-bessie-smith-empress-of-the-blues/.
BOOKS
Davis, Angela Y. Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday. New York: Pantheon Books,
1998.
The Harlem Renaissance. Library of Congress. Apple Books. https://books.apple.com/us/book/the-harlem-renaissance/id915938644.
VIDEO
Historical Argumentation Webinar Series: Historical Thinking Skills (Webinar #1). National History Day. Updated July 8, 2020. Accessed
September 15, 2020. https://www.nhd.org//library-congress-tps.
WEBSITES
“Annotated Bibliography.” National History Day. Accessed September 11, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/annotated-bibliography.
“Ask a Librarian Service.” Library of Congress. Last accessed November 18, 2020. https://ask.loc.gov.
“Chicago Style Introduction.” Purdue Online Writing Lab, Purdue University. Accessed September 11, 2020. https://owl.purdue.edu/
owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/chicago_style_introduction.html.
“Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/
classroom-materials/?fa=partof_type:primary+source+set.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 18, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/teachers/
usingprimarysources/.
“How to Create an NHD Project.” National History Day. Last modied 2018. Accessed September 15, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/
how-enter-contest.
Smith, Wendy. “The Play That Electried Harlem.” Library of Congress. Updated 1996. Last accessed September 2, 2020.
https://www.loc.gov/collections/federal-theatre-project-1935-to-1939/articles-and-essays/play-that-electried-harlem/.
76
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY SOURCES
An American Red Cross nurse treats wounded soldiers at a railroad station in Saint-Étienne, France, July 1918. Library of Congress
(2016645646).
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY?
Historians examine evidence to make sense of the past. They draw upon both primary and secondary sources when constructing
interpretations. Primary sources are “the raw materials of history—original documents and objects created at the time under study.”
1
Primary sources are the undigested bits of history.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-
primary-sources/.
77
1
78
Secondary sources “retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place.”
2
They include essays, journal articles,
books, or blog posts. Historians often analyze and draw conclusions using secondary sources.
Before students can be independent researchers, they need to understand the dierence between primary and secondary sources.
The following activity will allow students to practice that skill and discuss the times when a primary source might become a
secondary source and vice versa.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will work in pairs to examine sources, identify each as primary or secondary, and explain their
classications.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” 2
79
ACTIVITY ONE: PRIMARY OR SECONDARY?
ACTIVITY TIME: 35 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Audio Recording, Address by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. / United War Work Campaign Committee, 1918 [0:00-0:40]
John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
Library of Congress (201665164)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016655164/
Diary, Diary of Harry Frieman, 1917 (excerpt)
Harry Frieman
Veterans History Project, Library of Congress (AFC/2001/001/23600)
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.afc2001001.23600/
Photograph, American Red Cross nurse at the railroad station at St. Etienne, helping wounded soldiers on to the tram cars which are
being used as ambulances, July 1918
Library of Congress (2016645646)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016645646/
SECONDARY SOURCES
Blog Post, “World War I: The Women’s Land Army,” March 26, 2018
Ryan Reft
Library of Congress
https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/03/world-war-i-the-womens-land-army/
Book, A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1, 1923 (excerpt)
Colonel Charles Roscoe Howland
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00howl_1/page/22/mode/2up
Video, Mary Dudziak, A Bullet in the Chamber: The Politics of Catastrophe & the Declaration of World War I, September 25, 2015
[7:42-9:40]
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-7140/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Primary or Secondary Chart
Primary or Secondary Chart Answer Key
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Make one copy of the Primary or Secondary Chart for each student.
› Print one copy of the Primary or Secondary Chart Answer Key for teacher use.
› Test all online resources before class.
80
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES (5 MINUTES)
› Discuss the dierences between a primary source and a secondary source.
RECOGNIZING WHEN A SOURCE IS PRIMARY OR SECONDARY (30 MINUTES)
› Distribute the Primary or Secondary Chart to each student.
› Project each source on the chart to the class.
› Walk students through each source. Ask them to view or listen to the sources independently and mark on their chart
whether the source is primary or secondary.
› Ask students to share answers with their partner, to discuss their answers, and, if dierent, to provide evidence to
support their own decisions on their chart.
› Continue through each source allowing time for student pairs to discuss their ndings before writing their
explanations.
› Help students notice that both primary and secondary sources take various forms: articles, audio les, blog posts,
books, diaries, photographs, and videos.
› Lead a short class discussion:
› Ask students how primary and secondary sources work together to provide a deeper understanding of a topic.
› Ask students if a source can be both primary and secondary. Under what circumstances could the same source be
both primary and secondary?
› Why are primary and secondary sources important to the research process?
› Teacher Tip: Teachers should encourage students to consider how primary and secondary sources work
together.
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY?
The distinction between primary and secondary sources is not as straightforward as it may seem. A source
may be considered primary in one research context but secondary in another research context. For a research
project about Americans’ experience in the First World War, C. R. Howland’s book would most likely be
considered a secondary source. The author published A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1, in 1923. Howland
oers an overview of the war and his analysis based on primary sources. However, if the research project
focused on how interpretations of the First World War causes have changed over time, Howland’s book would
be considered a primary source. Lead a class discussion to help students see that it’s not always clear whether
sources are primary or secondary.
Cheryl Lederle, Educational Resource Specialist at the Library of Congress, suggests paying close attention to
how a source is used in research. “Instead of asking whether a particular object is a primary source, it might be
more useful to ask when that artifact would be a primary source.”
3
For students conducting research, correctly
classifying their sources is less important than appreciating how each source contributes to their understanding
of a topic. Students should explain how they used each source in their annotated bibliography. Thorough
research includes an extensive investigation into both primary and secondary sources.
3
›
3 Cheryl Lederle, “What Makes a Primary Source a Primary Source?” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog, updated October 4, 2011, accessed July
14, 2020. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/10/what-makes-a-primary-source-a-primary-source/.
81
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY CHART
Directions: The following sources are related to Americans’ experiences in the First World War (1914–1918). Examine each
source and determine if it is a primary or secondary source. Briey explain your classication in the last column.
Source Type of
Source
Primary or
Secondary?
Explanation
Audio Recording, Address by John D. Rockefeller,
Jr. / United War Work Campaign Committee, 1918
[0:00-0:40]
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016655164/
audio
recording
Blog Post, “World War I: The Women’s Land
Army,” March 26, 2018
https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/03/world-war-i-
the-womens-land-army/
blog post
Book, A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1,
1923
Colonel Charles Roscoe Howland
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/
militaryhistoryo00howl_1/page/22/mode/2up
book
Diary, Diary of Harry Frieman, 1917 (page one)
Veterans History Project, Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.
afc2001001.23600/
diary
Photograph, American Red Cross nurse at the
railroad station at St. Etienne, helping wounded
soldiers on to the tram cars which are being used as
ambulances, July 1918
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016645646/
photograph
Video, A Bullet in the Chamber: The Politics of
Catastrophe & the Declaration of World War I,
September 25, 2015 [7:42-9:40]
https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-7140/
video
Select One
82
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY CHART ANSWER KEY
Directions: The following sources are related to Americans’ experiences in the First World War (1914–1918). Examine each
source and determine if it is a primary or secondary source. Briey explain your classication in the last column.
Source Type of
Source
Primary or
Secondary?
Explanation
Audio Recording, Address by John D. Rockefeller,
Jr. / United War Work Campaign Committee, 1918
[0:00-0:40]
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016655164/
audio
recording
primary This audio recording was
created during the period
under investigation. It is a
piece of “raw” material.
Blog Post, “World War I: The Women’s Land
Army,” March 26, 2018
https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/03/world-war-i-
the-womens-land-army/
blog post secondary This blog post was
written by a historian
long after the period
under investigation. The
historian draws on many
sources to support his
interpretation.
Book, A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1,
1923
Colonel Charles Roscoe Howland
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/
militaryhistoryo00howl_1/page/22/mode/2up
book primary or
secondary
The publication date for
this book is after the war
ends. However, the author
is a military ocer with
direct knowledge. More
information is needed.
Diary, Diary of Harry Frieman, 1917 (page one)
Veterans History Project, Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.
afc2001001.23600/
diary primary This was an eyewitness
account, and Frieman
wrote the diary in 1917.
Photograph, American Red Cross nurse at the
railroad station at St. Etienne, helping wounded
soldiers on to the tram cars which are being used as
ambulances, July 1918
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016645646/
photograph primary This photograph was
taken during the period
under investigation. It is a
piece of “raw” evidence.
The photograph has not
been analyzed for us.
Video, A Bullet in the Chamber: The Politics of
Catastrophe & the Declaration of World War I,
September 25, 2015 [7:42-9:40]
https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-7140/
video secondary In this webcast, historians
look back on the First
World War. They discuss
their interpretations
based on primary source
research.
83
Diary, Diary of Harry Frieman, 1917 (excerpt)
Harry Frieman
Veterans History Project, Library of Congress (AFC/2001/001/23600)
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.afc2001001.23600/
84
Photograph, American Red Cross nurse at the railroad station at St. Etienne, helping wounded soldiers on to the tram cars which are
be
ing used as ambulances, July 1918
Library of Congress (2016645646)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016645646/
›
85
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
AUDIO RECORDING
Rockefeller, Jr. John D. Address by J.D. Rockefeller Jr. / United War Word Campaign. Audio Recording. 1918. Library of Congress
(2016655164). https://www.loc.gov/item/2016655164/.
BOOKS
Howland, Colonel Charles Roscoe. A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1. Fort Leavenworth: The General Service Schools Press,
1923. Library of Congress (23014956). https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00howl_1/page/22/mode/2up.
DIARY
Frieman, Harry. Diary of Harry Frieman. Veterans History Project, Library of Congress (AFC/2001/001/23600). http://memory.loc.
gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.afc2001001.23600/.
PHOTOGRAPHS AND POSTERS
American Red Cross nurse at the railroad station at St. Etienne, helping wounded soldiers on to the tram cars which are being used
as ambulances, July. France Loire, 1918. Photograph. July 1918. Library of Congress (2016645646). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2016645646/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOGS AND BLOG POSTS
Lederle, Cheryl. “What Makes a Primary Source a Primary Source?” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog. October 4, 2011.
https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/10/what-makes-a-primary-source-a-primary-source/.
LECTURES
Dudziak, Mary. A Bullet in the Chamber: The Politics of Catastrophe & the Declaration of World War I. Video. September 25, 2015. https://
www.loc.gov/item/webcast-7140/.
WEBSITES
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/.
CHAPTER FOUR: USING SECONDARY
SOURCES IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
Now that students have developed a research question and an inquiry plan, it is time to shift into the research phase of the project.
While students are often excited to dive into primary source research, it is important that students understand basic timelines, key
players, and major trends. Secondary sources are a vital step in the process. While the process will be more cyclical once students
nd their historical footing, they need secondary sources to ground their research. This chapter will explain what secondary
sources are and the vital role they play in the research process.
WHAT ARE SECONDARY SOURCES?
Historians examine evidence to make sense of the past. They draw upon both primary and secondary sources when constructing
interpretations. Primary sources are remnants from the past, but secondary sources are history. Primary sources are “the raw
materials of history—original documents and objects created at the time under study.”
1
Primary sources are the undigested bits of
history.
Secondary sources are documents from a time and place after the event that help historians analyze and draw conclusions.
Secondary sources “retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place.”
2
They are often published as essays,
journal articles, books, or blog posts.
WHY ARE SECONDARY SOURCES IMPORTANT?
Secondary sources provide researchers with important context for their topics. Researchers use secondary sources to explain
broader events and people who may have aected the subject under investigation. For guidance on identifying and selecting reliable
secondary sources, please refer to Chapter Eight.
Secondary sources oer dierent and sometimes conicting perspectives and meanings derived from primary sources. Historians
consult books, articles, and essays to determine what has already been written about a topic. While reading secondary sources,
researchers might nd unanswered questions. They may uncover events and people who are worthy of further investigation.
Researchers become detectives who might uncover an interpretation of the past that could be challenged with new evidence.
Teachers need to decide when to introduce primary sources independently, providing little or no historical context, and when to
introduce primary sources after students have basic knowledge on which to build. Introducing just a primary source can spark
student interest and inquiry at the beginning of a new unit of study, and leave students eager to ask questions and learn more.
Sometimes this approach can open students’ minds to seeing more details and more possibilities. Students may generate more
interesting questions about a source, which can focus their reading and understanding of a secondary source presented later. Once
students begin to research and formulate a historical argument, the context provided by secondary sources is crucial to understand
the evidence primary sources provide.
1 “Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-
primary-sources/.
2 “Getting Started with Primary Sources.”
86
-
RESEARCHER TIP
This chapter features sources from World War I. When searching a topic like this, remind students to use dierent
names as they search. Using terms like World War I, the First World War, or the Great War can produce a more
comprehensive array of sources than limiting the search to one keyword. Note that more modern terms or
abbreviations (such as WWI) might not be as successful.
USING SECONDARY SOURCES TO ESTABLISH HISTORICAL
CONTEXT
Historical context is the information that we need to know to understand historical evidence or a historical interpretation. Context
provides the answers to the fundamental questions of who, what, when, and where of a historical event. We can think of historical
context as the setting. We might be lost if we begin reading a novel in the middle or walk into a movie theater halfway through a lm.
We rely on an author or lmmaker to introduce the main characters that set us in a particular time and place.
3
Similarly, historians must set the scene from the past for their research. Historical context denes the scope of research, indicating,
for example, that the project examines a single event, a process that stretched over many years, or the lifetime of a specic
individual. Furthermore, it can explain the economic, geographic, political, and social conditions surrounding a specic historical
event.
Students should be able to explain the signicance of when and where an event occurred. Sources created in times of war are
dierent from those created in times of peace. Sources written or drawn in the sixteenth century will dier from those made in the
twentieth century. By describing the context of their research topic, students should demonstrate how the past was dierent from
today and what has changed over time.
Secondary sources can provide much of the context for historical research. There are several tools to help students manage
contextual information. Teachers may be familiar with cluster or web organizers, where students place their research topic in the
center, then ll in surrounding spaces with relevant information.
4
Another tool used in the activity below is the Big C, Little c Graphic
Organizer.
5
“Big C” refers to broad trends and conditions that inuenced the topic under investigation. “Little c” refers to the specic
events and people that directly aected the topic. Students can use these tools to organize contextual information for their entire
research project to analyze primary source evidence.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity One, students will analyze a primary source. Students will then read a secondary source and re analyze the
primary source using this new information. Then they will discuss what they saw dierently after putting the primary
source into historical context, what questions were answered, and what new questions they generated.
3 The movie analogy is more fully developed in a lesson from History Day in Minnesota. “Lesson: Research - Historical Context,” National History Day in Minnesota,
accessed August 2, 2020. https://www.mnhs.org/historyday/teachers/curriculum-and-timeline/teacher-framework.
4 For an example worksheet in this style, see “Worksheet: Historical Context,” National History Day in Minnesota, accessed August 2, 2020. https://www.mnhs.org/
historyday/teachers/curriculum-and-timeline/teacher-framework.
5 Developed by National History Day.
87
ACTIVITY ONE: MAKING SENSE OF THE PAST WITH CONTEXTUAL
INFORMATION
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Poster, Future Ship Workers A One-Armed Welder, 1919
American Red Cross Red Cross Institute for Crippled and Disabled Men and the Red Cross Institute for the Blind
Library of Congress (00651580)
https://www.loc.gov/item/00651580/
SECONDARY SOURCE
Blog Post, “World War I: Injured Veterans and the Disability Rights Movement,” December 21, 2017
Ryan Reft
Library of Congress
https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2017/12/world-war-i-injured-veterans-and-the-disability-rights-movement/
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
Primary Source Analysis Tool
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
Teacher’s Guide Analyzing Primary Sources
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
Teacher’s Guide, World War I Primary Source Set
https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/world-war-i/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIAL
“Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer
“Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer Answer Key
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Test all online resources before class
› Make one copy of the following for each student:
› Blog post, “World War I Injured Veterans and the Disability Rights Movement”
› Teacher’s Guide, World War I Primary Source Set
› Primary Source Analysis Tool
› “Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer
› Print one copy of the “Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer Answer Key for teacher use.
› Select questions from the Analyzing Primary Sources Teacher’s Guide to focus and direct student engagement with the
primary sources.
88
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
ANALYZING CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION FROM A PRIMARY SOURCE (30 MINUTES)
› Organize chairs so that students can eciently work with partners.
› Distribute the Library of Congress Primary Source Analysis Tool. If this is the rst time students are using the Primary
Source Analysis Tool. If this is the rst time students are using the Primary Source Analysis Tool, model how to use it
with a primary source selected from the World War I Primary Source Set.
› Observe: note all the details that are present. Look for people, objects, colors, and words.
› Reect: evaluate the meaning, purpose, and audience of this source.
› Question: identify what information remains unknown about this source.
› Teacher Tip: If students are unfamiliar with the Primary Source Analysis Tool, see the model in Chapter Six.
› Project the poster, Future Ship Workers A One-Armed Welder. Do not introduce the source or provide any historical context.
› Ask students to complete a think-pair-share for each step of the primary source analysis. Each student should note
observations, share with their partner, then share with the class. Teachers should compile a class-generated set of
responses for each category. Teachers can refer to the Primary Source Analysis Guide for question prompts.
› Teacher Tip: Use this article to help students see how language has changed over time. While the term
“crippled” was used in the primary source, remind students that they should use modern terminology of a
person with a disability when discussing the source.
› Discuss questions that students still have about the source (Examples may include: When was this poster made? Who is
pictured in the poster? Why are these men in New York City?)
› Discuss why these unanswered questions are essential and need to be answered. Ask students to consider where
they might look for answers to these questions.
ANALYZING CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION FROM A SECONDARY SOURCE (30 MINUTES)
› Distribute the “Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer.
› Explain historical context. The “Big C” represents the broader national and global trends that aect the topic of
investigation. The “Little c” indicates the local and regional events that directly aect the inquiry.
› If this is the rst time students have used this graphic organizer, teachers may want to lead students through a
practice analysis with a familiar historical topic.
› Explain to students that some secondary sources provide general overviews of broad historical trends, while other
secondary sources oer specic details about a particular event or person. Students should use both to explain both the
“Big C” and “Little c” of history in their research.
› Distribute the blog post, “World War I: Injured Veterans and the Disability Rights Movement” to each student. Tell students
that this blog post has a narrow historical focus and provides mostly “Little c” information.
› Ask students to silently read the post and write down information in the graphic organizer. Ask students to share
their observations with their partners.
› Distribute the historical background from the World I Teachers’ Guide Primary Source Set to each student. Tell students
that this overview of the First World War provides mostly “Big C” information.
› Ask students to silently read the post and write down information in the graphic organizer. Ask students to share
their observations with their partners.
› Complete the “Big C, Little c” Historical Context Graphic Organizer together as a class. Use the “Big C, Little c”
Historical Context Graphic Organizer Answer Key for assistance.
› Revisit the Primary Source Analysis Tool and the poster.
› Ask students to share with their partners how their analysis of the poster may have changed by looking at the
secondary source’s information.
› Discuss student ndings with the entire class. Ask students to explain how secondary sources help us better
understand primary sources.
89
Poster, Future Ship Workers A One-Armed Welder, 1919
American Red Cross Red Cross Institute for Crippled and Disabled Men and the Red Cross Institute for the Blind
Library of Congress (00651580)
https://www.loc.gov/item/00651580/
90
“WORLD WAR I: INJURED VETERANS AND THE DISABILITY RIGHTS
MOVEMENT”
6
Fans of the HBO series Boardwalk Empire may remember that World War I veterans grappling with disability occupied a
critical place in the show’s story. Fictional vet Jimmy Darmandy (Michael Pitt) struggled as much with Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) as he did with a limp derived from shrapnel embedded in his leg by a German grenade. Richard Harrow
(Jack Huston), on the other hand, endured facial disgurement so severe he wore a mask to conceal his injuries, though his
wounds went far beyond the physical.
Artifacts on display in the Library of Congress exhibit Echoes of the Great War: American Experiences of World War I demonstrate
the human cost of the war, the government’s response and the ways in which injured veterans helped push forward—even if
in a somewhat limited fashion—the disability rights movement.
During the war, 224,000 soldiers suered injuries that sidelined them from the front. Roughly 4,400 returned home missing
part or all of a limb. Of course, disability was not limited to missing limbs; as the Boardwalk Empire characters demonstrate,
a soldier could come home with all limbs and digits intact yet struggle with mental wounds. Nearly 100,000 soldiers were
removed from ghting for psychological injuries; 40,000 of them were discharged. By 1921, approximately 9,000 veterans
had undergone treatment for psychological disability in veterans’ hospitals. As the decade progressed, greater numbers
of veterans received treatment for “war neurosis.” Ultimately, whether mental or physical, 200,000 veterans would return
home with a permanent disability.
“[A] man could not go through that conict and come back and take his place as a normal human being,” veteran and
former infantry ocer Robert S. Marx noted in late 1919. Marx played a critical role in establishing the organization Disabled
Veterans of the World War (DAV) in 1920. He knew well the sting of disability: Just hours before the war’s ceasere, he
suered a severe injury after being wounded by a German artillery shell.
With the larger American Legion, founded in 1919, the DAV worked to raise public awareness about disabled veterans, while
pressuring the government to adopt programs to address their rehabilitation and reintegration into American society. Though
far smaller than the American Legion, DAV membership rolls topped 25,000 by 1922 and had 1,200 local chapters and state
oces nationwide. Overlap between the DAV and the Legion was unmistakable; roughly 90 percent of DAV members were
also legionnaires. In fact, Marx helped to found the Legion’s National Rehabilitation Committee.
Together, the two organizations placed veterans’ disability at the forefront of the push for veterans’ rights and benets,
including for “shell shock” or what today would be classied as PTSD. In 1921 the U.S. government established the United
States Veterans Bureau, a precursor to today’s U.S. Department of Veterans Aairs.
The American Red Cross and the government also acted independently to address disability. In 1917, the Red Cross opened
the rst institution dedicated to training amputees and individuals with damaged limbs: The Institute for Crippled and
Disabled Men in New York City. The institute soon found itself inundated with World War I soldiers. The institute produced
and distributed 50 pamphlets, broadsides and books focusing on rehabilitation in the rst year after the armistice. During
1918, the institute distributed six million copies of “Your Duty to the War Cripple” to New Yorkers.
The government established the Federal Board for Vocational Education in 1917; it produced the rst studies on veterans’
disability. The following year, the Smith-Sears Vocational Rehabilitation Act passed, providing for rehabilitation and vocational
training for disabled veterans.
Despite these eorts, the treatment of disabled veterans varied widely, and attempts to streamline it largely failed. Veterans
lodged numerous complaints related to poor dining, housing and rehabilitation facilities. Counselors, meant to help steer
veterans toward rehabilitation and vocational training, were seen by many veterans as distant and uncommunicative. Black
veterans endured racial discrimination, greatly diminished facilities and systematic neglect.
Ryan Reft, “World War I: Injured Veterans and the Disability Rights Movement,” Library of Congress Blog, December 21, 2017. https://blogs.loc.gov/
loc/2017/12/world-war-i-injured-veterans-and-the-disability-rights-movement/.
91
6
Of the roughly 330,000 veterans eligible for rehabilitation, nearly half received some amount of training. It came with a
steep price tag, however; in 1927 alone, the cost of rehabilitation exceeded $400 million. The following year, the vocational
education board expended half a billion dollars in compensation for veterans.
Though not exactly a success story, the government’s role in rehabilitation did expand the development and
institutionalization of the veterans’ welfare and demonstrated a commitment to restoring veterans to societal productivity.
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TEACHER’S GUIDE, WORLD WAR I PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/world-war-i/
The Outbreak of War in Europe and the Debate over U.S. Involvement
War broke out in Europe in the summer of 1914, after months of international tension. The spark that ignited open hostilities
was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie in
Sarajevo, Bosnia. By the end of the year, the Central Powers, led by Germany and Austria-Hungary, were battling the Allies,
led by Britain, France, and Russia.
The United States initially declared itself neutral, leading to years of argument over whether to join the conict, and when.
The debates surrounding isolationism and interventionism took place in popular culture and the arts as well as in the political
sphere and the news.
The sinking of the British ocean liner Lusitania on May 7, 1915, killed almost 1,200 people, including more than 120 U.S.
citizens. Many Americans, appalled that the German submarines, or U-boats, would sink a passenger ship, saw this as a
brutal attack on freedom of movement and U.S. neutrality. The Lusitania was one of dozens of ships sunk carrying American
passengers and goods.
Mobilization for War
The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. Faced with
mobilizing a sucient ghting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. By the end of the war, the
SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted or were conscripted
early in the war still faced months of intensive training before departing for Europe. In an eort to nance the extensive
military operations of the war, and to help curb ination by removing large amounts of money from circulation, the United
States government issued Liberty Bonds. Bond drives, parades, advertisements, and community pressure fueled the
purchase of bonds, which played a crucial role in nancing the U.S. war eort.
War on the Homefront
However distant the battleelds, World War I led to dramatic changes in the United States. American women served in a
multitude of capacities including agriculture, factory and munitions work, the medical eld, and non-combat roles in the
Army, Navy, and Marines. The expanded role of women in the American workforce during the war was an important factor
in the growing support for women’s surage and the eventual passing of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.
The U.S. Congress passed the Espionage Act on June 15, 1917. The Act prohibited individuals from interfering with draft
or military processes, expanded the punishment for insubordination in the military, and barred Americans from supporting
enemies in a time of war. Supporters saw it as a necessary precaution to promote domestic and military security, while
critics viewed it as an attack on freedom of speech and argued that this law unfairly targeted immigrants and ideological
dissenters.
War Overseas
When U.S. troops arrived overseas, they found themselves in the midst of a war waged on the ground, in the air, and under
the sea, using new weapons on an unprecedented scale. Combatants suered casualties in quantities never before seen.
Many U.S. soldiers recorded the experience of participating in such an overwhelming and sometimes disorienting conict in
diaries and letters home, as well as in poems and songs.
Often regarded as the world’s rst modern war, it used military technology including tanks, airplanes, modern machine guns,
and poison gas. Technological innovations extended beyond the military. The medical eld also experienced a proliferation
of new technologies, including blood transfusions, x-ray machines, and prosthetics. Communication systems drastically
93
changed during the war, as the telephone was adapted to meet wartime conditions, and the wireless telegraph, a precursor
to radio technology, became more widely used.
World War I saw unprecedented participation by African American troops, with over 350,000 African American soldiers
serving. However, African American troops were only able to serve in segregated units, and many were excluded from
combat, allowed only to provide support services. The return of African American soldiers to their home communities after
the war was followed by both a series of bloody racial conicts and a wave of civil rights activism.
Armistice and Plans for Peace
On November 11, 1918, an Armistice agreement eectively ended the ghting. The conditions of the Central Powers’
surrender were agreed upon when the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. The Treaty assigned responsibility
for the war to the Central Powers and required that they pay reparations for war damages.
In addition to drafting the Treaty, the Paris Peace Conference also formed the League of Nations, an organization intended
to prevent aggressive conict by uniting the major military powers of the world into one body. The harsh punishments of
the Treaty and the ineectiveness of the League of Nations are widely regarded as catalysts for the outbreak of another
global war two decades later. The U.S. Senate ratied neither the Versailles Treaty nor U.S. entry in the League of Nations,
primarily out of opposition to mandatory U.S. military involvement in foreign conicts.
94
“BIG C, LITTLE C” HISTORICAL CONTEXT GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
7
Primary Source:
What historical events and ideas inuenced the topic?
“Big C” Context. What were the broader national and “Little c” Context. What were the local and regional
global trends that aected this historical event? events that directly aected this historical event?
How does this contextual information explain why this source was created in this particular time and place?
What other questions do you need to ask to understand what happened before, during, and after this source’s
creation?
Courtesy of National History Day.
95
7
“BIG C, LITTLE C” HISTORICAL CONTEXT GRAPHIC ORGANIZER ANSWER KEY
Primary Source: Poster, Future Ship Workers A One-Armed Welder, 1919
What historical events and ideas inuenced the topic?
“Big C” Context. What were the broader national and
global trends that aected this historical event?
“Little c” Context. What were the local and regional
events that directly aected this historical event?
World War I (also known as the Great War), 1914-1918
4,400 soldiers return home with missing limbs
War broke out in Europe after the assassination of
Austria’s Archduke Franz Ferdinand
1917 - the American Red Cross creates the Institute
for Crippled and Disabled Men
The U.S. entered the war in April 1917
2.8 million men drafted into military service
New military weapons such as tanks, airplanes,
machines guns, and poison gas inicted injuries
Medical innovations, such as x-rays, blood
transfusions, enabled wounded soldiers to survive
1918 - Red Cross publishes 6 million copies of “Your
Duty to the War Cripple” pamphlet
1918 - U.S. Congress passes the Smith-Sears
Vocational Rehabilitation Act
1921 - U.S. Veterans Bureau founded
Thousands of American soldiers suered physical and
psychological injuries in the war
Treaty of Versailles, 1919
How does this contextual information explain why this source was created in this particular time and place?
This 1917 poster reects the need to rehabilitate soldiers wounded in the First World War into the industrial
workforce of American cities.
What other questions do you need to ask to understand what happened before, during, and after this source’s
creation?
Questions for further research might include (answers will vary):
› How did the rehabilitation of veterans change over time?
› How did changes in the nature of warfare and medical treatment aect the lives of service members?
› How did the war aect industrial production?
› How did popular attitudes toward citizens with physical disabilities change over time?
96
-
SECONDARY SOURCES: MODELS OF THE DISCIPLINE OF
HISTORY
When students engage in historical research, they learn and practice the skills of historians. Historians do more than record facts
about events and people; they analyze evidence to construct an interpretation of the past. While primary sources are essential to
original research and analysis, secondary sources also play a critical role in historians’ work. According to the American Historical
Association, historians contribute to our understanding of the past by analyzing “primary documents in light of the ever-expanding
body of secondary literature that places those documents in a larger context.”
8
Historians seek to explain how their interpretations
add to or change what other historians have said about the past.
Students will add to the “ever-expanding” literature of historical interpretation with their research. They must be exposed to
multiple works of history to understand how to use evidence to construct arguments. They need to read competing interpretations
of the past to appreciate that history is under constant revision. Students should practice reading a variety of secondary sources,
especially sources beyond their textbook. In Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts, Sam Wineberg warns that teachers’ reliance
on textbooks hides the “metadiscourse” of history: “The textbook speaks in the omniscient third-person. No visible author confronts
the reader; instead, a corporate author speaks from a position of transcendence.”
9
One of the challenges of using historical
interpretations in the classroom is nding secondary sources appropriate for students. Historical arguments are typically presented
in full-length books, often at high reading levels and protected by copyright restrictions. However, it is possible to nd secondary
sources that demonstrate how perspectives, selection of evidence, and context inuence the construction of historical interpretation.
For further explanation of how to help students construct a historical argument, please see Chapter Nine.
Students can observe how historical interpretations have changed over time by comparing textbook entries from various sources.
Teachers may have a variety of textbooks in their classroom libraries. Two publications make it easy for teachers to use secondary
sources analytically. History in the Making by Kyle Ward includes excerpts from American history textbooks from the nineteenth
century to today.
10
History Lessons, by Dana Lindaman and Kyle Ward, provides excerpts from history books from around the world
about events in U.S. history.
11
Although they are not as widely available as primary source-based lessons, it is possible to nd lessons based on secondary
sources. Lessons from Stanford History Education Group (a Library of Congress TPS Consortium member) and Teachinghistory.
org allow students to examine historical interpretations in secondary sources. By identifying and analyzing historians’ interpretative
work, students will be better prepared to construct their arguments about the past.
The contested nature of history can be especially evident when students read competing accounts of the same event. The debate
over the causes of the First World War is an excellent example of how history is under constant revision. Historians continue to re-
examine which people, countries, and trends were most responsible for causing the war. Historian Margaret MacMillan has cited an
estimate of over 32,000 books in English devoted to the war’s origins.
12
A study of the war’s impacts might begin with the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, a document that marked the formal end of hostilities and
created a dramatically new post-war world order. The treaty’s victorious signers oered one of the rst interpretations of the origins
of the war. Scholars rushed to explain the causes of World War I and which countries were to blame.
ORIGINS OF WORLD WAR I
Researchers can find more secondary sources that address the origins of the First World War at the Library of
Congress World War I Research Guide (guides.loc.gov/wwi/print-resources).
8 “Statement on Standards of Professional Conduct (updated 2019),” American Historical Association, 2019. https://www.historians.org/jobs-and-professional-
development/statements-standards-and-guidelines-of-the-discipline/statement-on-standards-of-professional-conduct.
9 Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts (Philadelphia: Temple University Press: 2001), 13.
10 Kyle Ward, History in the Making (New York: The New Press, 2006).
11 Dana Lindaman and Kyle Ward, History Lessons (New York: The New Press, 2004).
12 Margaret MacMillan, Why are we still trying to understand the outbreak of World War One?, St. John’s College Research Centre 2012 Annual Lecture, University of Oxford
Podcasts, October 29, 2012. https://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/why-are-we-still-trying-understand-outbreak-world-war-one.
97
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Students will compare and contrast historical interpretations of the origins of the First World War. It is important that
students see that historians can view the same primary sources and develop dierent conclusions, and that historical
interpretation changes over time.
98
ACTIVITY TWO: COMPETING INTERPRETATIONS OF THE CAUSES OF
T
HE FIRST WORLD WAR
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Treaty, Treaty of Peace with Germany (Treaty of Versailles), 1919 (excerpt)
Library of Congress
https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv002/lltreaties-ustbv002.pdf
S
ECONDARY SOURCES
Book, The Causes of War
, 1920 (excerpt)
Robert Earl Swindler
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/causesofwar00swin/page/72/mode/2up
Book, South-eastern Europe, the Main Problem of the Present World Struggle, 1918 (excerpts)
Vladislav R. Savic
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro01savi/page/n15/mode/2up
Book, The War Guilt and Peace Crime of the Entente Allies, 1920 (excerpt)
Stewart E. Bruce
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/warguiltpeacecri00bruc/page/40/mode/2up
Exhibit, Echoes of the Great War: African American Experience of World War I
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/world-war-i-american-experiences/about-this-exhibition/
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Test all online resources before class.
› Project Document A to review with the class.
› Make copies of Documents B, C, and D so that each pair will receive one document.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
› Review the course of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles. If additional context is needed, have students read
the background and timeline sections from the Library of Congress Echoes of the Great War: African American Experience of
World War I Online Exhibition.
› Read Document A aloud and discuss its meaning. Students should understand that the treaty blamed Germany and
her allies (Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) for starting the war. This “war guilt” clause enabled the allies to
demand reparation payments from Germany.
› Distribute either Document B, Document C, or Document D to each pair of students. Ask students to read the document
and work together to answer the accompanying questions.
› Ask students to share their answers with the class and compare and contrast the views of each historian.
› Encourage students to consider why historians might draw dierent conclusions about the same historical event.
Emphasize the dierence between reports on the causes of World War I, such as the summary students might nd in
their textbook, and interpretations constructed through the application of evidence.
99
DOCUMENT A
PRIMARY SOURCE
T
reaty, Treaty of Peace with Germany (Treaty of Versailles), 1919 (excerpt)
Library of Congress
https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv002/lltreaties-ustbv002.pdf
A
RTICLE 231
“The Allied and Associated Governments arm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for
causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as
a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.”
100
DOCUMENT B
SECONDARY SOURCE
Book, South-eastern Europe, the Main Problem of the Present World Struggle, 1918 (excerpts)
Vladislav R. Savic
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro01savi/page/n15/mode/2up
“It will not be forgotten that the rst gun of the present war was red on the banks of the Danube. It marked the attack by
the Austrians on the old fortress of Belgrade [the capital of Serbia]. It was also at Belgrade, in 1876, that those hostilities
began which became the Russo-Turkish War and which led to the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Although these two events
are some 40 years apart, they are nevertheless two scenes in one and the same world drama, the theme of which is the
struggle of Southeastern Europe for civil and political liberty . . . ”
“Serbia was not the cause of the war, but she was a cause of the war, for Serbia and Austria-Hungary are two beings not
only dierent but naturally antagonistic and representing two conicting principles: that of democracy and nationality, and
that of rule by divine right, so that war between them was only a question of time. The existence of Serbia meant for Austria
the negation of her position as a great power and a stumbling block in the way of her expansion.”
Does this historian agree with Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles? Why or why not?
Write the thesis of this historian in your own words.
What kind of primary sources would support the conclusion of this historian?
101
DOCUMENT C
SECONDARY SOURCE
Book, The War Guilt and Peace Crime of the Entente Allies, 1920 (excerpt)
Stewart E. Bruce
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/warguiltpeacecri00bruc/page/40/mode/2up
“For the twenty-ve years prior to 1914 Great Britain was frantically ghting to hold foreign trade; or busily engaged in
building two ships to Germany’s one . . . Seeing that she was being rapidly relegated to the rear commercially, Britain
proceeded to use subterranean mean of a very doubtful nature to head o her rival. She began to encircle Germany with
a cordon of alliances and ‘understandings.’ She capitalized French hatred for the German, Belgian distrust, and Russia’s
inordinate ambition. Germany was not blind to this menace. As a result of it, she was compelled to double and triple her
armament expenditures – causing a terric strain on the nancial resources of the country.”
Does this historian agree with Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles? Why or why not?
Write the thesis of this historian in your own words.
What kind of primary sources would support the conclusion of this historian?
102
DOCUMENT D
SECONDARY SOURCE
Book, The Causes of War, 1920 (excerpt)
Robert Earl Swindler
Library of Congress
https://archive.org/details/causesofwar00swin/page/72/mode/2up
“All the Allied powers and those ghting with them have democracy, with its attendant liberties as one of their leading
causes; while none of the “Central Powers” were democracies, but were ghting for the principles of despotism. This is
so universally true that the World War has become above all else combined, a struggle of democracy with despotic power, and
those two causes are truly in the balance. This fact alone brands Germany – her Kaiser and imperial government, who have
been the soul and masters of the Central States – as the chief culprits in the war and the arch-enemies of mankind . . .
“In the decade between 1905 and 1915 ve times Europe was brought to the verge of a general war – every time by the
brazen aggression of the German and Austro-Hungarian governments.”
Does this historian agree with Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles? Why or why not?
Write the thesis of this historian in your own words.
What kind of primary sources would support the conclusion of this historian?
103
FINDING SECONDARY SOURCES AT THE LIBRARY OF
CONGRESS
Although the Library of Congress is best known for its archives of primary sources, it is also an essential repository of secondary
sources. Historians, archivists, and educators contribute articles and essays that provide context for primary source collections and
oer interpretations of historical events. The following is a partial list of secondary sources available on the Library of Congress
website that could be valuable resources in student research.
 CORNERS OF THE WORLD INTERNATIONAL COLLECTIONS
blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/category/world-war-i/
The Library of Congress is most renowned for its archives of sources from American history. Still, teachers and students should
remember that it houses extensive resources from world history as well. Students can search the blog 4 Corners of the World for
research topics outside of the United States.
CONGRESS.GOV
congress.gov/legislative-process
For students researching topics related to the U.S. government, its processes, and legislation, Congress.gov is a valuable resource.
Students can nd primary sources in the form of original legislation and congressional reports. The site also includes secondary
sources in the form of analysis and commentary, including explanations of the Constitution’s legislative process.
EVERYDAY MYSTERIES
loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/
Everyday Mysteries is a collection of articles that explain scientic processes and inventions.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS BLOGS
blogs.loc.gov
Blogs are short essays by scholars about a specic historical topic. Many include links to primary sources and references to other
scholarly works. Blogs can be searched by subject and can be a valuable resource for identifying research topics.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
loc.gov/collections/
Collections of primary sources include introductions that provide an overview of collection items and their historical context. The
collections are searchable by topic.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS EXHIBITIONS
loc.gov/exhibits/all/
Exhibitions at the Library of Congress highlight primary source collections. However, each exhibition includes secondary source
introductions and overviews that may help students nd their research topics.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS PODCASTS AND WEBCASTS
loc.gov/podcasts/, loc.gov/collections/event-videos/
Through podcasts and webcasts, students can listen to interviews and discussions with authors and other experts.
104
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS RESEARCH GUIDES
guides.loc.gov/?b=s
The Library of Congress provides comprehensive guides to its collections. Students can search by subject.
TODAY IN HISTORY
loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/
Students can nd articles about signicant events that occurred on that date for each day of the year, plus links to primary sources
and resources for further investigation. Students can peruse the site by date or search by topic.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After introducing students to secondary research, and at intervals throughout the process, ask students to reect on
the research process:
› What did you accomplish in this stage of research?
› How can you improve your secondary source research skills?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
The Library of Congress is one of the best places for many research topics, and the next chapter will demonstrate how to search
the Library’s vast (and expanding) digital collections of primary sources and analyze sources that they nd.
105
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Event Videos. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/event-videos/.
Today in History. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/today-in-history/.
POSTER
Future ship workers A one-armed welder. Poster. 1919. Library of Congress (00651580). https://www.loc.gov/item/00651580/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
World War I. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/world-war-i/.
TEXTUAL
Treaty of Peace with Germany (Treaty of Versailles). 1919. Library of Congress. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/
lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv002/lltreaties-ustbv002.pdf.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOGS AND BLOG POSTS
4 Corners of the World International Collections Blog. https://blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/category/world-war-i/.
Reft, Ryan. “World War I: Injured Veterans and the Disability Rights Movement.” Library of Congress Blog. December 21, 2017.
https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2017/12/world-war-i-injured-veterans-and-the-disability-rights-movement/.
Reft, Ryan. “World War I: The Women’s Land Army.” Library of Congress Blog. March 26, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/03/
world-war-i-the-womens-land-army/.
BOOKS
Bruce, Stewart E. The War Guilt and Peace Crime of the Entente Allies. New York: F.L. Searle & Co., 1920. Internet Archive. https://
archive.org/details/warguiltpeacecri00bruc/page/40/mode/2up.
Howland, Colonel Charles Roscoe. A Military History of the World War, Vol. 1. Fort Leavenworth: The General Service Schools Press,
1923. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00howl_1/page/22/mode/2up.
Lindaman, Dana and Ward, Kyle. History Lessons. New York: The New Press, 2004.
Savic, Vladislav R. South-easten Europe, the Main Problem of the Present World Struggle. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1918.
Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro01savi/page/n15/mode/2up.
Swindler, Robert Earl. The Causes of War. Boston: R.G. Badger, 1920. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/
causesofwar00swin/ page/72/mode/2up.
Ward, Kyle. History in the Making. New York: The New Press, 2006.
Wineburg, Sam. Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts. Philadelphia: Temple University Press: 2001.
EXHIBITION
Echoes of the Great War: American Experiences of World War I. Exhibition. Library of Congress.
https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/world-war-i-american-experiences/about-this-exhibition/.
106
LECTURES
MacMillan, Margaret. Why are we still trying to understand the outbreak of World War One? St. John’s College Research Centre 2012
Annual Lecture, University of Oxford Podcast. Audio File. October 29, 2012. https://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/why-are-we-still-trying-
understand-outbreak-world-war-one.
RESEARCH GUIDE
“World War I: A Resource Guide.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://guides.loc.gov/wwi/print-resources.
WEBSITES
“All Exhibitions.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/all/.
“Blogs.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://blogs.loc.gov/.
“Digital Collections.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/.
“Everyday Mysteries: Fun Science Facts from the Library of Congress.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://
www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/.
“The Legislative Process: Overview (Video).” Congress.gov. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.congress.gov/legislative-
process.
“Lesson: Research - Historical Context.” National History Day in Minnesota. Accessed August 2, 2020. https://www.mnhs.org/
historyday/teachers/curriculum-and-timeline/teacher-framework.
“Podcasts.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/podcasts/.
Primary Source Analysis Tool. Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
“Research Guides.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://guides.loc.gov/?b=s.
“Statement on Standards of Professional Conduct (updated 2019).” American Historical Association. Updated June 2019. Accessed
August 1, 2020. https://www.historians.org/jobs-and-professional-development/statements-standards-and-guidelines-of-the-discipline/
statement-on-standards-of-professional-conduct.
Teacher’s Guide Analyzing Primary Sources. Library of Congress. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
“Teachinghistory.org.” National History Education Clearinghouse. Accessed October 28, 2020. https://teachinghistory.org/.
“Worksheet: Historical Context.” National History Day in Minnesota. Accessed August 2, 2020. https://www.mnhs.org/historyday/
teachers/curriculum-and-timeline/teacher-framework.
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-
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDING PRIMARY SOURCES
FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapter Four, we focused on some of the secondary sources available from the Library of Congress and ways they can be
used to bolster historical research and add to the understanding of primary sources. In this chapter we will dive into the wealth of
primary sources available through the Library. We will share strategies to search the Library’s vast collections.
WHAT ARE PRIMARY SOURCES?
While most people have some experience reading secondary sources like textbooks or history books or watching documentary
movies, teachers and students may have limited experience working directly with the primary sources historians use in their
research. Primary sources—materials created by people at the time of the event—are essential for understanding an event or time
because they were created by people who experienced it. According to the Library of Congress, “Primary sources are the raw
materials of history—original documents and objects which were created at the time under study.”
1
Every primary source has a perspective, but primary sources do not have the layers of analysis and commentary found in
secondary sources. Primary sources spark curiosity and encourage students to ask questions. Analyzing primary sources also
engages a student in critical thinking. Furthermore, “primary sources help students relate in a personal way to events of the past
and promote a deeper understanding of history as a series of human events.”
2
Primary sources range from the lofty to the minutiae of daily life. They extend from speeches made by world and community
leaders to the contents of someone’s wallet or pocket. Each primary source is a clue into a time and place. Traditionally, history was
limited to the stories of people in power and their perspectives. However, in the twentieth century, more historians started looking at
the stories of ordinary people. This broadening of history has led historians to examine many more types of primary sources in their
research.
The Library of Congress contains over 170 million items, many of which are primary sources. Primary sources found in the Library
include books, monographs, newspapers, pamphlets, technical materials, audio materials, maps, video materials, photographs,
posters, prints and drawings, and physical objects.
Primary sources can be a fascinating dive into history. This chapter will assist in gaining condence in accessing primary source
materials from the Library of Congress.
Sometimes it is not always clear whether a source is, in fact, primary or secondary. For a more in-depth discussion,
see Cheryl Lederle’s blog post, “What Makes a Primary Source a Primary Source?” at blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/10/
what-makes-a-primary-source-a-primary-source/.
1 “Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 2, 2020, https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-
sources/.
2 For more on using primary sources to engage critical thinking skills, see “Getting Started with Primary Sources,” Library of Congress.
108
109
WHERE DO I FIND PRIMARY SOURCES?
One of the most accessible entry points into primary sources at the Library of Congress is its curated Primary Source Sets (loc.
gov/classroom-materials/?fa=partof_type:primary+source+set). More than 90 primary source sets oer students and teachers
access to a variety of primary sources. Sets cover topics such as American Authors in the Nineteenth Century Century: Whitman,
Dickinson, Longfellow, Stowe, and Poe, The Industrial Revolution in the United States, Westward Expansion: Encounters at a Cultural Crossroads,
The New Deal, and Immigration Challenges for New Americans. Others highlight resources that connect to a specic state or territory.
This chapter will focus on Native American history. The Library of Congress Native American Boarding Schools Primary Source Set
(loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-american-boarding-schools) consists of a teacher’s guide with contextual information, a link
to the analysis tool and guides, and 19 primary sources. These sources include photographs of students at dierent schools, political
cartoons, newspaper articles, and an oral history interview. By clicking on the link to any of the primary sources in the collection
(not the PDF), the viewer has access to details about the source, bibliographic information, and links to the collections that can lead
to more resources on the topic. This activity will demonstrate how to use primary source sets with students and model the research
skills they will use when they search these sets independently.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will brainstorm the wide variety of formats within primary sources. They will then work in
small groups to explore primary sources from the Native American Boarding Schools primary source set to understand
some of the sources available through the Library of Congress.
110
ACTIVITY ONE: EXPLORING LIBRARY OF CONGRESS PRIMARY
SOURCE SETS
ACTIVITY TIME:  MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Primary Source Set, Native American Boarding Schools
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-american-boarding-schools
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS RESOURCE
Native American Boarding Schools Historical Context
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Collection Exploration Worksheet
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Spend some time exploring the primary source sets available from the Library of Congress.
› Spend some time exploring the primary sources available from the Native American Boarding Schools set.
› Select one source from the Native American Boarding Schools set to be presented to the class as an example.
› Organize students into groups of two or three.
› Ensure access to the internet for each small group of students (using personal devices, a computer lab, etc.).
› Test all online resources before class.
› Make one copy of the Collection Exploration Worksheet for each student (or distribute electronically).
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCTION TO SEARCHING FOR PRIMARY SOURCES (15 MINUTES)
› Review the denition of a primary source and ask students to list as many types of primary sources as they can.
Some examples include:
› Photographs, drawings, posters, audio recordings, video recordings, lms
› Paintings, sculptures, carvings, novels, poems, plays, movies, screenplays, musical scores
› Journals, letters, diaries, correspondence, scrapbooks, emails, blogs, listservs, newsgroups
› Oral histories, interviews with people involved, speeches, autobiographies, memoirs
› Fieldwork, public opinion polls, census data, results of experiments
› Scientic journal articles reporting research results, technical reports, patents
› Artifacts including tools, coins, textiles, clothing, costumes, furniture, printed ephemera, buildings
› Books, magazines, ads, newspapers published at the time
› Government documents such as reports, bills, laws, proclamations, hearings, birth certicates, property deeds, trial
transcripts
› Ocial and unocial records of organizations and government agencies
111
› Contracts
› Maps
› Name a current event of which students would be aware. Ask students: If a historian in the future was studying this event,
which primary sources might he or she seek in order to understand what happened?
› Select one example of a primary source identied by the class connected to the current event. Ask students:
› Who might have created the source?
› What could someone who was not involved learn about the event by analyzing that source?
› What other information or perspectives could be missing from that source?
› What kinds of sources would add missing information or perspectives?
› Ask students: Where can you nd primary sources? Be sure students are aware of archives, libraries, and other physical
locations in addition to online resources.
INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY OF CONGRESS COLLECTIONS (45 MINUTES)
› Introduce the Library of Congress to students. Remind students that the Library of Congress is located in Washington,
D.C., and is the world’s largest library. It is the research arm of the United States Congress and also the home of the U.S.
Copyright Oce.
› Explain to students that one of the most accessible entry points into primary sources at the Library of Congress is its
curated Primary Source Sets.
› Explain to students that the Library has digitized many resources and made them available to researchers. They will be
exploring one of the sets to get a sense of what is available through the Library of Congress.
› Explain that students will examine a primary source set focused on the topic of Native American boarding schools.
Project the Native American Boarding School Historical Context and read with the students.
› Project the selected primary source from the Native American Boarding Schools set. Lead a class discussion about this
primary source.
› Use the Collection Exploration Worksheet to direct students to write down information about the selected source.
› Direct student groups to select two additional primary sources from the set and follow the same process to complete
the chart.
› Circulate to check in with students and gauge their progress.
WHOLE-GROUP DEBRIEF (15 MINUTES)
› Bring students together as a whole group. Ask:
› What was something that surprised you as you completed this activity?
› What was something that was challenging?
› Select one of your sources and tell the class how you think that source could help someone understand more about the curated
collection topic.
› What are some ways you came up with for lling in the gaps (nding missing perspectives and information)?
112
NATIVE AMERICAN BOARDING SCHOOLS HISTORICAL CONTEXT
3
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, many Native American children were sent to boarding schools run by the U.S.
government. These schools were usually located away from Native American reservations, and were intended to remove
children from the inuence of tribal traditions and to assimilate them into what the schools’ proponents saw as American
culture.
Native American boarding schools of the period transported children far from their families, forced them to cut their hair,
and punished them for using non-English names and languages. Most were run with military-like schedules and discipline,
and emphasized farming and other manual skills. Although many Native American children attended day schools and
parochial schools, between the 1880s and the 1920s, the term “Indian school” was widely used to refer to government-run
o-reservation boarding schools.
Many Native American parents refused to send their children to boarding schools and fought for their rights in court.
Students ed schools in the night or set school buildings on re. Some graduates, like the Santee Dakota physician and
lecturer Charles Eastman and the Yankton Dakota musician Zitkála-Šá, went on to become public gures, but questioned the
methods and ideology of the schools.
A few boarding schools became well known nationally. Some, like Pennsylvania’s Carlisle Indian Industrial School, elded
sports teams and bands that kept them in the public eye. Before-and-after photographs of students were published in
newspapers and magazines to demonstrate and publicize the schools’ “civilizing” process. Accounts by Native American
students or their families were rarely published.
By the 1920s, o-reservation government boarding schools faced increasing criticism for questionable teaching practices,
substandard living conditions, and poor medical care, and Native American education soon entered a new era. Today, former
boarding school students and their descendants are working on researching and honoring those who endured the boarding
school experience.
Adapted from the Teacher’s Guide, Native American Boarding Schools Primary Source Set, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/
native-american-boarding-schools/#teachers-guide.
3
113
COLLECTION EXPLORATION WORKSHEET
Class Sample Source One Source Two
Title of the source
What type of source
is it? (example: letter,
photograph)
What was the rst
thing in the source that
drew your attention?
When was this source
made?
Identify at least two
things you know about
the creator of this
source.
What are three details
you noticed while
examining this source?
What are at least three
questions you have
about this source or
the creator of this
source?
What is a perspective
or experience that
is missing from this
source?
114
HOW DO I FIND PRIMARY SOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF
CONGRESS?
While the curated collections are a great way to start and browse the Library, it is sometimes more helpful to search the Library
of Congress collections by using a keyword when looking for a specic topic. The Library contains a wide assortment of sources
covering a range of topics. Keep in mind, however, that the collections are not encyclopedic. See Chapter One for a more complete
discussion. The search tools also have a variety of lters that can assist in narrowing down results.
The main Library of Congress site (loc.gov) is one place students can search for specic topics. Entering a keyword or phrase in
the “Search Loc.gov” box at the top of the homepage will direct students to various primary sources. Students can use lters such
as date, original format, location, and contributor on the left side of the page to narrow results.
The challenge with research is that there is no single way to produce the perfect set of results. Students need to be willing to try
dierent methods and combinations of keywords to maximize their results.
To learn more about helping students identify keywords and create a research plan, see Chapter Three. For more
information on using secondary sources to develop a base of knowledge and establish historical context, see Chapter
Four.
Let us assume that a student has done some secondary source reading. The student is interested in Native American boarding
schools, specically the Carlisle Indian Industrial school and its most famous student, Jim Thorpe, an Olympian.
Searching all collections for “Native American boarding schools” at loc.gov, returns over 116,000 search results. The term
“American Indian boarding schools” returns over 124,000 hits. To make this search manageable, students will need to rene their
search using lters on the search bar on the screen’s left-hand side. Students need to layer lters to get a more focused set of
results by choosing a more focused search term.
For example, applying the lter of Manuscript/Mixed Materials under the term “American Indian boarding schools” results in several
outcomes. When you adjust the search term “Carlisle Indian School” and lter to Manuscript/Mixed Materials, students will nd a
speech titled Self-Made Men. Frederick Douglass wrote this speech in 1872 and delivered it to students at the school in 1893.
4
WHAT OTHER FILTERS ARE HELPFUL TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS?
This depends on the topic students are researching. If students are researching a topic from the American Revolution, Films
and Videos or Audio Recordings will not likely yield many helpful results. Lead a short discussion with students to help them
identify which types of primary sources might be most useful when researching one topic or another. The most helpful to student
researchers include:
› Audio Recordings
› Books/Printed Material (students can request copies of books via their school or local libraries)
› Film and Video
› Legislation
› Manuscripts
› Maps
› Notated Music
› Newspapers (see the section on Chronicling America below)
› Periodicals
› Personal Narratives
› Photographs, Prints, and Drawings
› 3D Objects
Frederick Douglass, Self-Made Men, Address before the Students of the Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pa, 1893, Library of Congress (mfd.29002). https://
www.loc.gov/item/mfd.29002/.
4
115
= -
-
Once students have entered their topic and selected their format lter, teach them to use the menu bar on the left-hand side of the
screen to lter their results. They can lter by time period, location, language, contributors, or format. Remind students that good
results require multiple tries with varying keywords and lters. This is also a good time to remind them that items in the collection
were tagged when they were catalogued and may reect language of that earlier time. It is important to think of the time period
being searched and try dierent variations on keywords to produce the best results.5
PRINTS AND PHOTOGRAPHS
The Prints & Photographs Division (loc.gov/photos/collections/?st=gallery) includes 70 topic specific collections of
images such as posters, photographs, and cartoons. The entire catalog contains international and U.S. focused sources
and includes photographs, art, popular prints and drawings, posters, and architectural and engineering drawings.
Prints and photographs are a particular strength of the Library’s collection. By searching for “Carlisle Indian School”
in the Prints & Photographs Division, more than 100 results populate, including a collection of photographs by Frances
Benjamin Johnston from 1901, showing life at this school. A quick search will reveal that Frances Benjamin Johnston
was a pioneering photojournalist. She had a particular interest in education and took photographs of many schools,
including the Carlisle Indian Industrial School.
5
Furthermore, a more recent set of photographs taken in 2019 include
remnants of the school’s gymnasium and the cemetery where children who died at the school were buried.
CHRONICLING AMERICA
Another option for searching is Chronicling America (chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/). Chronicling America provides access to historic
American newspapers dating from 1789 to 1963. Typically, typing in a keyword in the search bar and narrowing the selection by year
will bring up a host of results, with the keyword highlighted, making it easier to locate.
A simple search for “Carlisle Indian School” leads to over 8,000 results, including The Day Book (Chicago, Illinois) and Evening Star
(Washington, D.C.), as well as Native American newspapers, including The Oglala Light (Pine Ridge, South Dakota), The Indian Advocate
(Sacred Heart, Oklahoma), and the Red Lake News (Red Lake, Minnesota). If the search is limited to the year 1893, just over 100
results appear. These include announcements about a military parade of 500 students accompanied by the Carlisle Indian School
band at the World’s Fair: Columbian Exposition in Chicago, marriage announcements of the school’s graduates, and the school’s
annual report.
An advanced search in Chronicling America allows the researcher to limit results by state, by a particular newspaper, by a date
range, or by the newspaper’s language.
A second way to explore the collection (and a good entry point for student researchers) is the Newspapers & Current Periodicals
Research Guides (guides.loc.gov/newspapers-periodicals). Searching the list students can nd a guide called “Jim Thorpe, Native
American Athlete: Topics in Chronicling America” (guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-jim-thorpe). Here students can click
“Search Strategies & Selected Articles” to nd articles and suggestions for other keywords to help identify useful articles about Jim
Thorpe in Chronicling America (baseball, Giants, James Thorpe, Olympics, Stockholm Olympics).
EXHIBITIONS
A third entry point for many students to the Library’s collections is online exhibitions (loc.gov/exhibits/all). By starting with an
exhibition, students and teachers can take advantage of Library experts who have searched through the collections and curated a
set of sources that are particularly useful to the topic. Most of these online exhibitions are counterparts to the physical exhibitions
presented onsite at the Library. Like a museum exhibit or a primary source set, these include commentary that provides context
and can give additional search terms or places to look for information. Thoughtfully limiting the search will yield the best results.
For instance, the contributions of Zitkála-Šá to the woman’s surage and Native American surage movements are featured in the
Library’s “More to the Movement” section of the Shall Not Be Denied exhibition (loc.gov/exhibitions/women-ght-for-the-vote/
about-this-exhibition/more-to-the-movement/zitkala-sa/).
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Students will work in small groups to explore three ways to search for the Library of Congress resources. This will
help demonstrate various research approaches for searching dierent collections at the Library.
“Frances Benjamin Johnston–Biographical Overview and Chronology,” Library of Congress, accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/rr/print/coll/
jchron.html
5
116
ACTIVITY TWO: EXPANDING THE SEARCH FOR PRIMARY SOURCES
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Searching for Primary Sources from the Library of Congress
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Review online collections to become familiar with how they work.
› Select a topic.
› Teacher Tip: Select a historical topic that will spark the students’ interest. It is best to pick a slightly broader
topic to get more results, and the activity will work best if students have a basic familiarity with the subject.
› Organize students in groups of two or three students each.
› Ensure access to the internet for each small group of students (using personal devices, a computer lab, etc.).
› Prepare chart paper or electronic documents to collect students’ search tips.
› Make one copy of the Searching for Primary Sources from the Library of Congress worksheet for each student.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
SEARCHING FOR SOURCES (60 MINUTES)
› Introduce the topic that the class will research.
› Model the research strategies described in the narrative section above.
› Discuss as a class which divisions of the Library would be most logical (i.e., Prints, Photographs & Drawings, Legislation,
Notated Music, etc.)
› Assign each group a search option (loc.gov, loc.gov ltered by division, Chronicling America, Online Exhibitions).
Distribute the Searching for Primary Sources from the Library of Congress worksheet.
› Allow students to explore their collections and complete the Searching for Primary Sources from the Library of
Congress worksheet. Monitor and assist as needed.
› In a whole-class discussion, have each group present its selected collection of primary sources and describe their
impressions of the search pathway.
› Create a class chart of tips (on chart paper or an electronic document) for the selected collections of primary sources.
ADAPTATIONS
› If students have limited experience searching for information online or need language support, work as a
class to brainstorm keywords.
› If students benet from modeling, choose one research strategy to work through as a whole class before
small groups explore the others independently.
› If students have a wide range of skills and experience, consider assigning collections to groups based on
accessibility.
117
SEARCHING FOR PRIMARY SOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
Class research topic for this activity:
Keywords that assist the search
Our group will search using this pathway
ü
URL We are Searching
https://www.loc.gov/ the whole Library
https://www.loc.gov/ limit to collection:
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/ historic American newspapers
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/all/ curated exhibits from the Library of Congress
After exploring the Library’s resources, work with your group to answer the following questions.
Look for primary sources about your topic. Describe your search for primary sources about your topic. What keywords did
you try? What was the result of your search?
How did you limit results or use advanced search features to rene or improve your results?
118
What types of primary sources did you nd with your search?
Reecting on your research purpose, what are the strengths of this collection?
Reecting on your research purpose, what are the limitations of this collection?
What are some tips you would give someone else using this collection for the rst time?
What are some questions you have about using your collection?
119
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students conduct primary source research using the Library of Congress, ask students to reect on the
research process:
› What did you accomplish in this stage of research?
› How can you improve your primary source research skills?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
Now that we have identied how to search the Library of Congress for quality primary and secondary sources, we will focus on
how to analyze the sources in the Library’s collection.
120
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Native American Boarding Schools. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-
american-boarding-schools.
SPEECH
Douglass, Frederick. Self-Made Men. Address before the Students of the Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. 1893.
Library of Congress (mfd.29002). https://www.loc.gov/item/mfd.29002/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOG POSTS
Lederle, Cheryl. “What Makes a Primary Source a Primary Source?” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog. October 4, 2011.
https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/10/what-makes-a-primary-source-a-primary-source/.
EXHIBITION
Shall Not Be Denied: Women Fight for the Vote. Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/women-ght-for-the-
vote/.
RESEARCH GUIDE
“Jim Thorpe, Native American Athlete: Topics in Chronicling America.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020.
https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-jim-thorpe.
WEBSITES
“All Exhibitions.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/all/.
“Chronicling America.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/.
“Frances Benjamin Johnston–Biographical Overview and Chronology.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020.
https://www.loc.gov/rr/print/coll/jchron.html.
“Getting Started with Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/.
“Primary Source Sets.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 3, 2020. loc.gov/classroom-materials/?fa=partof_
type:primary+source+set.
“Prints and Photographs Online Catalog.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://loc.gov/pictures/.
“Topics in Chronicling America.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/index.html.
CHAPTER SIX: ANALYZING PRIMARY
SOURCES FROM THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapter Five, we focused on strategies to search the Library’s vast collection of primary source material in a variety of formats.
In this chapter, we will focus on strategies to analyze the primary sources we nd.
HOW DO WE ANALYZE PRIMARY SOURCES?
Our particular experiences and circumstances inform our knowledge of the world. We may have never considered many other
perspectives, especially when researching topics from another time and place than our own. As we approach primary sources, we
must remain aware of how our cultural attitudes and assumptions aect our interaction with each source.
CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY
The Inquiry in the Upper Midwest project, a Library of Congress TPS Consortium member, has resources for engaging
students with primary sources using culturally relevant pedagogy. Their website includes videos for teachers, recorded
webinars, and primary source sets to engage students. View these resources at mnhs.org/ium.
When encountering a primary source, we have to look closely at what is actually in the source. We can then apply what we know
about the world and the time when the item was created. Examining the primary source in context can lead us to further research,
allowing us to understand the historical event better and develop an argument. Chapter Nine focuses on developing the historical
argument. Here, we will focus on looking closely at the primary source itself.
To assist students in analyzing primary sources, the Library of Congress developed a Primary Source Analysis Tool as well as
Teacher’s Guides to various sources, including:
1
› Analyzing Primary Sources
› Analyzing Books and Other Printed Texts
› Analyzing Manuscripts
› Analyzing Maps
› Analyzing Motion Pictures
› Analyzing Newspapers
› Analyzing Oral Histories
› Analyzing Photographs and Prints
› Analyzing Political Cartoons
› Analyzing Sheet Music and Song Sheets
› Analyzing Sound Recordings
All of these guides can be accessed at loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
121
1
122
- -
The Primary Source Analysis Tool engages the strategy of Observe-Reect-Question.
› Students observe. They list what they notice. They are encouraged to focus on details in the source.
› Students reect. They generate ideas about the source. They consider when the source was created, why it was created, and
its intended audience.
› Students ask questions. They generate questions about the source and consider where they might look to nd the answers.
Before facilitating a primary source analysis, select questions from the teachers guide to focus and deepen student thinking. Also,
note that the process is reexive and does not always progress in a linear fashion. Depending on the source, sometimes students
might begin analyzing their primary source before sharing the metadata from the Library of Congress catalog. This strategy can
help students think critically about the source and adjust their thinking based on other information. Other times, it might be better
to show them the metadata (and possibly additional secondary source material) to help them set primary sources in appropriate
historical context.
To learn more about using the “reect” column to drive critical thinking skills, see Anne Savage’s blog post, “Primary Sources
Analysis Tool: Using the ‘Reect’ Column to Develop Critical Thinking” (March 1, 2012) at blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2012/03/
primary-source-analysis-tool-using-the-%E2%80%9Creect%E2%80%9D-column-to-develop-critical-thinking/.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will use the Library of Congress Observe Reect Question framework and Primary Source
Analysis Tool to analyze a primary source about Native American boarding schools, paying attention to their individual
perspective in the analysis process.
123
ACTIVITY ONE: OBSERVE-REFLECT-QUESTION
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Illustration, The American Indian Past. Present, Puck Magazine, November 28, 1906
Library of Congress (2002720336)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/ds.03750/
Illustration, Indian Training School, Forest Grove, Oregon, Harper’s Weekly, May 27, 1882
Thure de Thulstrup (artist), Davidson (photographer)
Library of Congress (92513700)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c05118/
Newspaper Article, “American Indian is Fighting for Allies,” The Sun, February 12, 1917
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030431/1917-02-12/ed-1/seq-4/
Newspaper Article, “Uncle Sam’s Indian Wards,” The North Platte Semi-Weekly Tribune, February 25, 1916
Edward B. Clark
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/2010270504/1916-02-25/ed-1/seq-6/
Wood engraving, Educating the Indians--a female pupil of the government school at Carlisle visits her home at Pine Ridge Agency /
from a sketch by a corresponding artist, March 15, 1884
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper
Library of Congress (90712911)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c00543/
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
Analyzing Newspapers
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
Analyzing Photographs and Prints
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
Library of Congress Primary Source Analysis Tool
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Test all online resources before class.
› Make copies to provide each student with one primary source (newspaper article or image) and one Library of Congress
Primary Source Analysis Tool (or share electronically).
124
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
MODELING PRIMARY SOURCE ANALYSIS (15 MINUTES)
› Project the illustration, Indian Training School, Forest Grove, Oregon. Direct students to observe the illustration silently for a
full minute.
› Ask students:
› What do you see?
› What details can you see in the image?
› Hold o on your ideas of what might be going on for now. Just share what you can observe in the image.
› When students describe what is happening or start explaining the picture, ask: What do you see that makes you think
that?
› Write the students’ observations on the board. Continue until most students have contributed an observation.
› Tell students: Now, it is time to apply your inference skills and use your prior knowledge. What do you think is happening in this
image?
› Pay attention to students’ language. When perspective appears in the language they use, ask: How does your response
show a modern perspective? How is your perspective inuenced by the time in which you live?
› Write the students’ thoughts on chart paper or the board. Continue until most students have contributed a comment.
› Follow up with questions:
• What do you think is happening in the source?
• Why do you think this source was made?
• When do you think it was made?
• Who do you think was the audience for this source?
• What do you see that you did not expect?
• What perspectives or stereotypes do you see?
› Ask students:
› What do you wonder about this image?
› What questions does it generate in your mind?
› What would you like to ask the people in the photograph or the photographer?
› Pay attention to students’ language. When perspective appears in the language they use, ask: How can you say that in
a way that does not show your perspective or assumptions?
› Write the students’ questions on chart paper or the board. Continue until most students have contributed a question.
› Project the metadata for the illustration and review it with the students. Ask students:
› How does knowing this information change your questions?
› Do you have more questions now?
› Ask students:
› If you wanted to nd the answers to some of these questions, what are examples of primary sources that could help you learn
more?
› Where might you nd those sources?
› Ask students:
› In what ways did your perspective or assumptions inuence how you analyzed this source?
› How do our perspectives inuence how we analyze historical material?
125
INDIVIDUAL ANALYSIS (30 MINUTES)
› Explain that students will now have an opportunity to practice the analysis process individually with one dierent
primary source.
› Explain that they will have 20 minutes to complete the worksheet. They will observe or read the source silently for at
least one minute before they write anything.
› Distribute the Library of Congress Primary Source Analysis Tool and one primary source to each student.
› Give students time to observe or read their source before they begin writing. Tell them when one minute is up.
› Allow students time to complete the worksheet. If they need additional support, prompt them using questions from the
Analyzing Newspapers or Analyzing Photographs and Prints Teacher’s Guides.
› Ask students to select three items they listed under “Reect” and three questions they want to share.
› Direct students to partner with one or two students who reviewed the same primary source and share their reections
and observations. Encourage students to add additional ideas to their organizers based on their partner discussion.
WHOLE GROUP DEBRIEF (15 MINUTES)
› Encourage students to share ideas generated by the partner discussion. Ask the students:
› How was this process of looking at the primary source dierent from how you typically look at images or newspaper articles?
› What did you notice about personal perspectives or assumptions while you completed this process?
ADAPTATIONS
› To make the sample image more visually manageable, cover up everything except one quadrant at a time in
the Observe stage, then show the entire image for Reect and Question.
› If students need additional support, they may complete their analysis with a partner and then share it with
another pair before the whole group debriefs.
› If students need more structure, specify a specic number of items they should complete for each
worksheet section.
› Depending on the class, consider limiting the sources to visual only or textual only.
126
PRIMARY SOURCE A
Illustration, Indian Training School, Forest Grove, Oregon, Harper’s Weekly, May 27, 1882
Thure de Thulstrup (artist), Davidson (photographer)
Library of Congress (92513700)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c05118/
127
PRIMARY SOURCE B
Illustration, The American Indian Past. Present, November 28, 1906
Puck Magazine
Library of Congress (2002720336)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/ds.03750/
128
PRIMARY SOURCE C
Wood engraving, Educating the Indians--a female pupil of the government school at Carlisle visits her home at Pine Ridge Agency /
from a sketch by a corresponding artist, March 15, 1884
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper
Library of Congress (90712911)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c00543/
129
PRIMARY SOURCE D
Newspaper Article, “Uncle Sam’s Indian Wards,” The North Platte Semi-Weekly Tribune, February 25, 1916
Edward B. Clark
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/2010270504/1916-02-25/ed-1/seq-6/
130
PRIMARY SOURCE E
Newspaper Article, “American Indian is Fighting for Allies,” The Sun, February 12, 1917
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030431/1917-02-12/ed-1/seq-4/
131
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ADDTONAL NOTES:
LOC.gov/teachers
132
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HOW DO WE UNDERSTAND THE LARGER NARRATIVE?
The Observe-Reect-Question framework can guide students as they progress through their research process. At each stage,
encourage students to ask more questions. The questions may become more profound as the students’ understanding of the topic
develops. Help students see connections between sources and develop a deeper understanding of the events. It is essential to allow
the sources to drive the historical argument.
CITING SOURCES
Citing sources is critical for ethical reasons and makes it possible for future researchers to nd the sources
themselves. Citing primary sources from the Library of Congress is easy! Each source page includes a section titled
“About this Item” that contains a wealth of information. A section called “Cite This Item” can be found at the bottom of
the page. This feature includes automatically generated citation information in several bibliographic formats. For more
information on citing sources, see loc.gov/programs/tea
chers/getting-started-with-prima
ry-sources/citing/.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students analyze primary sources from the Library of Congress, ask students to reect on the research
process:
› What did you accomplish in this stage of the research process?
› How can you improve your primary source analysis skills?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
Now that we have identied how to analyze Library of Congress primary sources, the next two chapters will focus on the historical
thinking skills that are crucial to the historical research process. Chapter Seven will focus on contextualization, corroboration, and
close reading strategies. Chapter Eight will consider the idea of reliability, relevance, perspective, and missing narratives.
133
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
ILLUSTRATIONS AND WOOD ENGRAVINGS
The American Indian Past. Present. Puck Magazine. Illustration. November 28, 1906. Library of Congress (2002720336). https://www.loc.
gov/resource/ds.03750/.
Educating the Indians—a female pupil of the government school at Carlisle visits her home at Pine Ridge Agency / from a sketch by a
corresponding artist. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper. Wood engraving. March 15, 1884. Library of Congress (90712911). https://www.
loc.gov/resource/cph.3c00543/.
Thulstrup, Thure de (artist) and Davidson (photographer). Indian Training School, Forest Grove, Oregon. Harper’s Weekly. Illustration.
May 27, 1882. Library of Congress (92513700). https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c05118/.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
“American Indian is Fighting for Allies.” The Sun [New York, New York], February 12, 1917. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn83030431/1917-02-12/ed-1/seq-4/.
Clark, Edward B. “Uncle Sam’s Indian Wards.” The North Platte Semi-Weekly Tribune [North Platte, Nebraska]. February 25, 1916.
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/2010270504/1916-02-25/ed-1/seq-6/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOG POST
Savage, Anne. “Primary Sources Analysis Tool: Using the ‘Reect’ Column to Develop Critical Thinking.” Teaching with
the Library of Congress. March 1, 2012. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2012/03/primary-source-analysis-tool-using-the-
%E2%80%9Creect%E2%80%9D-column-to-develop-critical-thinking/.
WEBSITES
“Citing Primary Sources.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-
started-with-primary-sources/citing/.
“Inquiry in the Upper Midwest Project.” Minnesota Historical Society. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.mnhs.org/ium.
“Teacher’s Guides and Analysis Tool.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
CHAPTER SEVEN: THREE Cs OF SCHOLARLY
THINKING: CONTEXT, CLOSE READING, AND
CORROBORATION
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapters Five and Six, we focused on accessing and analyzing primary sources available through the Library of Congress.
Chapters Seven and Eight will help students think like a historian. This chapter will focus on the skills of historical context, close
reading, and corroboration of sources.
SCHOLARLY THINKING SKILLS
To successfully use primary source documents, students must develop historical thinking skills, including establishing context,
closely reading text, and corroborating multiple sources. All of these skills use questions to promote critical thinking and help
students construct meaning. Critical thinking for historians is “. . . about determining what questions to ask in order to generate new
knowledge.”
1
Teaching students how to decide which questions to ask will help them think like historians. As students become more
adept, they will incorporate them uidly. If students use and develop these thinking skills as they locate, read, evaluate, and make
notes throughout the research process, they will become better historians.
PARTNER RESOURCE
The Stanford History Education Group (SHEG), a Library of Congress TPS Consortium member, oers lessons and
assessments for students to engage in historical thinking skills. Check out their resources at sheg.stanford.edu/.
ESTABLISHING HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Contextualization is crucial when using primary sources as it promotes deep thinking and helps formulate better research
questions. When contextualizing, students place the source in a particular time and space.
2
To establish context, students may
access secondary sources and consider what was happening politically, socially, economically, or culturally. Teachers should guide
students through a series of questions to spark thinking about the source’s origins, which will help them analyze evidence from the
past. Contextualization is essential to understanding a primary source, and students should be taught to automatically ask context
questions when they encounter one.
Additional information from secondary sources can help students put a primary source into historical context and better understand
the time and space in which it was created. This new knowledge can frame varying perspectives as students corroborate across
sources. These secondary sources could include textbooks, books, online databases, print sources from school or public libraries,
secondary sources from the Library of Congress, or websites from other reliable organizations, such as historical societies and
museums. Critical thinking requires some factual knowledge. Students will be better equipped to contextualize a primary source
1 Samuel S. Wineburg, Why Learn History (when It’s Already on Your Phone) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 88.
2 Series Reading Like a Historian: Contextualization, Teaching Channel, https://learn.teachingchannel.com/video/reading-like-a-historian-contextualization.
134
135
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after reading a secondary one.
3
See Chapter Four for more details on how secondary sources can help provide historical context
for a primary source.
Once students dive into the research process, research becomes more reexive. A secondary source can lead to a new primary
source. Conversely, identifying a primary source can lead to questions that drive students to seek additional secondary sources.
Students should practice answering guided questions about a source using an organizer. These questions will encompass both thin
and thick questions.
4
Contextualizing begins with thin questions that describe a source. These questions identify the what, who, when,
and where of the source. Students do not necessarily have to answer these questions in order and may need to go back to some
secondary sources to answer all of them. Teachers should encourage students to look for clues if the answers are not evident in the
source. Once students have some thin questions answered, they will move to the more analytical, or thick, questions premised on
why and how.
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
The Library of Congress Digital Collections feature an “Articles and Essays” tab, which provides a model of historical
context for students. For example, check out the essay that accompanies the Mapping the American Revolution and
Its Era digital collection: loc.gov/collections/american-revolutionary-war-maps/articles-and-essays/mapping-the-
american-revolution-and-its-era/.
Another option for students interested in the revolutionary era is to explore the “Learn More” Tab in the Online Exhibit,
Creating the United States (loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/learn-more.html). This resource lists
exhibitions, teacher resources, related collections, webcasts, and books for adults and young readers.
By answering the what question, students are describing the source. For example, is it a newspaper article, a lithograph, a diary
entry, or a broadside? Ask how they know what it is. Students may disagree on what it is, and debating this will foster a closer look
at the source and a deeper understanding. Challenge students to defend their answers with evidence from the source. For instance,
many students have probably never seen a broadside or a lithograph. In conjunction with a class or small group discussion, quick
research of the terms will help students determine that broadsides were announcements or advertisements printed on large paper
for public display, while lithographs are a type of print created by a plate covered in ink for printing.
The next question addresses who created the source, which could be an individual or a group. Once students identify who created
the source, they can then ask questions about the person or group. They should look for evidence about the person’s role, position,
gender, age, or status in society. They can look for hints that identify some of these attributes about the creator. For example: Was
the artist of a particular social class? Was the writer educated? What was the speaker’s occupation? Where did the delegate live? If
the source was created by a group or organization, questions could include: Why was this group formed? What were their goals?
Students should go back to their secondary sources if this information about who is not clear, and they may even need to do some
more background research to discern more about the source’s creator(s).
Students need to think about a source in its period and not from a contemporary vantage point. Identifying when a source was made
is essential to answer the thicker questions about the period’s inuence later. Students need to look for clues that reference events
in or around that period. To develop potential dates, the students could also go back to a secondary source and look up when the
author or creator lived.
3 Mike Maxwell, “Historical Thinking Skills: A Second Opinion,” Social Education 83, no. 5 (October 2019): 290.
4 To learn more about questioning strategies, see Diane Cunningham, “Three Moves to Elevate Student Discussion,” ASCD Express Ideas from the Field 15, no. 16 (April
23, 2020). http://www.ascd.org/ascd-express/vol15/num16/three-moves-to-elevate-student-discussion.aspx or Dan Rothstein and Luz Santana, Make Just One
Change: Teach Students to Ask Their Own Questions (Cambridge: Harvard Education Press, 2017), 74-76.
136
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CONSIDERING HISTORICAL CONTEXT
For more on considering historical context when selecting primary sources for the classroom, check out the Teaching
with the Library of Congress blog post, “Selecting Primary Sources, Part II: Considering Historical Context, “ written
by Stephen Wesson: blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/07/selectin
g-primary-sources-part-ii-considering-historical-
context/.
Identifying where a source originated may not be evident, and again students will need to look for clues. If reference to a place is not
apparent, they could look in a secondary source for some background information on where the writer lived or traveled during the
time. Students could also research the location of an event described in a source.
Once students have answered the thin descriptive questions about a source, they should move to the more analytical questions of
why and how that dovetail with the thin questions. These thick questions facilitate critical thinking about the document, generate
more questions, and help students identify the next research steps.
Answering why a source was created relates to who made the source. Who was the intended audience? Why was the source
produced? Was it created in reaction to an event or in support of a cause? Was it meant as a private communication or a public
document?
“How” questions extend students’ thinking about the source. How did the person’s experience frame his or her perspective? How
was this person inuenced by his or her place in society? How does this source t into what was happening before or around the
time the source was made? How does the location where the source was made inuence the source?
Taking the time to contextualize puts students at the same time and space as the historical event and helps them understand events
through the lens of historical gures. Through contextualization, students can ask more in-depth questions, construct meaning, and
make useful notes. Without contextualization, students may misinterpret the meaning. Contextualization also helps students evaluate
whether a source is reliable and valuable to their research. With enough practice, students should develop the habit of asking both
thin and thick questions when they encounter a primary source. Contextualization helps students analyze sources at a deeper level.
This process improves comprehension and helps students synthesize multiple sources.
137
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AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND THE EARLY REPUBLIC
T
he Library of Congress has a remarkable collection of material from the American Revolution and the Early Republic.
Consider these resources for the classroom:
COLLECTION
George Washington Papers
loc.gov/collections/george-washington-papers/about-this-collection/
ONLINE EXHIBITIONS
Creating the United States: Revolution of the Mind
loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/revolution-of-the-mind.html
John Bull & Uncle Sam: Four Centuries of British American Relations
loc.gov/exhibits/british/brit-2.html
Religion and the Founding of the American Republic
loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel03.html
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
The Constitution
loc.gov/classroom-materials/constitution/
RESEARCH GUIDE
Articles of Confederation: Primary Documents in American History
guides.loc.gov/articles-of-confederation/digital-collections
TIMELINE
U.S. History Primary Source Timeline: The American Revolution, 1763 1783
loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/american-revolution-1763-1783/
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity One, students will practice contextualizing a source related to the debate over the U.S. Constitution’s
ratication following the Constitutional Convention in 1787. They will work with partners to answer questions and
then participate in a full class discussion. At the end of the activity, they will reect on the process and plan their
next research steps. This modeling is crucial to help students practice the historical thinking skills required in their
independent research.
138
ACTIVITY ONE: CONSTRUCTING MEANING WITH CONTEXT
ACTIVITY TIME: 70 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Letter, Elbridge Gerry to the Massachusetts State Legislature, Elliot’s Debate, 1787 (excerpt)
Library of Congress (09008475)
https://www.loc.gov/item/09008475/
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001220)):#0010509
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Historical Context Organizer
› Historical Context Organizer Answer Key
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Make one copy of the Elbridge Gerry letter and one copy of the Historical Context Organizer for each student
(or distribute electronically).
› Print one copy of the Historical Context Organizer Answer Key (Gerry) for teacher use.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
SET THE STAGE (10 MINUTES)
› Review prior learning and set the stage for activity by stating: Today, we are going back to the fall of 1787. We know that after
much debate and compromise, the delegates abandoned the idea of revising the Articles of Confederation and wrote a new national
Constitution signed by 39 of the 42 delegates. As a historian, you will examine some evidence and explore the ratication process.
Before we begin, we will do some brainstorming about the time period.
› Ask students:
› What was the primary method of communication in 1787?
› How did people learn about the Constitutional Convention?
› Did Americans agree on ratication?
INTRODUCE HISTORICAL CONTEXT ORGANIZER (15 MINUTES)
› Distribute a Historical Context Organizer to each student.
› Ask students to discuss with their partner how these questions could help them understand the source.
› Distribute the Elbridge Gerry letter to each student.
› Direct students to listen and look for clues to help them answer the questions as the letter is read. Ask students to
annotate the text when they see a clue (but not to complete the organizer).
PARTNER WORK (15 MINUTES)
› Instruct students to work with their partner to answer as many questions on the Historical Context Organizer as they
can. Encourage students to refer back to the text as they work.
› Check in with each pair of students and provide feedback. Possible suggestions could include:
139
› Where was Mr. Gerry when he wrote the letter? How can this be established? What clues are given that can help?
› Who is Mr. Gerry? What needs to be known about him? Where can this information be found?
› What does “ federal” mean? Look it up.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT SHARE (20 MINUTES)
› Project a blank Historical Context Organizer.
› Ask students to share what they wrote on their organizers. Complete the projected organizer as students share.
› Instruct students to add notes to their organizers as students share.
› Have students identify which questions were challenging to answer and share how they determined the answers.
› Ask students to identify what they still do not understand and brainstorm the next steps.
WRAP UP REFLECTION QUESTIONS (10 MINUTES)
› Lead a reection discussion. Questions:
› Explain how establishing historical context helps understand the source.
› What did you nd challenging about establishing historical context?
› List the next steps to help understand the issues over the ratication of the U.S. Constitution. (Hint: think about what else you
want to know.)
ADAPTATIONS
› If students need background information, teachers could assign the secondary reading as preparation work
the day before.
› Teachers who anticipate that some student will struggle with vocabulary may provide a glossary for
students to use as they analyze.
140
LETTER, ELBRIDGE GERRY TO THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE LEGISLATURE,
ELLIOT’S DEBATE, 1787
Library of Congress (09008475)
https://www.loc.gov/item/09008475/
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001220)):#0010509
Gentlemen : I have the honor to enclose, pursuant to my commission, the Constitution proposed by the Federal Convention.
To this system I gave my dissent, and shall submit my objections to the honorable legislature.
It was painful for me, on a subject of such national importance, to dier from the respectable members who signed the
Constitution; but conceiving, as I did, that the liberties of America were not secured by the system, it was my duty to
oppose it.
My principal objections to the plan are, that there is no adequate provision for a representation of the people; that they
have no security for the right of election; that some of the powers of the legislature are ambiguous, and others indenite
and dangerous; that the executive is blended with, and will have an undue inuence over, the legislature; that the judicial
department will be oppressive; that treaties of the highest importance may be formed by the President, with the advice of
two thirds of a quorum of the Senate; and that the system is without the security of a bill of rights . . .
As the Convention was called for “the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, and reporting to
Congress, and the several legislatures, such alterations and provisions as shall render the Federal Constitution adequate
to the exigencies of government, and the preservation of the Union,” I did not conceive that these powers extend to the
formation of the plan proposed . . .
The Constitution proposed has few, if any, federal features, but is rather a system of national government. Nevertheless, in
many respects, I think it has great merit, and, by proper amendments, may be adapted to the “exigencies of government, and
preservation of liberty.”
The question on this plan involves others of the highest importance: 1. Whether there shall be a dissolution of the federal
government; 2. Whether the several state governments shall be so altered as in eect to be dissolved; 3. Whether, in lieu of
the federal and state governments, the national Constitution now proposed shall be substituted without amendment. Never,
perhaps, were a people called on to decide a question of greater magnitude. Should the citizens of America adopt the plan
as it now stands, their liberties may be lost; or should they reject it altogether, anarchy may ensue . . .
I shall only add that, as the welfare of the Union requires a better Constitution than the Confederation, I shall think it my duty,
as a citizen of Massachusetts, to support that which shall be nally adopted, sincerely hoping it will secure the liberty and
happiness of America.
I have the honor to be, gentlemen, with the highest respect for the honorable legislature and yourselves, your most obedient
and very humble servant,
E. GERRY.
To the Hon. Samuel Adams, Esq., President of the Senate, and the Hon. James Warren, Esq., Speaker of the House of
Representatives, of Massachusetts.
141
5
HISTORICAL CONTEXT ORGANIZER
5
Document Title:
Note: you may not always be able to answer every question. You may need to go back to your secondary sources to answer some of the questions or search online.
Thin Questions Answers to Thin Questions Thick Questions Answers to Thick Questions
What type of
ddocument is this?
Why was this created? (purpose and
audience)
Was this a public or private communication?
How were these types of documents used in
the time period?
Who created
the document?
(individual/group,
position, status, role)
How did the creator’s perspective in uence
the document?
Where in the source do you notice the
creator’s perspective?
When was the
document created?
How does the document  t into what was
going on in the world when the source was
created?
What happened before, during, and after?
How do the circumstances of the time
in uence the content?
Where was the
document created?
How does the location in uence the
document?
Adapted from “Primary Source Context Worksheet.” Irving A. Robbins Middle School Social Studies Department.
142
HISTORICAL CONTEXT ORGANIZER ANSWER KEY
Document Title: Letter, Elbridge Gerry to the Massachusetts State Legislature
Thin Questions Answers to Thin Questions Thick Questions Answers to Thick Questions
What type of
ddocument is this?
Letter
Why was this created? (purpose and
audience)
Was this a public or private communication?
How were these types of documents used in
the time period?
To Massachusetts state senators and representatives -
addressed to leaders of each Sam Adams (president of
Massachusetts Senate) and James Warren (Speaker of House
of Representatives).
The letter was intended to be public—voicing concern about
the Constitution in advance of the state conventions.
Writing letters was a common method of communication- it
was a report of the convention’s outcome.
Who created
the document?
(individual/group,
position, status, role)
Elbridge Gerry
State delegate at the
Constitutional Convention
Harvard-educated merchant
Born in Massachusetts
Lived through the American
Revolution
How did the creator’s perspective in uence
the document?
Where in the source do you notice the
creator’s perspective?
Gerry opposed the new Constitution and advocated a
rejection by Massachusetts. He was one of only three
delegates who refused to sign the Constitution.
Feared that American liberties were not protected, concerned
about the representation of people and too much power given
to the president. He hints at amendments making it more
palatable.
Gerry was probably in uenced by the issues in pre-
Revolutionary times and fearful of creating a monarchy.
Wanted to keep revolutionary ideas.
When was the
document created?
Undated—After convention
(September 1787) and before
rati cation by Massachusetts
(February 1788)
How does the document  t into what was
going on in the world when the source was
created?
What happened before, during, and after?
How do the circumstances of the time
in uence the content?
He wrote about why he did not sign the Constitution—he
is holding out hope for amendments—justi es why he
participated. He may have anticipated that some people were
suspicious about the secretive convention.
While the nation operated under the Articles of Confederation,
after the Constitution was signed but not rati ed, it was still
uncertain if enough states would ratify it.
Shay’s Rebellion in Massachusetts raised awareness about
the weakness of the Articles of Confederation
Where was the
document created?
Mentions he is delayed and will be
traveling back to Massachusetts
How does the location in uence the
document?
It seems as though this letter was intended to get to
Massachusetts before Gerry returned. He was giving the
legislature a heads up on what happened.
143
CLOSE READING ROUTINES
Working with primary sources is a challenge, and students need to develop close reading skills to construct meaning successfully.
Author Samantha Cleaver points out that “close reading is an interaction that involves observation and interpretation between the
reader and a text.”
6
Close reading skills apply to observing and interpreting images and artifacts. Eectively analyzing primary
sources requires critical thinking on the part of the student. Students need a set of routines to guide this interaction through pre-
reading, reading, and rereading. When students take on these challenges in groups, they will better appreciate the dicult work of
historians. After all, teachers strive to teach analysis that students will use to explore beyond the present classroom.
Close reading develops critical thinking skills that are essential in scholarly research and other disciplines. In this critical thinking
process, students do the heavy lifting, not the teacher. Teachers should not tell students what a text means because they will be less
likely to understand it. Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey claim, “. . . struggle is an essential part of the learning process; it provides
an authentic reason for rereading and discussing the text.”
7
It is not uncommon to see a student quickly read a piece of text and
even make notes without clearly understanding the text or the notes. Notes formulated without critical thinking are not useful in
the research process when students later develop a thesis and frame an argument. Teachers must help students engage in critical
thinking so that they develop a deeper understanding of the text.
Teachers should model the thinking process with a set of routines and create a structure that requires students to make their
thinking visible for both the teacher and themselves. In their interaction with the text, students should annotate and ask questions as
they read. This interaction develops their interpretation as they learn to analyze the text. It is hard to know what students think when
they read a nonction text, and it is hard for students to understand what they should be thinking (what questions should they ask,
what should they mark, etc.). When students track their thinking, they can better reect on it, compare it to a classmate’s strategy,
and reassess their thinking.
Fisher and Frey recommend focusing on three foundational annotations in which students: identify key ideas; identify what confuses
them; and create margin notes for summarizing, synthesizing, and questioning as they read.
8
Providing students with an organizer
allows them to demonstrate their thinking and makes their thinking visible for the teacher to assess. An organizer should give
students a place to work out their thoughts and should include a summarizing task. According to Jay McTighe and Harvey F. Silver,
summarizing requires “. . . the active processing of information, leading to deeper student understanding.”
9
The goal of close reading
is to facilitate this deeper thinking.
Working with partners or in small groups helps students think deeply. In collaborative work, students articulate their thinking and
can see the thinking of others. Fisher and Frey describe this type of collaborative learning as “one of the critical linchpins through
which students access complex text because it enables them to consolidate their understanding with peers and provide support for
one another in the absence of the teacher.”
10
Struggling collectively with the process will validate that historians’ work is challenging,
and eventually, students will feel less intimidated by the task. Struggling is not synonymous with a lack of intelligence or ineptitude
but is the real work of historians. With practice, students will realize that it is routine to have to look up vocabulary and read a text
more than once. Teachers need to provide reection time so that students learn the benets of close reading. Students will not only
become better historians but also better critical thinkers in all disciplines when regularly using these routines.
6 Samantha Cleaver, “What Exactly Do We Mean By ‘Close Reading,’ Anyway?,” WeAreTeachers.com, last modied August 22, 2014, accessed March 29, 2020.
https://www.weareteachers.com/what-exactly-do-we-mean-by-close-reading-anyway/.
7 Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey, “Points of Entry,” Educational Leadership 71, no. 3 (November 2013). http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/
nov13/vol71/num03/Points-of-Entry.aspx.
8 Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey, “Take a Closer Look at Close Reading,” Educational Leadership 77, no. 7 (April 2020): 82-83. http://www.ascd.org/publications/
educational-leadership/apr20/vol77/num07/Take-a-Closer-Look-at-Close-Reading.aspx.
9 Jay McTighe and Harvey F. Silver, Teaching for Deeper Learning: Tools to Engage Students in Meaning Making (Alexandria: ASCD, 2020), 29.
10 Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey Rigorous Reading: 5 Access Points for Comprehending Complex Texts (Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, 2003), 74.
144
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - -
CLOSE READING AND THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
These blog posts oer more examples of close reading strategies that complement Library of Congress resources:
Ariela Gomez, “Pure Drugs and Primary Sources: An Opportunity for Close Reading and Analysis” (December 4, 2018)
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2018/12/pure-drugs-an
d-primary-sources-an-opportunity-for-close-reading-and-analysis/
Rebecca Newland, “In Defense of Close Reading with Robert Frost” (November 21, 2018)
blogs.loc.gov/catbird/2018/11/in-defense-of-close-reading-with-robert-frost/
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Students are often adept at gathering textual resources, but struggle to read and understand them. Activity Two will
model close reading routines to interact with the text on a deeper level. Students will complete an organizer as they
preread, read, and reread excerpts from two speeches by James Wilson during the Pennsylvania State Conventions.
They will work in small collaborative groups as they analyze the text, show their thinking, construct meaning, and
reect.
145
ACTIVITY TWO: READING ROUTINES WITH WILSON
ACTIVITY TIME: 70 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
Speech, James Wilson, Debates in the Convention of the State of Pennsylvania, October 28, 1787
Elliott’s Debates, Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lled&leName=002/lled002.db&recNum=445
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Close Reading Routines
› Close Reading Organizer
› Close Reading Organizer Answer Key
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Make one copy of the James Wilson speech, the Close Reading Routines handout, and the Close Reading Organizer for
each student (or distribute electronically).
› Print one copy of the Close Reading Organizer Answer Key for teacher use.
› Provide students with scratch paper.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCTION AND PREREADING (20 MINUTES)
› Distribute the Close Reading Routines handout and scratch paper to each student.
› Read the instructions aloud. Direct students to place Close Reading Routines handout on their desks for reference as
they begin to practice each step.
› Distribute the James Wilson speech to each student.
› Ask students to pre-read the text independently, following the Observation routine on the Close Reading Routine
Handout.
› Instruct students to work with their partner and write down on scratch paper at least three items they observed while
pre-reading.
› Ask students to share what they observed and list their responses on board. Answers may include:
› There is an introduction paragraph with some questions I could be thinking about as I read.
› These are excerpts from two dierent days.
› This is from Debates in the Convention of the State of Pennsylvania.
› People may have been disagreeing if there was a debate.
› Wilson includes some quotes from the Preamble of the Constitution of the United States.
› The word enumeration is used a lot. I need to look that up.
› Only three delegates opposed the Constitution, and Wilson was not one of them. He probably wanted it ratied.
› Instruct students to number the paragraphs in the primary source speech (excluding the introductory Historical Context
paragraph). They should have ve paragraphs.
146
MODEL READING THE TEXT AND COMPLETING FIRST PARAGRAPH (10 MINUTES)
› Distribute a Close Reading Organizer to each student.
› Read the rst paragraph aloud and model close reading strategies. Use the Close Reading Organizer Teacher Answer
Key as a guide. Some examples:
› I circled three words that I need to understand. Let’s look up and dene the words pervade, ordain, and annul.
› I was also a little confused about the preamble’s purpose, so I went to the National Constitution Center website and did a little
reading. This website helped me understand that the preamble declares who was enacting the Constitution and why.
› I underlined the phrase: “it receives its political existence from their authority.”
› After struggling a bit, I came up with one big idea in this paragraph and reduced it to twelve words. Note I did not just write
“preamble” or “Bill of Rights’’ as that would only be a label and not give me any meaning about the big idea.
PARTNER READING AND SHARING (30 MINUTES)
› Instruct students to work with their partners to read the rest of the text aloud and complete the organizer. Encourage
students to chunk paragraphs together that logically relate.
› Once complete, students should switch partners and share insights, questions, and observations.
› Ask students to share with the class how the reread helped them understand the speech more clearly.
REFLECTION (10 MINUTES)
› Have students complete an exit question or online survey, or have a full class discussion on how close reading helped
them construct meaning. Sample questions could include:
› What is one benet of using close reading routines? Explain.
› What other strategies help you understand the text?
› What did you not like about using the routines? Explain.
› If you had been assigned this reading for homework last night without any instructions, explain what may have happened.
› How does contextualization help close reading?
› How was sharing with a partner helpful? Explain.
ADAPTATION
Some students might need additional support or modeling when they begin to engage in close reading. Scaold
as needed and remove the supports until students can engage independently.
147
SPEECH, JAMES WILSON, DEBATES IN THE CONVENTION OF THE STATE OF
PENNSYLVANIA, OCTOBER 28, 1787
Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lled&leName=002/lled002.db&recNum=445
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
After the nal draft of the U.S. Constitution was completed, each of the 13 states held conventions to discuss
and debate the document. The framers of the Constitution stipulated that nine state conventions had to approve
the Constitution before it could go into eect. The following excerpt comes from the constitutional debate held in
Pennsylvania. The section focuses on whether the Constitution needed to include a bill of rights, which it did not.
Mr. James Wilson was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention from Pennsylvania. What does Wilson mean
when he refers to the “enumeration of power”? Why does Wilson argue against the inclusion of a bill of rights in the
Constitution? According to Wilson, how did the newly written Constitution guarantee the rights of the people?
Wednesday, October 28, 1787, A. M.—Mr. WILSON. This will be a proper time for making an observation or two on what
may be called, the preamble to this Constitution . . . This Constitution, Mr. President, opens with a solemn and practical
recognition of that principle:—”We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice,
&c., do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” It is announced in their name—it receives its
political existence from their authority: they ordain and establish. What is the necessary consequence? . . .
I am called upon to give a reason why the Convention omitted to add a bill of rights to the work before you. I confess, sir, I
did think that, in point of propriety, the honorable gentleman ought rst to have furnished some reasons to show such an
addition to be necessary; it is natural to prove the armative of a proposition; and, if he had established the propriety of this
addition, he might then have asked why it was not made.
I cannot say, Mr. President, what were the reasons of every member of that Convention for not adding a bill of rights.
I believe the truth is, that such an idea never entered the mind of many of them . . . In a government possessed of
enumerated powers, such a measure would be not only unnecessary, but preposterous and dangerous. Whence comes
this notion, that in the United States there is no security without a bill of rights? In all societies, there are many powers and
rights which cannot be particularly enumerated. A bill of rights annexed to a constitution is an enumeration of the powers
reserved. If we attempt an enumeration, every thing that is not enumerated is presumed to be given. The consequence is,
that an imperfect enumeration would throw all implied power into the scale of the government, and the rights of the people
would be rendered incomplete . . .
To every suggestion concerning a bill of rights, the citizens of the United States may always say, We reserve the right to do
what we please . . .
Tuesday, December 4, 1787, A. M.—Mr. WILSON . . . There are two kinds of government—that where general power is
intended to be given to the legislature, and that where the powers are particularly enumerated. In the last case, the implied
result is, that nothing more is intended to be given than what is so enumerated, unless it results from the nature of the
government itself. On the other hand, when general legislative powers are given, then the people part with their authority,
and, on the gentleman’s principle of government, retain nothing. But in a government like the proposed one, there can be
no necessity for a bill of rights . . . Aristocrats as they were, they pretended not to dene the rights of those who sent them
there. We ask, repeatedly, What harm could the addition of a bill of rights do? If it can do no good, I think that a sucient
reason to refuse having any thing to do with it. But to whom are we to report this bill of rights, if we should adopt it? Have
we authority from those who sent us here to make One?
148
CLOSE READING ROUTINES
11
Primary source documents contain valuable pieces of evidence from the past. Although useful, they can be challenging to
read. Close reading routines help historians examine and evaluate the past. Pre-read the text to look for clues. Remember to
read the source more than once.
Pre-reading
› Observation: What do you observe about the source? Look for clues such as title, introductory notes, pictures, captions,
or subheadings.
› Number: Number the paragraphs in the source.
› Context: Answer as many questions as possible about the context.
Reading
› Section: Divide the text into sections or chunks. Think about what goes together.
› Circle with a Purpose: Circle any words or phrases that are confusing. Take action and look up what you do not
understand (e.g., vocabulary words or names of events and people).
› Underline with a Purpose: Underline key ideas.
› Summarize: Summarize each section in 10 to 20 words. This summary should be a big idea or a claim—not just a label.
(Note: this applies to sections, not every paragraph.)
Re-reading
› Context: Can you answer more context questions?
› Questions: What is still confusing?
11 Adapted from “Strategies for Reading Challenging Text,” Irving A. Robbins Middle School Social Studies Department.
149
CLOSE READING ORGANIZER
Paragraph
Number
What is Confusing? What I Learned What Does This Mean?
150
CLOSE READING ORGANIZER ANSWER KEY
Paragraph
Number
What is Confusing? What I Learned What Does This Mean?
1 pervades–spreads
through
ordain–order or make
ocial
Preamble–language
that makes it clear
who is enacting the
Constitution
annul–to declare invalid
Claims that:
› Power in the
Constitution comes
from people and the
government exists
because of the
people’s authority
› quotes the preamble
language to support
his claim
› in addition to
creating power, the
people can change
or take power away
Wilson defends lack of Bill of Rights
in anticipation of criticism
151
CORROBORATION: PUTTING THE PIECES TOGETHER
Interpreting primary sources is an ideal method to access multiple stories, and corroboration is the process by which students pull
the pieces of research together. Daisy Martin describes the benet of using multiple accounts, noting, “shifting from thinking about
one story to multiple stories is an elegant and useful way to pivot from history as nished, certain, and simple to history as complex,
interpretive, and procedural.”
12
In corroboration, students move from evaluating one source in isolation to synthesizing across
multiple sources where the thinking and questioning become more complex. Teachers should provide prompting questions to probe
how the sources relate to each other. Students will benet if they can practice this skill in a collaborative structure. Corroboration
promotes deep thinking that will facilitate original research on the part of the student historian.
The thinking that happens in corroboration is multifaceted. Not only do students synthesize information, but they also begin to
question the reliability of independent sources as various perspectives emerge. They may confront conicting evidence and
consider why there are multiple accounts or opinions. They may also begin to see consistent trends or emerging themes. When
students work with nonction texts, they tend to assume the source is always accurate. Beers and Probst dispel this notion and
dene nonction as a “body of work in which the author purports to tell us about the real world, a real experience, a real person,
an idea, or belief.”
13
They further advise that “our job as readers of nonction is to enter into that potentially messy reading as a
co-constructor of meaning.”
14
Developing the ability to co-construct meaning through corroboration requires critical thinking. Mary
Ehrenworth describes shifting the reader’s experiences and suggests teaching that nonction is “someone’s perspective on the
truth.”
15
In corroborating sources, students analyze varying perspectives, which cultivates independent thinking.
Students need support to confront the cognitive challenge of synthesizing multiple sources.
16
Using an organizer that identies each
source’s critical claims is a method in which students can step back, compare and contrast, and view the big picture. Looking at each
source’s succinct analysis will allow students to evaluate how they speak to each other. In this process, they will learn to ask more
complex thinking questions that consider how the sources relate. Possible prompting questions include:
› Has this text made me see something dierently?
› Does this text oer an opposing view? Do these sources validate each other?
› Does this validate my thinking? Why or why not?
› Do I need to do more research to gure this out?
› What new questions should I research? What else do I want to know?
After students identify the key claims and answer some of the questions, they should discuss these corroborating questions in
small groups where their thinking will be visible. In collaborative discourse, students are more likely to understand complex material
and engage more deeply with the content.
17
All students benet when they have to articulate their thoughts and hear the ideas
of others. Students may validate their thinking through the discussion process, consider a dierent interpretation, or defend their
understanding of multiple sources.
Corroboration requires analytical thinking that fosters a deep understanding of a group of sources. This thinking must occur
throughout the research process, not only toward the end. In addition to helping students pull their ideas together, it may also help
them create new research questions for an even deeper dive into the topic. Digging deep with more complex questions will enhance
the level of analysis in the end research product.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Three, students will practice corroborating two sources. Ideally, corroboration would occur after students
have read and established historical context. Before starting this activity, students will need to complete the Historical
Context Organizer (introduced in Activity One) and use the Close Reading Routines (from Activity Two) to read the
speeches closely. Students will work in groups to complete an organizer to prepare for a full class discussion on
corroborating questions.
12 Daisy Martin, “Using Core Historical Thinking Concepts in an Elementary History Methods Course,” The History Teacher 45, no. 4 (2012): 590. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/23265947.
13 G. Kylene Beers and Robert E. Probst, Reading Nonction: Notice and Note Stances, Signposts, and Strategies (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2016), 21.
14 Beers and Probst, Reading Nonction, 21.
15 Mary Ehrenworth, “Unlocking the Secrets of Complex Text,” Educational Leadership 71, no. 3 (November 2013): 16-21. http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/nov13/vol71/num03/Unlocking-the-Secrets-of-Complex-Text.aspx.
16 Jerey D. Nokes, “Recognizing and Addressing the Barriers to Adolescents’ ‘Reading Like Historians,’ ” The History Teacher 44, no. 3 (May 2011): 386-387. https://
www.jstor.org/stable/41303991.
17 Karin K. Hess, “Deepening Student Understanding with Collaborative Discourse,” ASCD Express 14, no. 22 (April 4, 2019): accessed July 27, 2020. http://www.ascd.
org/ascd-express/vol14/num22/deepening-student-understanding-with-collaborative-discourse.aspx.
152
ACTIVITY THREE: CORROBORATING WITH MASON AND JAY
ACTIVITY TIME: 65 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Speech, George Mason, Objections of the Honorable George Mason, Elliot’s Debates, 1787 (excerpt)
Library of Congress (09008475)
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001221))
Speech, John Jay, Address to the People of the State of New York . . . , Elliot’s Debates, 1788 (excerpt)
Library of Congress (09008475)
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001222))
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Corroborating Organizer: Putting All of the Pieces Together
› Corroborating Questions
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into groups of three or four.
› Make one copy of the George Mason speech and the John Jay speech for each student.
› Make one copy of the Corroborating Organizer: Putting All of the Pieces Together and the Corroborating Questions for
each student.
› Provide two dierent-color writing utensils for each student.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCTION AND ORGANIZER (30 MINUTES)
›
Distribute one copy of the Corroborating Organizer: Putting All of the Pieces Together to each student.
›
Review the directions and have students work in their groups to identify the critical claims from each source.
›
Instruct students to use dierent-color pens for each source to complete the organizer.
CORROBORATION DISCUSSION (15 MINUTES)
›
Distribute Corroborating Questions to each student.
›
Ask students to use the discussion questions as they work together. The questions are a guide and do not need to be
answered in order.
›
Remind students this is about how the evidence ts together and that their discussion will be more substantial if they
use the evidence.
›
Monitor groups to prompt discussions.
153
FULL CLASS DISCUSSION (20 MINUTES)
› Ask each group to share one positive point or highlight in the discussion; this could be something that makes them proud.
› Ask each group to share one struggle that they had. Have them explain how they resolved it or identify a struggle not
settled in their discussion.
ADAPTATION
Students who need additional support can use the Historical Context Organizer (from Activity One) or the Close
Reading Routines (from Activity Two) to deepen their understanding of the Mason and Jay speeches.
154
SPEECH, GEORGE MASON, OBJECTIONS OF THE HONORABLE GEORGE
MASON, ELLIOT’S DEBATES, 1787 (EXCERPT)
Library of Congress (09008475)
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001221))
There is no declaration of rights; and, the laws of the general government being paramount to the laws and constitutions of
the several states, the declarations of rights in the separate states are no security . . .
In the House of Representatives there is not the substance, but the shadow only, of representation, which can never produce
proper information in the legislature, or inspire condence in the people. The laws will, therefore, be generally made by men
little concerned in, and unacquainted with, their eects and consequences.
The Senate have the power of altering all money bills, and of originating appropriations of money, and the salaries of
the ocers of their own appointment, in conjunction with the President of the United States, although they are not the
representatives of the people, or amenable to them. These, with their other great powers, (viz., their powers in the
appointment of ambassadors, and all public ocers, in making treaties, and in trying all impeachments;) their inuence upon,
and connection with, the supreme executive from these causes; their duration of oce; and their being a constant existing
body, almost continually sitting, joined with their being one complete branch of the legislature,—will destroy any balance in
the government, and enable them to accomplish what usurpations they please upon the rights and liberties of the people . . .
The President of the United States has the unrestrained power of granting pardon for treason; which may be sometimes
exercised to screen from punishment those whom he had secretly instigated to commit the crime, and thereby prevent a
discovery of his own guilt. By declaring all treaties supreme laws of the land, the executive and the Senate have, in many
cases, an exclusive power of legislation, which might have been avoided, by proper distinctions with respect to treaties, and
requiring the assent of the House of Representatives, where it could be done with safety . . .
Under their own construction of the general clause at the end of the enumerated powers, the Congress may grant
monopolies in trade and commerce, constitute new crimes, inict unusual and severe punishments, and extend their power
as far as they shall think proper; so that the state legislatures have no security for the powers now presumed to remain to
them, or the people for their rights. There is no declaration of any kind for preserving the liberty of the press, the trial by
jury in civil cases, nor against the danger of standing armies in time of peace.
The state legislatures are restrained from laying export duties on their own produce; the general legislature is restrained
from prohibiting the further importation of slaves for twenty-odd years, though such importations render the United States
weaker, more vulnerable, and less capable of defence . . .
This government will commence in a moderate aristocracy: it is at present impossible to foresee whether it will, in its
operation, produce a monarchy or a corrupt oppressive aristocracy; it will most probably vibrate some years between the
two, and then terminate in the one or the other. GEO. MASON.
155
SPEECH, JOHN JAY, ADDRESS TO THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF
NEW YORK . . . , ELLIOT’S DEBATES, 1788 (EXCERPT)
Library of Congress (09008475)
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@eld(DOCID+@lit(ed001222))
Friends and Fellow-citizens: The Convention concurred in opinion with the people, that a national government, competent to
every national object, was indispensably necessary; and it was as plain to them, as it now is to all America, that the present
Confederation does not provide for such a government. These points being agreed, they proceeded to consider how and in
what manner such a government could be formed, as, on the one hand, should be suciently energetic to raise us from our
prostrate and distressed situation, and, on the other, be perfectly consistent with the liberties of the people of every state.
Like men to whom the experience of other ages and countries had taught wisdom, they not only determined that it should
be erected by, and depend on, the people, but, remembering the many instances in which governments vested solely in
one man, or one body of men, had degenerated into tyrannies, they judged it most prudent that the three great branches of
power should be committed to dierent hands, and therefore that the executive should be separated from the legislative, and
the judicial from both. Thus far the propriety of their work is easily seen and understood, and therefore is thus far almost
universally approved; for no one man or thing under the sun ever yet pleased every body.
The next question was, what particular powers should be given to these three branches. Here the dierent views and
interests of the dierent states, as well as the dierent abstract opinions of their members on such points, interposed many
diculties. Here the business became complicated, and presented a wide eld for investigation—too wide for every eye to
take a quick and comprehensive view of it . . .
The question now before us naturally leads to three inquiries:—
1. Whether it is probable that a better plan can be obtained.
2. Whether, if attainable, it is likely to be in season.
3. What would be our situation if, after rejecting this, all our eorts to obtain a better should prove fruitless.
The men who formed this plan are Americans, who had long deserved and enjoyed our condence, and who are as much
interested in having a good government as any of us are or can be. They were appointed to that business at a time when the
states had become very sensible of the derangement of our national aairs, and of the impossibility of retrieving them under
the existing Confederation . . .
Consider, then, how weighty and how many considerations advise and persuade the people of America to remain in the
safe and easy path of union; to continue to move and act, as they hitherto have done, as a band of brothers; and to have
condence in themselves and in one another; and, since all cannot see with the same eyes, at least to give the proposed
Constitution a fair trial, and to mend it as time, occasion, and experience, may dictate. It would little become us to verify
the predictions of those who ventured to prophesy that peace, instead of blessing us with happiness and tranquillity, would
serve only as the signal for factions, discord, and civil contentions, to rage in our land, and overwhelm it with misery and
distress . . .
JOHN JAY, a Citizen of New York
156
CORROBORATING ORGANIZER: PUTTING ALL OF THE PIECES TOGETHER
Directions
› Complete the organizer and identify the claims made in each source. Use a dierent-color writing utensil for each
source.
› Use this organizer to participate in a class discussion on how these sources t together. When nished, your group
should start discussing the corroborating questions.
Source What were the key claims or big ideas used in this source?
What evidence supports the claims?
157
CORROBORATING QUESTIONS
Discuss how these sources t together, and use these questions to guide the discussion. Make sure to use evidence
from the sources to support your answers.
1. Do these sources contradict each other, or are they consistent? Explain.
2. What argument(s) does each author make?
3. What is similar about these sources? Explain how these validate each other.
4. What is dierent about these sources? If dierent, explain what accounts for the dierences.
5. When looking at both sources, what can you conclude about the time in history?
158
6. What more is needed to understand what was happening around this time? What evidence is missing?
7. What new questions do you have? What are the possible new research terms? Where will you seek the answers?
8. Are these sources reliable? Why or why not?
9. Did one particular source change your thinking on this issue? Explain.
CONCLUDING COMMENTS ON THE THREE Cs
Students become stronger critical thinkers with more opportunity to practice the three Cs of scholarly thinking. Critical thinking is
the pinnacle of learning in all disciplines. According to Noddings, “‘critical thinking’ now appears to be worldwide an important aim of
education.”
18
This thinking helps students construct meaning essential to developing original research. Working with primary sources
renes these thinking skills to build condence to assert their voice about the past. Successful student historians will autonomously
and uidly establish context, closely read, and corroborate their sources as they become more adept in historical thinking.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students practice historical context, close reading, and corroboration, ask students to reect on the
research process:
› How can you improve your historical thinking skills?
› How can these historical thinking skills improve your ability to analyze your research?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
Context, close reading, and corroboration are skills that students need to practice to master. Chapter Eight will expand our historical
thinking skills to evaluate sources for reliability and relevance, establish perspective, and identify missing narratives.
18 Nel Noddings and Laurie Brooks, Teaching Controversial Issues: The Case for Critical Thinking and Moral Commitment in the Classroom (New York: Teachers College Press,
2017): 27.
159
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
George Washington Papers. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/george-washington-papers/about-this-collection/.
Mapping the American Revolution and Its Era. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/american-revolutionary-war-maps/
articles-and-essays/mapping-the-american-revolution-and-its-era/.
LETTERS AND SPEECHES
Gerry, Elbridge. Letter from Elbridge Gerry to the Massachusetts State Legislature. Compiled in Elliot, Jonathan. The Debates in the
Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution. 1787: 493-494. Library of Congress (09008475). https://www.loc.
gov/item/09008475/.
Jay, John. Address to the People of the State of New York . . . Speech. Compiled in Elliot, Jonathan. The Debates in the Several State
Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution. 1787: 495-496. Library of Congress (09008475). https://www.loc.gov/
item/09008475/.
Mason, George. Objections of the Honorable George Mason. Speech. Compiled in Elliot, Jonathan. The Debates in the Several State
Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution. 1787: 495-496. Library of Congress (09008475). https://www.loc.gov/
item/09008475/.
Wilson, James. Debates in the Convention of the State of Pennsylvania. Speech. October 28, 1787
Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lled&leName=002/lled002.db&recNum=445.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
The Constitution. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/constitution/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLES
Cunningham, Diane. “Three Moves to Elevate Student Discussion.” ASCD Express Ideas from the Field 15, no. 16 (April 23, 2020). http://
www.ascd.org/ascd-express/vol15/num16/three-moves-to-elevate-student-discussion.aspx.
Ehrenworth, Mary. “Unlocking the Secrets of Complex Text.” Educational Leadership 71, no. 3 (November 2013): 16-21. http://www.
ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov13/vol71/num03/Unlocking-the-Secrets-of-Complex-Text.aspx.
Fisher, Douglas, and Nancy Frey. “Points of Entry.” Educational Leadership 71, no. 3 (November 2013): 34-38. http://www.ascd.org/
publications/educational-leadership/nov13/vol71/num03/Points-of-Entry.aspx.
Fisher, Douglas, and Nancy Frey. “Take a Closer Look at Close Reading.” Educational Leadership 77, no. 7 (April 2020): 82-83. http://
www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/apr20/vol77/num07/Take-a-Closer-Look-at-Close-Reading.aspx.
Hess, Karin K. “Deepening Student Understanding with Collaborative Discourse.” ASCD Express Ideas from the Field 14, no. 22 (April 4,
2019). http://www.ascd.org/ascd-express/vol14/num22/deepening-student-understanding-with-collaborative-discourse.aspx.
Martin, Daisy. “Using Core Historical Thinking Concepts in an Elementary History Methods Course.” The History Teacher 45, no. 4
(August 2012): 581-602. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23265947.
Maxwell, Mike. “Historical Thinking Skills: A Second Opinion.” Social Education 83, no. 5 (October 2019): 290-295.
Nokes, Jerey D. “Recognizing and Addressing the Barriers to Adolescents’ ‘Reading Like Historians.’ “ The History Teacher 44, no. 3
(May 2011): 379-404. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41303991.
160
BLOG POSTS
Cleaver, Samantha. “What Exactly Do We Mean By ‘Close Reading,’ Anyway?” WeAreTeachers. August 22, 2014. https://www.
weareteachers.com/what-exactly-do-we-mean-by-close-reading-anyway/.
Gomez, Ariela. “Pure Drugs and Primary Sources: An Opportunity for Close Reading and Analysis.” Teaching with the Library of
Congress Blog. December 4, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2018/12/pure-drugs-and-primary-sources-an-opportunity-for-
close-reading-and-analysis/.
Newland, Rebecca. “In Defense of Close Reading with Robert Frost.” From the Catbird Seat: Poetry & Literature at the Library of
Congress Blog. November 21, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/catbird/2018/11/in-defense-of-close-reading-with-robert-frost/.
Wesson, Stephen. “Selecting Primary Sources, Part II: Considering Historical Context.” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog.
July 26, 2011. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2011/07/selecting-primary-sources-part-ii-considering-historical-context/.
BOOKS
Beers, G. Kylene, and Robert E. Probst. Reading Nonction: Notice and Note Stances, Signposts, and Strategies. Portsmouth: Heinemann,
2016.
Fisher, Douglas, and Nancy Frey. Rigorous Reading: 5 Access Points for Comprehending Complex Texts. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press,
2013.
McTighe, Jay, and Harvey F. Silver. Teaching for Deeper Learning: Tools to Engage Students in Meaning Making. Alexandria: ASCD, 2020.
Noddings, Nel, and Laurie Brooks. Teaching Controversial Issues: The Case for Critical Thinking and Moral Commitment in the Classroom. New
York: Teachers College Press, 2017.
Rothstein, Dan, and Luz Santana. Make Just One Change: Teach Students to Ask Their Own Questions. Cambridge: Harvard Education
Press, 2017.
Wineburg, Samuel S. Why Learn History (When It’s Already on Your Phone). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.
EXHIBITIONS
Creating the United States: Revolution of the Mind. Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-
states/revolution-of-the-mind.html.
John Bull & Uncle Sam: Four Centuries of British-American Relations. Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/
british/brit-2.html.
Religion and the Founding of the American Republic. Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel03.html.
RESEARCH GUIDE
“Articles of Confederation: Primary Documents in American History.” Research Guide. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/
articles-of-confederation/digital-collections.
TIMELINE
“U.S. History Primary Source Timeline: The American Revolution, 1763-1783.” Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-
materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/american-revolution-1763-1783/.
VIDEOS
Series Reading Like a Historian: Contextualization. Video. Teaching Channel. Accessed July 22, 2020. https://learn.teachingchannel.com/
video/reading-like-a-historian-contextualization.
Series Reading like a Historian: Overview. Teaching Channel. Accessed May 25, 2020. https://learn.teachingchannel.com/video/reading-
like-a-historian-curriculum.
Martin, Daisy. What Is Historical Thinking? National History Education Clearinghouse. Accessed June 7, 2020. https://teachinghistory.
org/historical-thinking-intro.
161
WEBSITES
Chemerinsky, Erwin, and Michael Stokes Paulsen. “Common Interpretation: The Preamble.” National Constitution Center. Updated
2020. Accessed July 24, 2020. https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/interpretation/preamble-ic/interps/37.
“Reading Like a Historian.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed March 22, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons.
“Stanford History Education Group.” Accessed November 20, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/.
162
CHAPTER EIGHT: THROUGH THE RIGHT LENS:
RELIABILITY, RELEVANCE, PERSPECTIVE, AND
MISSING NARRATIVES
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
In Chapter Seven, we focused on the historical thinking skills of historical context, close reading, and corroboration. These are the
rst steps in helping students decipher the sources that they nd.
In teaching students to conduct research, it is not enough for them to know where to nd information. Most students understand
the basics of searching for information online, but they often do not know how to choose the best sources to answer their research
questions. Analyzing the sources that students nd helps them determine what is useful (or not) to progress in their research. This
chapter aims to help students hone strategies to assess a source’s reliability, relevance, perspective, and missing narratives relative
to the research question.
RELIABILITY
A reliable source is one that is that is credible, trustworthy, and accurate.
Evaluating the reliability of a source is an essential step with any source. Students often take sources at face value without testing
their trustworthiness, credibility, and accuracy. In doing so, students imbue sources with a sense of authority that may not be
warranted. Think of sources as witnesses testifying in a courtroom. Some witnesses provide helpful information that can support a
lawyer’s argument. Other witnesses are not useful; they create doubt or weaken an argument. Students want to nd those helpful
“witnesses” when it comes to doing historical research.
Students need to ask questions of a source to know if it is reliable. They need to consider:
› Is the source primary or secondary?
› What type of source is it? Is it a book, a letter, a journal entry, a photograph, etc.?
› What was the purpose of the source? Who was the intended audience?
› When was it produced?
› What sort of experience, expertise, or authority was the impetus for creating the source?
› Can the information be corroborated by other accounts?
163
164
RELIABILITY OF SECONDARY SOURCES
Testing the reliability of secondary sources diers slightly from testing the reliability of primary sources. Remind students that
secondary sources are sources created after a historical event, drawing from primary source evidence. Consider the following
example.
The Library of Congress has a series of digital collections available at loc.gov/collections/. One of these collections is titled California
as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California’s Early Years, 1849 to 1900 (loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/).
These collections can benet student research because they gather both primary and secondary sources. The California as I Saw It
collection includes a secondary source essay, “From Gold Rush to Golden State,” posted at loc.gov/collections/california-rst-
person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/from-gold-rush-to-golden-state/.
After reading the article with students, consider the following questions:
Is it a primary or secondary source? This article is a secondary source. It is posted in the “articles and essays” section of the
collection and summarizes California’s population trends from the 1860s to the 1880s.
What type of source is it? Is it a book, a letter, a journal entry, a photograph, etc.? This short essay is published as part of a
collection posted on the Library of Congress website.
Who created this source? What was the purpose of the source? Who was the intended audience? We do not have a specic
author listed for this essay. However, it was published by the Library of Congress as part of one of its digital collections, so it stands
to reason that it was written and edited by Library of Congress sta.
When was it produced? This essay does not have a date. As a general rule, more recent material reects more recent scholarship.
What sort of experience, expertise, or authority was the impetus for creating the source? We know that the Library of
Congress is a reputable institution, and interpretive materials accompanying its collections would be edited and vetted by historians,
librarians, and archival specialists. The primary sources, of course, are presented without alteration and each one should be
evaluated on its own merits. Also, the “about the collection” tab includes references to a variety of historical books.
Can the information be corroborated by other accounts? Yes. The materials shared include narratives in line with other
publications about California at the time.
We must work with students to teach them the concept of reliability in online resources. In an age where anyone can publish,
students must engage digital literacy skills to ensure that the material they nd is accurate, edited, and presented with evidence.
Remind students that evidence (not opinions) provides the basis for historical interpretations. Some considerations when evaluating
the reliability of an online secondary source include:
› What organization published this resource?
› Does the resource conform to standard grammar and spelling? Articles containing typos or signicant errors could signal an individual posting
without editing or review.
› Has this author posted about similar topics?
› Is this posted on a blog or personal page, or is it connected to a recognized organization (archive, library, university, etc.)?
› Are there signals that the author is trying to invoke an emotional response? Identify any words or phrases that provoke an emotional
response. (Some clues are statements in ALL CAPS or information meant to iname, anger, or upset the reader.)
› What expertise does the writer have relating to this topic?
165
RELIABILITY OF PRIMARY SOURCES
When considering the reliability of primary sources, we need to actively analyze the sources. Remind students that primary sources
are those created during a historic event by those with rst-hand knowledge of or experience with the event.
The Library of Congress has many primary sources related to the California Gold Rush and Chinese immigration to California.
Consider this political cartoon, The Chinese Question, published in Harper’s Weekly on February 18, 1871 (loc.gov/resource/
cph.3b01317/).
After reviewing the political cartoon, consider the following questions:
Is it a primary or secondary source? This is a primary source, created during a time of Chinese immigration to the United States.
What type of source is it? Is it a book, a letter, a journal entry, a photograph, etc.? This image is a political cartoon.
What was the purpose of the source? Who was the intended audience? In the lower right corner of the political cartoon, the
signature, “Th. Nast,” appears. A quick search will show students that Thomas Nast was a prolic cartoonist who commented on
166
- -
- -
- - -
- -
political issues from the 1860s to the 1880s.
1
Harper’s Weekly was a weekly illustrated magazine that began publishing in 1857 and
continued through 1916.
2
When was it produced? Harper’s Weekly published this cartoon on February 18, 1871.
What sort of experience, expertise, or authority was the impetus for creating the source? Thomas Nast was a political
cartoonist, and this cartoon, like all political cartoons, is a statement of political opinion. He worked for several national publications
during his career.
Can the information be corroborated by other accounts? Yes. This is a political cartoon published in Harper’s Weekly in 1871. This
content was a topic of political discussion in the 1870s.
We can conclude that both the secondary article, “From Gold Rush to Golden State,” and Thomas Nast’s 1871 political cartoon, The
Chinese Question, are reliable sources. They are credible and part of the collection of the Library of Congress. Now we will consider if
they are relevant for our research project.
The Stanford History Education Group (SHEG) oers lessons for students to practice assessing the reliability of
primary sources, including:
Traders in the West
sheg.stanford.edu/history-assessments/traders-west
Homestead Strike
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/homestead-strike
Japan and America
sheg.stanford.edu/history-assessments/japan-and-america
Riis’s Urban Photography
sheg.stanford.edu/history-assessments/riiss-urban-photography
RELEVANCE
A relevant source provides evidence to answer the research question.
Students often confuse reliability with relevance. Many sources are reliable (that is, they are credible and trustworthy) but may not
be relevant for a specic research project. Assessing relevance is like using a radio tuner. Many sources out there, which can be
overwhelming for students working on a particular research project. It is easy to be led astray by materials that appear helpful or
are tangentially related. By conrming a source’s relevance, we can tune out the static and nd materials that will help students
answer their research questions. While those other sources may be reliable, they detract from valuable research time if they cannot
answer questions relating to a student’s research. Students struggle with this concept because they often believe that more sources
make a project more robust. Substantial projects are backed by quality sources, not by marginally useful sources.
To determine whether a source is relevant, students need to consider the research question. For this chapter, let us assume that the
question is, “How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?”
3
Given that question, students should re-examine the article. This article gives some insight into this question, noting that 20,000 of
the 67,000 people who came to California searching for gold immigrated from China. It also mentions that some of these people
created businesses in San Francisco, in the neighborhood that became Chinatown. This source is relevant because it helps the
researcher consider immigration records and San Francisco’s Chinatown history.
1 “Artist Biography: Thomas Nast (1840–1902),” Smithsonian Libraries, accessed October 27, 2020. https://www.sil.si.edu/ondisplay/caricatures/bio_nast.htm.
2 To learn more about Harper’s Weekly, see “Harper’s Weekly,” The News Media and the Making of America, 1730–1865, American Antiquarian Society, accessed
October 27, 2020, https://americanantiquarian.org/earlyamericannewsmedia/exhibits/show/news-and-the-civil-war/item/124; “Presidents, Politics, & the Pen:
The Inuential Art of Thomas Nast,” Rockwell Center for American Visual Studies, accessed October 27, 2020, https://www.rockwell-center.org/uncategorized/
presidents-politics-the-pen-the-inuential-art-of-thomas-nast/. Harper’s Weekly is catalogued at the Library of Congress at https://www.loc.gov/item/12032976/.
3 See Chapters Two and Three of this book to help students create and rene a research question.
167
The political cartoon from 1871 is a little more challenging. This source is not specically about the California Gold Rush, but it does
show the eects of the gold rush on a national level. Therefore, it would be a relevant source to answer the question, “How did
Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?”
ACTIVITY ALERT!
All historical skills need to be taught and practiced before students can apply them to their independent research
topics. In Activity One, students will review a set of primary sources from the California Gold Rush and discuss their
reliability and relevance.
168
ACTIVITY ONE: CONFIRMING RELIABILITY AND RELEVANCE
ACTIVITY TIME: 40 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Broadside, Gold mines of California!! . . . , 1845
Library of Congress (rbpe1200240d)
https://www.loc.gov/item/rbpe.1200240d/
Lithograph, Celestial empire in California: Miners; gamblers, c.1849–1853
Britton & Rey (lithographer)
Library of Congress (2011661690)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661690/
Lithograph, Gold mining in California, c.1871
Currier & Ives (publisher)
Library of Congress (2001700204)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700204/
Lithograph from a photograph,Life in the gold mines, California, c.1850–1860
Joseph Britton (photographer) and Fishbourne & Gow (lithographer)
Library of Congress (20011661698)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661698/
Wood engraving, Chinese immigrants at the San Francisco custom-house, February 3, 1877
P. Frenzeny (artist), Harper’s Weekly (publisher)
Library of Congress (93510092)
https://www.loc.gov/item/93510092/
Wood engraving, Chinese Settlement in the suburbs of San Francisco, California, 1856
F. Hickock (engraver), Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (publisher)
Library of Congress (95509658)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b46280/
Wood engraving, Mining life in California—Chinese miners, 1857
Harper’s Weekly (publisher)
Library of Congress (2001700332)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700332/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› California Gold Rush Historical Context
› California Gold Rush Sample
› California Gold Rush Source Sets (A, B, and C)
› California Gold Rush Source Sets Answer Keys
169
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into groups of three or four.
› Secure devices with internet access for each group.
› Make one copy of the California Gold Rush Historical Context for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Make copies of the California Gold Rush Source Sets A, B, and C (one for each group) or distribute electronically.
› Project a digital image of the source, Gold Mines of California!!, or make one color copy for each group.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY (20 MINUTES)
› Review the historical context of the California Gold Rush. The California Gold Rush Historical Context can provide
background information.
› Project Gold mines of California!! to the class and analyze it as a group.
› Project the California Gold Rush Sample and complete it as a group. Emphasize the research question when discussing
the reliability and relevance of the source.
› Teacher Tip: This source is an example of a reliable source from the time, but it does not address Chinese
immigrants’ experiences in the California Gold Rush. Therefore, it is most likely not relevant to this project.
EXPLORING RELIABILITY AND RELEVANCE IN CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH PRIMARY SOURCES (20 MINUTES)
› Organize students into groups of three or four.
› Distribute one California Gold Rush Source Set (A, B, or C) randomly to each group.
› Tell students that they will be exploring how Americans reacted to Chinese immigrants during the California Gold Rush.
Their job is to identify the most reliable and relevant sources to use for their research. Sometimes, they may nd
interesting or important sources, but they do not necessarily aid the research project.
› Give students time to work in groups. Monitor and ask questions to help students explain why they nd the source to be
relevant or not relevant. Remind students to review the research question as a guide.
› Lead a class discussion on the dierent sources each group reviewed. Project the sources so that all students can see
them. Help students synthesize the concepts of reliability and relevance and remind them to keep each in mind as they
research their independent topics later.
170
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Adapted from the Library of Congress, California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California’s Early Years, 1849 to 1900
Collection Articles
While surveying a job site in Coloma, California, James W. Marshall discovered gold. His small discovery marked the start
of the California Gold Rush on January 24, 1848. The rst wave of gold-seekers concentrated their eorts around the
American, Sacramento, and San Joaquin Rivers, where Marshall made his original discovery. As the California Gold Rush
drew in more people, the mining eorts spread to other rivers in the area.
4
By 1849, 100,000 people moved to California from Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and the United States’ East Coast. Many
left their old jobs as merchants, sailors, and laborers to begin panning, the act of swirling river water in a shallow pan,
sifting river sand from heavier gold materials.
5
By 1852, 20,000 immigrants from China moved to the United States, hoping
to strike it rich.
6
This inux of people traveled through the then-small port town of San Francisco, turning it into a booming
area. People involved in the California Gold Rush hoped to nd their fortunes in gold. Others, realizing a need for supplies,
provided “miners with goods and services. From professional men and merchants to dance hall girls and cardsharps, they
gave the miners a way to spend their money—and quickly.”
7
The California Gold Rush had a signicant impact on the area. The 1860 census revealed that the population of California
had tripled since 1847.
8
Gold mining contributed to the California economy and the national economy. The United States
quickly passed California’s request for statehood just three years into the Gold Rush.
For others, it had negative consequences. Chinese immigrants faced discrimination in the United States, including high fees
to work as miners. Chinese workers left the gold mines, nding new jobs in San Francisco, where they established the rst
Chinatown in the United States.
9
The discrimination continued and led to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned
Chinese immigration to the United States.
4 “The Mines,” Library of Congress, accessed October 29, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/
early-california-history/mines/.
5 “The Mines,” Library of Congress.
6 “From Gold Rush to Golden State,” Library of Congress, accessed October 29, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/
articles-and-essays/early-california-history/from-gold-rush-to-golden-state/.
7 “The Forty Niners,” Library of Congress, accessed October 29, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/articles-and-
essays/early-california-history/forty-niners/.
8 “From Gold Rush to Golden State,” Library of Congress.
9 “From Gold Rush to Golden State,” Library of Congress.
171
Yes
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SAMPLE
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Gold mines of California!!
https://www.loc.gov/item/rbpe.1200240d/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
No
Explain why or why not:
172
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET A
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Mining life in California—Chinese miners
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700332/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
173
Source Two: Chinese immigrants at the San Francisco custom-house
https://www.loc.gov/item/93510092/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
174
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET B
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Chinese Settlement in the suburbs of San Francisco, California
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b46280/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
175
Source Two: Life in the gold mines, California
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661698/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
176
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET C
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Celestial empire in California: Miners; gamblers
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661690/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
177
Source Two: Gold mining in California
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700204/
Is this a primary or secondary source? Who created or produced this source?
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)? When was this source created?
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes No
Explain why or why not:
178
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET A ANSWER KEY
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Mining life in California--Chinese miners
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700332/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Harper’s Weekly magazine
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
political cartoon
When was this source created?
October 3, 1857
What is the overall purpose of this source?
The purpose of this source is to point out the role the
Chinese played in the Gold Rush in the United States.
How does this source help you understand the topic?
It reveals Chinese involvement in the California Gold
Rush and immigration patterns.
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is housed in the Library of Congress. It was featured in Harper’s Weekly, a prominent magazine of
the period that featured articles and illustrations on topics such as immigration and labor. It was printed in the
October 3, 1857 volume, conrming its accuracy.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
It reveals that Chinese mine workers often faced discrimination by white Americans. This can be seen through
the way in which the Chinese workers are depicted, such as smoking opium, cooking exotic foods, and keeping
their hair in the traditional Chinese style.
179
Source Two: Chinese immigrants at the San Francisco custom-house
https://www.loc.gov/item/93510092/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Harper’s Weekly magazine
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
illustration/cartoon
When was this source created?
February 3, 1877
What is the overall purpose of this source?
The purpose of this illustration is to reveal the
continuing immigration of Chinese men and women
to the United States.
How does this source help you understand the topic?
It helps us to understand practices of custom houses,
the treatment of immigrants, and the growing
population of the Chinese in San Francisco.
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is housed in the Library of Congress. It was featured in Harper’s Weekly, a prominent magazine of
the period, that featured articles and illustrations on topics such as immigrtion and labor. We can conrm it was
printed in the February 3, 1877 volume, conrming its accuracy.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes x No
Explain why or why not:
The image features an inspection room, which the Chinese immigrants entered upon arrival to the United States.
It reveals information about the treatment of immigrants, but not specically the Gold Rush.
180
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET B
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Chinese Settlement in the suburbs of San Francisco, California
https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b46280/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
illustration/cartoon
When was this source created?
June 21, 1856
What is the overall purpose of this source?
The purpose of this source is to show the creation of
a Chinese settlement in San Francisco.
How does this source help you understand the topic?
Immigration patterns, the appearance of Chinese
immigrants, the creation of Chinese immigrant
communities in towns like San Francisco
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is housed in the Library of Congress. It was featured in Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, a
prominent publication of the period, that featured articles and illustrations on topics such as immigration and
labor. It was printed in the June 21, 1856 volume, conrming its accuracy.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes x No
Explain why or why not:
While this creates an understanding of the rise of immigrant communities on the West Coast, this is not a
relevant source to help understand how Americans reacted to the Chinese. It does not feature information about
the Gold Rush, but more about immigration and growing cities. While it was created at the time of the Gold
Rush, it does not relate to the topic.
181
Source Two: Life in the gold mines, California
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661698/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Joseph Britton, artist
Fishbourne & Gow, lithographer
Marvin and Hitchcock, publisher
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
pictorial lettersheet
When was this source created?
circa 1850s
What is the overall purpose of this source? How does this source help you understand the topic?
The overall purpose is to reveal information about life The creation and operations of mining camps, the
and labor in the California gold mines. conditions workers experienced, jobs performed by
workers
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is housed in the Library of Congress. The source itself also features the publisher and the
lithographers, which can help us trace to the source to conrm reliability. We can also conrm it is reliable
because we know it was produced in the 1850s, during the California Gold Rush.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes x No
Explain why or why not:
While this creates an understanding of what gold mining in California may have looked like, this is not a relevant
source to help understand how Americans reacted to the Chinese. It was a lettersheet, drawn to be sold to
people who wanted to send an image home (similar to a postcard today). While it is created at the time of the
Gold Rush, it does not relate to the topic.
182
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH SOURCE SET C
Research Topic: California Gold Rush
Research Question: How did Americans react to Chinese miners during the California Gold Rush between 1848 and 1860?
Source One: Celestial empire in California: Miners; gamblers
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661690/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Britton & Rey, lithographer
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
pictorial lettersheet
When was this source created?
circa 1849–1853
What is the overall purpose of this source?
The overall purpose of this source is to caricaturize
the roles and culture of the Chinese mine workers.
How does this source help you understand the topic?
Discrimination toward Chinese workers, racism and
xenophobia, life in the mines
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is housed in the Library of Congress. The source itself also features where it was published and
the lithographers’ names, which helps trace the source to conrm reliability. We can also conrm it is reliable
because we know it was produced in the 1840s–1850s, during the California Gold Rush.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
This source helps us see how white workers and other Americans felt about the presence of Chinese immigrant
laborers. It depicts them in racist and immoral ways, revealing them to be poor workers, gamblers, and gluttons.
183
Source Two: Gold mining in California
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001700204/
Is this a primary or secondary source?
primary source
Who created or produced this source?
Currier & Ives, publisher
What type of source is this (photograph, letter, etc.)?
lithograph
When was this source created?
circa 1871
What is the overall purpose of this source?
The overall purpose of this source is to reveal
workers’ experiences during the California Gold Rush.
How does this source help you understand the topic?
Jobs performed by gold miners
Reliability Check
Is this source credible, trustworthy, and accurate?
x Yes No
Explain why or why not:
The source is credible and trustworthy. It is housed in the Library of Congress. The source itself also features
where it was published and the publisher’s names, which helps trace the source to conrm reliability. It may or
may not be accurate. It was produced in the 1870s, after most of the Gold Rush ended.
Relevance Check
Is this a relevant source to research American reaction to Chinese immigrants in the California Gold Rush?
Yes x No
Explain why or why not:
This source does not feature the Chinese workers. While it highlights life for miners, it does not specically help
answer the research question.
184
- - - - - - - - - -
PERSPECTIVE
Perspective is one person’s point of view, experience, or side of the story.
Think of perspective as an unnished puzzle. Each puzzle piece provides an individual perspective, showing one part of the story.
Each piece is essential in its own right, but the individual pieces do not provide a complete picture.
Multiple perspectives are necessary to piece together a complete puzzle of what happened in the past. The best analytical
arguments typically do not rely on one source. Students need to understand that looking at multiple sources will broaden and
deepen their understanding of a particular period or event in history. While students may not necessarily agree with the perspective
they encounter, they should consider the role those perspectives play in the overall historical narrative.
Remind students that all sources are a product of their time—they reect biases, beliefs, and attitudes that have changed over
time and might not t with the present. As perspective is subjective, it is also important to consider any bias (whether positive or
negative) within that perspective. Students will need to consider how perspective aects reliability and relevance.
To determine perspective, students must review the author or creator’s background. Some historians use the term biographizing to
explain this process. It may also mean looking into a publication or organization that contains the material. For example, if students
are reviewing an illustration from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Magazine, they might need to search for the publication’s audience and
purpose. They would need to know who Frank Leslie was, where the magazine originated, and who purchased it.
Students should always be critical readers when it comes to sources. All sources carry bias. Understanding bias means that
students can identify whether a source favors or supports a specic argument, group, or event. Students should ask whether the
source is credible or is it trying to distort a position. Remember, bias is specic to when and where a source was produced.
One example of a biased perspective is the use of racially insensitive language. Primary sources often reect outdated language.
We need to consider that critically. For example, this chapter focuses on the perceptions of immigrant Chinese miners. Common,
racialized language often referred to this group as “Chinee,” “Chinamen,” “Yellow Peril,” or “Oriental.” To analyze a source where this
language is present requires a young researcher to consider this language in its own time and how to view it in retrospect. While
these names were common in the 1800s, they are not presently used. Students should consider how this language reected racial
beliefs but avoid using these terms when analyzing or discussing the source.
Asking questions helps students to consider the point of view and the bias of a source. Students should analyze whether secondary
sources rely on evidence-based reasoning drawn from primary source evidence and not opinions.
Thinking critically about racial language and changes to language over time is crucial for any student researching
African American history, Asian American history, American Indian history, or immigration history. This blog post from
Rebecca Newland, a former Teacher in Residence at the Library of Congress, models how to engage students in this
conversation by using primary sources from the Library of Congress:
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2013/11/mark-twains-huckleberry-finn-controversy-at-the-heart-of-a-classic/.
Let us return to the political cartoon, The Chinese Question (loc.gov/resource/cph.3b01317/). Every political cartoon is a statement of
political opinion. Examining the source will help students to identify the perspective.
› Who created or produced this source? We know that the cartoon was designed by Thomas Nast and published in the
illustrated magazine Harper’s Weekly.
› What do we know about the source’s creator(s)? We know that Thomas Nast was born in Germany before immigrating to the
United States as a child. He became known for his drawings during the American Civil War, but his cartoons took a more political
stance after the war. He opposed segregation and President Andrew Johnson’s plan for Reconstruction.
1
Many of his cartoons
are anti-Catholic and anti-Irish, depicting the Irish as brutes, drawn as partially human with animal characteristics.
0
› Who is the audience for this source? Harper’s Weekly was published in New York City. It was distributed through the U.S. Postal
Service and rail networks to reach a regional and national audience.
10 Morton Keller, “The World of Thomas Nast,” The Ohio State University, University Libraries, accessed October 27, 2020. https://library.osu.edu/site/thomasnast/
world-of-nast/.
185
-
- - - -
› Who appears or is discussed in this source (individuals or groups of people)? We see a Chinese immigrant sitting on the
ground, with Columbia—a symbol for America—resting her hand on his head, and an armed mob coming forward.
› How are these people depicted?
› The Chinese immigrant looks sad and tired, sitting on the ground with his head in his hand. Above him is a wall containing a
series of quotations with violent and derogatory language that insults the man and threatens outright violence. One quotation,
“The Chinaman works cheap because he is a barbarian and seeks gratication of only the lowest, the most inevitable wants,”
is attributed to Wendell Phillips in the cartoon. Phillips was an abolitionist and advocate for the rights of American Indians. In
an 1870 editorial, he opposed Chinese immigration.
11
› Columbia is a beautiful woman in classic robes. She projects an angry face at the approaching mob. Her hand on the
Chinese man’s head is both protective and paternalistic—it appears that her protection is needed. The caption on the cartoon
reads, “Columbia. ‘Hands o, gentlemen! America means fair play for all men.’ ”
› Nast drew the angry mob similar to his other cartoons that featured Irish and Irish Americans. The men are threatening,
have harsh, animal-like features, and carry weapons (clubs, rocks, knives).
› What is the purpose of this source? The purpose of this source is to oppose those who wish to discriminate against Chinese
immigrants.
› What perspective(s) or point(s) of view does this source show? Nast’s cartoon portrays a sympathetic view of Chinese
immigrants. It also indicated that the Chinese needed the American government’s protection and could not protect themselves.
Students interested in learning more about the experiences of Chinese immigrants in the U.S. can explore these
resources from the Library of Congress:
Presentation, Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History (Chinese)
loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/chinese/
Blog Post, Wendi Maloney, “Photographs Document Early Chinese Immigration” (May 8, 2017)
blogs.loc.gov/loc/2017/05/photographs-document-early-chinese-immigration/
11 For the full text of the editorial that contained this quote, see Wendell Phillips, “The Chinese,” National Antislavery Standard, July 30, 1870, Perseus Digital Library,
Tufts University, accessed October 27, 2020. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2001.05.0189%3Achapter%3D14.
186
- -
- -
- - - -
- -
- -
The Stanford History Education Group (SHEG) oers a series of lessons to help students consider the role of
perspective when analyzing historical sources. Consider the following materials to help students gain additional
practice on this concept.
First Crusade
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/first-crusade
Factory Life (in Great Britain)
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/factory-life
The Gold Rush and San Francisco
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/gold-rush-and-san-francisco
Annexation of Hawaii
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/annexation-hawaii
The Cold War
sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/cold-war
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Two, students will return to the sources from Activity One and consider the perspectives they represent.
Understanding perspective is key to ensuring students that their independent research reects multiple perspectives
and gives a full picture of an event or time in history.
187
ACTIVITY TWO: IDENTIFYING PERSPECTIVE
ACTIVITY TIME: 30 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES:
All primary sources from Activity One, plus:
“Letter of the Chinamen to His Excellency Governor Bigler,” Sacramento Daily Union, May 8, 1852 (excerpt)
Hab Wa, et al
California Digital Newspaper Collection, University of California Riverside
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SDU18520508.2.7&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
› Perspectives of the California Gold Rush Worksheets (A, B, and C)
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into groups of three or four.
› Make one copy of the Perspectives of the California Gold Rush Worksheet for each student.
› Secure a device with internet access for each group.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
ANALYZING PERSPECTIVE (30 MINUTES)
› Organize students into groups of three or four.
› Distribute the Perspectives of California Gold Rush Worksheet to each group (or distribute electronically).
› Tell students now that they have identied which sources are relevant and reliable, they can begin to search sources for
perspectives. Remind students that all sources have a perspective. To do this, they will review the sources to identify
each source’s perspective.
› Teacher Tip: Remind students that sometimes perspective is buried in a source, and they have to ask questions
to discern the perspective. They cannot simply assume the perspective reects that of the people discussed or
those shown in a source. Teachers may choose to have students examine the same sources as in Activity One
or examine new sources.
› Give students time to work in groups to analyze the perspective of their sources. Guide students to research as needed
to nd information for responding to the questions.
› Lead a whole-class discussion when worksheets are complete. Questions can include:
› Did you gain more insight into any of these sources after investigating the sources’ authors or creators?
› Did you run into any roadblocks where you could not nd information? How did you work around that?
› If you used only these two sources for your research project, would you have a complete picture of the Chinese experience in the
California Gold Rush?
› What perspectives are missing? Who do you want to hear from?
› Distribute one copy of the “Letter of the Chinamen to His Excellency Governor Bigler” to each group (or share
electronically).
› After reading the letter, ask students:
› How did the letter from Hab Wa oer a dierent perspective?
› How did this source corroborate or contradict what you have read in previous sources?
PERSPECTIVES OF THE CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH WORKSHEET
Primary Source Set A
Mining life in California—Chinese miners
https://www.loc.gov/
item/2001700332/
Chinese immigrants at the San Francisco
custom-house, 1877
https://www.loc.gov/item/93510092/
Who created or produced this
source?
Illustrator unknown; printed in
Harper’s Weekly
Illustrator is P. Frenzeny; printed in
Harper’s Weekly
What do we know about the
source’s creator(s)?
Who is the intended audience
for this source?
Who appears or is discussed in
this source (individuals or groups
of people)?
How are these people depicted?
What is the purpose of this
source?
What perspective(s) or point(s)
of view does this source show?
Explain your reasoning.
188
PERSPECTIVES OF THE CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH WORKSHEET
Primary Source Set B
Chinese Settlement in the suburbs of San
Francisco, California
https://www.loc.gov/resource/
cph.3b46280/
Life in the gold mines, California
https://www.loc.gov/
item/2011661698/
Who created or produced this
source?
The artist might be F. Hickok;
published in Frank Leslie’s
Illustrated Newspaper
Artist was Joseph Britton,
lithograph by Fishbourne & Gow
What do we know about the
source’s creator(s)?
Who is the intended audience
for this source?
Who appears or is discussed in
this source (individuals or groups
of people)?
How are these people depicted?
What is the purpose of this
source?
What perspective(s) or point(s)
of view does this source show?
Explain your reasoning.
189
PERSPECTIVES OF THE CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH WORKSHEET
Primary Source Set C
Celestial empire in California: Miners;
gamblers
https://www.loc.gov/
item/2011661690/
Gold mining in California
https://www.loc.gov/
item/2001700204/
Who created or produced this
source?
Published by Britton & Rey Published by Currier & Ives
What do we know about the
source’s creator(s)?
Who is the intended audience
for this source?
Who appears or is discussed in
this source (individuals or groups
of people)?
How are these people depicted?
What is the purpose of this
source?
What perspective(s) or point(s)
of view does this source show?
Explain your reasoning.
190
“LETTER OF THE CHINAMEN TO HIS EXCELLENCY GOVERNOR BIGLER,”
SACRAMENTO DAILY UNION, MAY 8, 1852
Hab Wa, et al
California Digital Newspaper Collection, University of California Riverside
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SDU18520508.2.7&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1
Letter of the Chinamen to His Excellency Governor Bigler.
San Francisco, April 29,1852.
Sir: The Chinamen have learned with sorrow that you have published a message against them. Although we are Asiatics,
some of us have been educated in American schools and have learned your language, which has enabled us to read your
message in the newspapers for ourselves, and to explain it to the rest of our countrymen. We have all thought a great deal
about it, and after consultation with one another, we have determined to write you as decent and respectful a letter as we
could pointing out to your Excellency some of the errors you have fallen into about us . . .
In ours all great men are learned men, and a man’s rank is just according to his education . . .
You speak of the Chinamen as “Coolies,” . . . ”Cooley” is not a Chinese word; it has been imported into China from foreign
parts . . . We have never known it used among us as a designation of a class, such as you have in view—persons bound
to labor under contracts which they can be forcibly compelled to comply with . . . There are among them tradesmen,
mechanics, gentry, (being persons of respectability, and who enjoy a certain rank and privilege.) and schoolmasters, who
are reckoned with the gentry, and with us considered a respectable class of people. None are “Coolies,” if by that word you
mean bound men or contract slaves . . .
The poor Chinaman does not come here as a slave. He comes because of his desire for independence . . . When he
gets to the mines, he sets to work with patience, industry, temperance, and economy . . . Like all other nations, and as is
particularly to be expected of them, many return home with their money, there to remain, buy rice elds, build houses
and devote themselves to the society of their own households, and the increase of the products of their country, of its
exports, of its commerce, and the general wealth of the world . . . It is possible, sir, that you may not be aware how great
this trade is, and how rapidly it is increasing, and how many are now returning to California as merchants who came over
as miners . . . The emigration of the “Coolies,” as your Excellency rather mistakingly [sic] calls us, is attended with the
opening of all this Chinese trade, which if it produces the same results here as elsewhere, will yet be the pride and riches
of this city and State . . . When a ship arrives, everybody sees how actively and protably your drays, steamboats, wagons,
etc., are employed by us . . .
We will not believe it is your intention to pass a law treating us as coolies whether we are so or not. You say there is no
treaty provision for the manner in which Chinese emigrants shall be treated, and that the Chinese government would have
no right to complain of any law excluding us from the country, by taxation or otherwise . . .
It has grieved us that you should publish so bad a character of us, and we wish that you could change your opinion and
speak well of us to the public. We do not deny that many Chinamen tell lies, and so do many Americans, even in Courts of
Justice . . . But in the more important matters we are good men; we honor our parents; we take care of our children; we are
industrious and peaceable; we trade much; we are trusted for small and large sums; we pay our debts and are honest; and
of course must tell the truth. Good men cannot tell lies and be ignorant of the dierence between right and wrong . . .
There are very good Chinamen now in the country, and a better class will, if allowed, come hereafter men of learning and of
wealth, bringing their families with them.
In concluding this letter, we will only beg your Excellency not to be too hasty with us, to nd us out and know us well, and
then we are certain you will not command your legislature to make laws driving us out of your country. Let us stay here—
the Americans are doing good to us and we will do good to them.
Your most humble servants,
Hab Wa, Sam Wo & Co,
Long Achick, Ton Wo & Co,
For the Chinamen in California.
191
- - -
“READING AGAINST THE GRAIN”: MISSING NARRATIVES IN
HISTORY
Missing narratives are narratives that exist but are not represented.
When we study any topic in history, we often focus on a specic perspective. But it also becomes necessary to consider views that
are overlooked, ignored, or forgotten. Historians call this “reading against the grain.”
For instance, we have looked at how Americans reacted to Chinese immigrants during the California Gold Rush. But what about
Chinese women’s experiences? What about white women? African American or Hispanic men and women? How do their stories t
into the narrative? In what ways were their experiences similar to or dierent from the experiences of Chinese men?
While most miners were men, some women staked claims and tried to make their fortunes. The Library of Congress collections
oer fascinating glimpses into some of these missing narratives and pathways to engage students to research further. One example
is Eliza W. Farnham’s 1856 published account of her experience in the California Gold Rush, called California, in-doors and out; or, How we
farm, mine, and live generally in the Golden State.
12
Farnham wrote,
[Upon] entering the mining country, one of the rst features of it that arrested my attention was, [sic] that there appeared to
have been a vast deal of labor wasted in turning over ground that had yielded nothing. I was often, for the rst several miles,
as we rode along beneath the summer sun, saying mentally, poor fellows, how many a weary day has been spent here, without
reward, and I enjoyed afterwards not a little amusement (which was also mental) at my own simplicity, when I was reminded
that these very diggings had, perhaps, abounded in gold, which might at that moment be circulating in Wall street, at the Royal
Exchange or on the Bourse . . .
My own experience in mining is conned to this variety. I washed one panful of earth, under a burning noon-day sun, in a cloth
riding-habit, and must frankly confess, that the small particle of gold, which lies this day safely folded in a bit of tissue paper,
though it is visible to the naked eye, did not in the least excite the desire to continue the search.
A large portion of the gold which has so far been taken out of the earth in California, has been gathered in these dry diggings.
13
To learn more about women who ventured west to California in the 1700s and 1800s, read Pam Van Ee’s Topic Essay,
“Women On The Move: Overland Journeys to California” in the Library of Congress American Women Research Guide
at guides.loc.gov/american-women-essays/overland-journeys-to-california.
Another common missing or overlooked narrative of the California Gold Rush includes the accounts of those who returned home (or
desired to return home). William Davis was a settler who purchased a lettersheet, an illustrated piece of paper that could be folded
and mailed without an envelope. On the back of this lettersheet, he wrote to his father on July 10, 1854.
14
We left the big tree ranch home two or three weeks since and we opened our old house at Murphy’s calculating to live there
until I could get my money together when I was about buying out a jeweler in Columbia and starting again in the old business
. . . Since we left the three until I returned here again I have been mining . . . We both feel very anxious to see our little family
together.
How much I would like to be home myself I won’t tell you how though I am truly determined as ever not to return poor. Riches
I do not expect but enough for a home and ordinary comforts then I think my experience will keep me clear of embarrassment
such as I have seen before . . .
15
12 Eliza W. Farnham, California, in-doors and out; or, How we farm, mine, and live generally in the Golden State (New York: Dix, Edwards & Co., 1856), Library of Congress
(rc01000780). https://www.loc.gov/item/rc01000780/.
13 The full text of Farnham’s book is digitized and available through the Library of Congress at https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services//service/gdc/calbk/176.pdf.
14 A Prospecting Party, Pictorial Lettersheet, c. 1849-1853, Library of Congress (ppmsca.32168). https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsca.32168/.
15 The full text of the letter (signed as William and Catherine Davis) is available at The miner’s Ten Commandments, Letter, July 10, 1854, Library of Congress
(ppmsca.32176). https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsca.32176/.
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- - - -
- - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
Sometimes missing narratives can be found when we change geographical perspective. This chapter highlights the
California Gold Rush, but the Alaskan Klondike also saw a gold rush. By comparing and contrasting the two spaces, what
missing stories or new historical actors are revealed?
Alaska Gold Rush: Topics in Chronicling America
guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-alaska-gold-rush
guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-alaska-gold-rush/selected-articles
Blog Post, Julie Stoner
, “Race for the Gold: Map Games of the Klondike Gold Rush”
blogs.loc.gov/maps/2020/05/race-for-the-gold-map-games-of-the-klondike-gold-rush/
Primary Sources in the Classroom: A Gold Rush Perspective
Alaska Humanities Forum
akhistorycourse.org/americas-territory/teachers-guide/primary-sources-in-the-classroom-a-gold-rush-perspective
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Identifying missing narratives is one of the most challenging skills for students. In Activity Three, students will read
a secondary source to help identify missing narratives and brainstorm where they might be able to nd missing
narratives to include in their research.
193
ACTIVITY THREE: READING AGAINST THE GRAIN
ACTIVITY TIME: 20 MINUTES
SECONDARY SOURCE
Essay, “Other Californians”
Digital Collection, California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California’s Early Years, 1849 to 1900
Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/other-
californians/
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Project “Other Californians,” or make one color copy for each student.
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
SEEKING MISSING NARRATIVES (20 MINUTES)
› Ask students to discuss whose perspectives were featured in primary sources examined so far.
› Remind students that these sources highlight one group’s experiences or stories. Asking questions about what is missing
from a source is just as important as what is included. Sometimes the best research projects develop when students ask
questions about what is missing.
› Distribute the “Other Californians” essay.
› Lead a classroom discussion. Questions can include:
› What perspectives did this article reveal?
› How does this article overlap with what we have discussed?
› What new questions might arise when considering these new narratives?
› Where might we search to nd these missing narratives?
› Why do you think these narratives were not represented in the sources you examined?
› How does considering these new perspectives improve our understanding of history?
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students practice reliability, perspective, and missing narratives, ask them to reect on the
research process:
› How can you improve your historical thinking skills?
› How can these historical thinking skills improve your ability to analyze your research?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
194
COMING NEXT
Now that students are equipped with the skills to nd primary and secondary sources from the Library of Congress and to evaluate
and process the sources that they will nd, the next chapter will focus on synthesizing research and constructing a historical
argument.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
BOOK
Farnham, Eliza W. California, in-doors and out; or, How we farm, mine, and live generally in the Golden State. New York: Dix, Edwards & Co.,
1856. Library of Congress (rc01000780). https://www.loc.gov/item/rc01000780/.
BROADSIDES, ENGRAVINGS, AND LETTERSHEETS
Britton, Joseph (photographer) and Fishbourne & Gow (lithographer). Life in the gold mines, California. Lithograph from a photograph.
c.1850–1860. Library of Congress (20011661698). https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661698/.
Britton & Rey. Celestial empire in California: Miners; gamblers. Lithograph, c.1849–1853. Library of Congress (2011661690). https://www.
loc.gov/item/2011661690/.
Britton & Rey. A Prospecting Party. Pictorial Lettersheet. c. 1849–1853. Library of Congress (ppmsca.32168). https://www.loc.gov/
resource/ppmsca.32168/.
Currier & Ives. Gold mining in California. Lithograph. c.1871. Library of Congress (2001700204). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2001700204/.
Frenzeny, P. Chinese immigrants at the San Francisco custom-house. Harper’s Weekly. Wood Engraving. February 3, 1877. Library of
Congress (93510092). https://www.loc.gov/item/93510092/.
Gold mines of California . . . Broadside. 1845. Library of Congress (rbpe1200240d). https://www.loc.gov/item/rbpe.1200240d/.
Hickok, F (?). Chinese Settlement in the suburbs of San Francisco, California. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper. Wood Engraving. 1856.
Library of Congress (95509658). https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b46280/.
Mining life in California--Chinese miners. Harper’s Weekly. Wood engraving. 1857. Library of Congress (2001700332). https://www.loc.
gov/item/2001700332/.
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California’s Early Years, 1849 to 1900. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.
loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
Phillips, Wendell. “The Chinese.” National Antislavery Standard. July 30, 1870. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Accessed
October 27, 2020. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2001.05.0189%3Achapter%3D14.
Wa, Hab, et al. “Letter of the Chinamen to His Excellency Governor Bigler.” Sacramento Daily Union. May 8, 1852. California Digital
Newspaper Collection, University of California Riverside. https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SDU18520508.2.7&e=-------en--20--1--txt-
txIN--------1.
PERIODICAL
Harper’s Weekly. Library of Congress (12032976.) https://www.loc.gov/item/12032976/.
POLITICAL CARTOONS
Nast, Thomas. The Chinese Question. Harper’s Weekly. Political Cartoon. February 18, 1871. Library of Congress (2005696252). https://
www.loc.gov/item/2005696252/.
195
PRESENTATION
Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History (Chinese). Presentation. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/
immigration/chinese/.
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLES AND ESSAYS
“The Forty Niners.” Library of Congress. Accessed October 29, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-
narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/forty-niners/.
“From Gold Rush to Golden State.” Library of Congress. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-
person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/from-gold-rush-to-golden-state/.
“The Mines.” Library of Congress. Accessed October 29, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-narratives/
articles-and-essays/early-california-history/mines/.
“Other Californians.” Library of Congress. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-rst-person-
narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/other-californians/.
Van Ee, Pam. “Women On The Move: Overland Journeys to California” American Women Research Guide, Library of Congress.
Accessed October 27, 2020. https://guides.loc.gov/american-women-essays/overland-journeys-to-california.
BLOG POSTS
Maloney, Wendi. “Photographs Document Early Chinese Immigration.” Library of Congress Blog. May 8, 2017. https://blogs.loc.gov/
loc/2017/05/photographs-document-early-chinese-immigration/.
Newland, Rebecca. “Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn: Controversy at the Heart of a Classic.” Teaching with the Library of Congress
Blog. November 21, 2013. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2013/11/mark-twains-huckleberry-nn-controversy-at-the-heart-of-a-
cla ssi c/.
Stoner, Julie. “Race for the Gold: Map Games of the Klondike Gold Rush.” Worlds Revealed: Geography & Maps at the Library of
Congress Blog. May 7, 2020. https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2020/05/race-for-the-gold-map-games-of-the-klondike-gold-rush/.
“Thomas Nast: Father of the American Political Cartoon.” From the Stacks: New York Historical Society Museum and Library Blog.
October 4, 2017. http://blog.nyhistory.org/thomas-nast-father-of-the-american-political-cartoon/.
HISTORY ASSESSMENTS
“Japan and America.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-
assessments/japan-and-america.
“Riis’s Urban Photography.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-
assessments/riiss-urban-photography.
“Traders in the West.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-
assessments/traders-west.
LESSON PLANS
“Annexation of Hawaii.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/
annexation-hawaii.
“The Cold War.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/cold-war.
“Factory Life [Great Britain].” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-
lessons/factory-life.
“First Crusade.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/rst-
crusade.
196
“The Gold Rush and San Francisco.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/
history-lessons/gold-rush-and-san-francisco.
“Homestead Strike.” Stanford History Education Group. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons/
homestead-strike.
“Primary Sources in the Classroom: A Gold Rush Perspective.” Alaska Humanities Forum. Accessed October 27, 2020. http://www.
akhistorycourse.org/americas-territory/teachers-guide/primary-sources-in-the-classroom-a-gold-rush-perspective.
RESEARCH GUIDES
“Alaska Gold Rush: Topics in Chronicling America.” Research Guide. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-
alaska-gold-rush.
“Alaska Gold Rush: Topics in Chronicling America, Search Strategies & Selected Articles.” Research Guide. Library of Congress.
https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-alaska-gold-rush/selected-articles.
WEBSITES
“Artist Biography: Thomas Nast (1840-1902).” Smithsonian Libraries. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://www.sil.si.edu/ondisplay/
caricatures/bio_nast.htm.
“Harper’s Weekly.” The News Media and the Making of America, 1730-1865, American Antiquarian Society. Accessed October 27,
2020. https://americanantiquarian.org/earlyamericannewsmedia/exhibits/show/news-and-the-civil-war/item/124.
Keller, Morton. “The World of Thomas Nast.” The Ohio State University, University Libraries. Accessed October 27, 2020. https://
library.osu.edu/site/thomasnast/world-of-nast/.
“Presidents, Politics, & the Pen: The Inuential Art of Thomas Nast.” Rockwell Center for American Visual Studies. Accessed
October 27, 2020. https://www.rockwell-center.org/uncategorized/presidents-politics-the-pen-the-inuential-art-of-thomas-nast/.
197
SKILLS SPOTLIGHT: DEVELOPING
HISTORICAL EMPATHY
Sign placed on a store front in Oakland, California, on December 8, 1942, by owner Tatsuro Matsuda. Library of Congress (2004665381).
CONNECT TO SHARED EXPERIENCES OF A COMMUNITY
Primary sources that permit students to share an experience with a community or group of people create an emotional connection
to history. Every era in history has provided moments where the lives of citizens paused. The bombing of Pearl Harbor, the
assassination of President John F. Kennedy, the Challenger explosion, and September 11, 2001, created shared experiences for
ordinary citizens. During these times, thoughts and feelings are at the forefront.
When choosing primary sources, design activities that allow students to step into the scene and engage their emotions. According
to a blog post by Lina Mai on the Facing History and Ourselves website, tapping into students’ emotions to develop historical empathy
not only helps students connect with the past, but it also provides them with the skills to better understand how the past shaped the
present.
1
Lina Mai, ”Using Historical Empathy to Help Students Process the World Today,” Facing Today: A Facing History Blog, March 27, 2018. https://facingtoday.
facinghistory.org/use-historical-empathy-to-help-students-process-the-world-today.
198
1
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- -
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-
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In the article “An Updated Theoretical and Practical Model for Promoting Historical Empathy,” Jason Endacott of the University of
Arkansas and Sarah Brooks of Elmhurst College discuss the dierence between historical inquiry and historical empathy. They
argue that while students need to understand history, historical empathy oers something more. “Exercises in historical empathy
can also help students learn to establish connections between the past and the present, a skill that can benet them for a lifetime.”
2
Endacott and Brooks suggest creating activities that use primary sources that allow students to empathize with people from the
past.
3
Questions that encourage students to think about their own experiences are an excellent way to push them to build an empathetic
connection between the past and the present. Activities that enable them to view events through the lens of their own experiences
help them understand history. If they can realize that history is about people who lived through events, had hopes and fears, made
dicult decisions, and dealt with the results—in other words, who were a lot like them—they may become more eager to ask
questions and dig deeper.
This activity features photographs documenting Japanese internment during World War II. The Library of Congress has
a rich photograph and newspaper collection surrounding this topic. Classroom materials, digital collections, and other
resources are available.
ARTICLE
“Behind the Wire,” Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History Presentation
loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/japanese/behind-the-wire/
BLOG POST
Karen Chittenden, “Day of
Remembrance: Photographs of Japanese American Internment During World War II,”
(February 19, 2015)
blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2015/02/day-of-remembrance-photographs-of-japanese-american-internment-
during-world-war-ii/
COLLECTIONS
Ansel Adams’s Photographs of Japanese American Internment at Manzanar
loc.gov/pictures/collection/manz/related.html
Japanese American Internment Camp Newspapers, 1942 to 1946
loc.gov/collections/japanese-
american-internment-camp-newspapers/
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Japanese American Internment
loc.gov/classroom
-materials/japanese-american-internment/
VETERANS HISTORY PROJECT
Experiencing War: Asian Pacific Americans: Going for Broke
l
oc.gov/vets/stories/ex-war-asianpacific.html
ACTIVITY ALERT!
Students will analyze various visual sources on Japanese internment to understand the concept of historical empathy
and look at the event through the eyes of the men, women, and children who lived it. This activity will help students
understand the emotional component of studying history.
2 Jason Endacott and Sarah Brooks, “An Updated Theoretical and Practical Model for Promoting Historical Empathy,” Social Studies Research and Practice 8, no. 1
(2013): 45. https://www.socstrpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/MS_06482_no3.pdf.
3 Endacott and Brooks, “An Updated Theoretical and Practical Model for Promoting Historical Empathy,” 41–58.
199
200
ACTIVITY: CULTIVATING HISTORICAL EMPATHY
ACTIVITY TIME: 40 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Photograph, Education week sign, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress (2002696049)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2002696049/
Photograph, A large sign reading “I am an American” placed in the window of a store . . . , March 1942
Dorothea Lange
Library of Congress (2004665381)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2004665381/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency order. Japanese leave for Owens Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817918)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817918/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency orders. Japanese try to sell their belongings, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817885)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817885/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of the Japanese-Americans from West Coast areas under U.S. Army war
emergency order. Japanese-American children waiting for a train to take them and their parents to Owens Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017744878)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017744878/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency orders. Sign on store owned by Japanese in Little Tokyo, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817890)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817890/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency order. Soldiers assist Japanese with their baggage as they leave for Owens Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817899)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817899/
Photograph, Santa Anita reception center, Los Angeles County, California . . . , April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817961)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817961/
Photograph, Relocation good-byes, Manzanar Relocation Center, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress (2001704628)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001704628/
201
Photograph, Roy Takeno reading paper in front of oce, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress (2002696030)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2002696030/
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
Analyzing Primary Sources Teacher’s Guide
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
Primary Source Analysis Tool
https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Empathy and Analysis Activity
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Preview all primary source photographs listed above to determine suitability for your students.
› Organize students into groups of three or four students each.
› Make copies of the photograph sets (A through D) so that each group receives one set. Repeat as needed based on class
size.
› Make one copy of the Primary Source Analysis Tool and the Empathy Analysis Activity for each pair of students (or
distribute electronically).
› Print one copy of the Analyzing Primary Sources Teacher’s Guide for teacher use to guide students’ thinking and
analysis.
› Set up classroom technology and test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS (40 MINUTES)
› Organize students into their assigned groups.
› Explain to students that shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive
Order 9066 on February 19, 1942. This order required the removal of Japanese citizens and American citizens of
Japanese descent from several western states. In the end, the U.S. government relocated over 122,000 people to one of
ten internment camps in isolated areas. Almost 70,000 of these people were American citizens. In this activity, students
will closely examine sources that illustrate the emotional impact of this decision.
› Project the photograph, A large sign reading “I am an American” placed in the window of a store . . . Explain to students that
the photograph was taken in Oakland, California, in March 1942. Ask students the following:
› What did you notice rst?
› Did you notice anything that you did not expect?
› Who did you think was the audience for this photograph?
› What can we learn from examining this photograph?
› What emotions does this photograph generate?
› Project the photograph, Roy Takeno reading paper in front of oce. Explain that this photograph was taken at the Manzanar
War Relocation Center in California in 1943. Repeat the questions from above.
› Ask students, How does looking at these two photographs inform our historical understanding? What questions do these
photographs generate in your mind?
202
› Distribute the Primary Source Analysis Tool and help students analyze the photograph. Use questions selected from the
Analyzing Primary Sources Teacher’s Guide as needed.
› Distribute one set of sources (A through D) to each group. Give students time to analyze the sources and respond to
the questions with their group members. Instruct students to analyze the rst image in depth before moving on to the
second one.
› Project (or distribute) the Empathy Analysis Activity. Ask students to choose one of the prompts and respond in a
thoughtful paragraph.
› Lead a short discussion about historical empathy. Questions can include:
› How did these sources show the impact of Japanese internment during World War II?
› Were you drawn to one of the photographs? Why?
› How do primary sources help us understand other perspectives or points of view?
› How does empathy dier from agreement?
ADAPTATIONS
› Students can complete the Empathy Analysis Activity in groups or individually at teacher discretion.
› Students with autism spectrum disorder may need additional support to understand and process the
concept of historical empathy. Consider adding further prompt questions.
203
Photograph, A large sign reading “I am an American” placed in the window of a store . . . , March 1942
Dorothea Lange
Library of Congress (2004665381)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2004665381/
204
Photograph, Roy Takeno reading paper in front of oce, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress (2002696030)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2002696030/
205
PRIMARY SOURCE PACKET SET A
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
› What did you notice rst?
› Did you notice anything that you did not expect?
› Who did you think was the audience for these photographs?
› What can we learn from examining these photographs?
› What emotions do these photographs generate?
› What questions do these photographs generate?
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The evacuation
of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas
under United States Army war emergency order.
Soldiers assist Japanese with their baggage as they
leave for Owens Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817899)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817899/
Photograph, Santa Anita reception center, Los
Angeles County, California . . . , April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817961)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817961/
206
PRIMARY SOURCE PACKET SET B
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
› What did you notice rst?
› Did you notice anything that you did not expect?
› Who did you think was the audience for these photographs?
› What can we learn from examining these photographs?
› What emotions do these photographs generate?
› What questions do these photographs generate?
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The
evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West
coast areas under United States Army war
emergency orders. Japanese try to sell their
belongings, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817885)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817885/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The
evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West
coast areas under United States Army war
emergency order. Japanese leave for Owens
Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817918)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817918/
207
PRIMARY SOURCE PACKET SET C
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The
evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West
coast areas under United States Army war
emergency orders. Sign on store owned by
Japanese in Little Tokyo, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017817890)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817890/
Photograph, Los Angeles, California. The
evacuation of the Japanese-Americans from West
Coast areas under U.S. Army war emergency
order. Japanese-American children waiting for
a train to take them and their parents to Owens
Valley, April 1942
Russell Lee
Library of Congress (2017744878)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017744878/
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
› What did you notice rst?
› Did you notice anything that you did not expect?
› Who did you think was the audience for these photographs?
› What can we learn from examining these photographs?
› What emotions do these photographs generate?
› What questions do these photographs generate?
208
PRIMARY SOURCE PACKET SET D
Photograph, Relocation good-byes, Manzanar
Relocation Center, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress (2001704628)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2001704628/
Photograph, Education
week sign, 1943
Ansel Adams
Library of Congress
(2002696049)
https://www.loc.gov/
item/2002696049/
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
› What did you notice rst?
› Did you notice anything that you did not expect?
› Who did you think was the audience for these photographs?
› What can we learn from examining these photographs?
› What emotions do these photographs generate?
› What questions do these photographs generate?
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NAME:
PRIMARY SOURCE ANALYSIS TOOL
OBSERVE REFLECT QUESTON
FURTHER NVESTGATON:
ADDTONAL NOTES:
LOC.gov/teachers
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EMPATHY AND ANALYSIS ACTIVITY
Directions: Choose one of the following scenarios and respond in a well-written paragraph. Be sure to connect historical
knowledge with the personal experiences of those who lived during the time.
1. You are a mother or father of two young children. You immigrated to the United States from Japan, but your children
are American citizens. Describe your reaction to the order to relocate.
2. You are a teenager in high school when your family is relocated to an internment camp. How do you react to this
change?
3. You are a young man living in an internment camp. You are oered the opportunity to enlist in the U.S. military and
serve in World War II. Do you choose to enlist?
4. You are a young couple who own a small farm outside of San Francisco, California. You are ordered to relocate. What
do you do with your farm and your tools?
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Ansel Adams’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/
collections/ansel-adams-manzanar/about-this-collection/.
Experiencing War: Asian Pacic Americans: Going for Broke. Oral History Collection. Veterans History Project, Library of Congress.
https://www.loc.gov/vets/stories/ex-war-asianpacic.html.
Japanese-American Internment Camp Newspapers, 1942 to 1946. Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/
japanese-american-internment-camp-newspapers/.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Adams, Ansel. Education week sign. Photograph. 1943. Library of Congress (2002696049). https://www.loc.gov/item/2002696049/.
Adams, Ansel. Relocation good-byes, Manzanar Relocation Center. Photograph. 1943. Library of Congress (2001704628). https://www.
loc.gov/item/2001704628/.
Adams, Ansel. Roy Takeno reading paper in front of oce. Photograph. 1943. Library of Congress (2002696030). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2002696030/.
Lange, Dorothea. A large sign reading “I am an American” placed in the window of a store . . . Photograph. March 1942. Library of
Congress (2004665381). https://www.loc.gov/item/2004665381/.
Lee, Russell. Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war emergency
orders. Japanese try to sell their belongings, Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress (2017817885). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2017817885/.
Lee, Russell. Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of the Japanese-Americans from West Coast areas under U.S. Army war emergency order.
Japanese-American children waiting for a train to take them and their parents to Owens Valley. Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress
(2017744878). https://www.loc.gov/item/2017744878/.
Lee, Russell. Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war emergency
orders. Sign on store owned by Japanese in Little Tokyo. Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress (2017817890). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2017817890/.
Lee, Russell. Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency order. Japanese leave for Owens Valley. Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress (2017817918). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2017817918/.
Lee, Russell. Santa Anita reception center, Los Angeles County, California . . . Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress (2017817961).
https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817961/.
Lee, Russell. Los Angeles, California. The evacuation of Japanese-Americans from West coast areas under United States Army war
emergency order. Soldiers assist Japanese with their baggage as they leave for Owens Valley. Photograph. April 1942. Library of Congress
(2017817899). https://www.loc.gov/item/2017817899/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SETS
Japanese American Internment. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/japanese-
american-internment/.
212
SECONDARY SOURCES
ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLES
Endacott, Jason and Sarah Brooks. “An Updated Theoretical and Practical Model for Promoting Historical Empathy.” Social Studies
Research and Practice 8, no. 1 (2013): 41-58. https://www.socstrpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/MS_06482_no3.pdf.
BLOG POSTS
Chittenden, Karen. “Day of Remembrance: Photographs of Japanese American Internment During World War II.” Picture This:
Library of Congress Prints & Photos Blog. February 19, 2015. https://blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2015/02/day-of-remembrance-
photographs-of-japanese-american-internment-during-world-war-ii/.
Mai, Lina. “Using Historical Empathy to Help Students Process the World Today.” Facing Today: A Facing History Blog. March 27,
2018. https://facingtoday.facinghistory.org/use-historical-empathy-to-help-students-process-the-world-today.
WEBSITES
“Analyzing Primary Sources Teacher’s Guide.” Library of Congress. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/
teachers/getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
“Behind the Wire.” Library of Congress. Accessed November 18, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/
japanese/behind-the-wire/.
“Primary Source Analysis Tool.” Library of Congress. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/
getting-started-with-primary-sources/guides/.
- -
CHAPTER NINE: BECAUSE “I SAID SO”
ISN’T GOOD ENOUGH: CONSTRUCTING AN
ARGUMENT IN THE HISTORY CLASSROOM
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
Students have selected a topic by this stage of the research process and developed and rened a research question and an inquiry
plan. They have gathered and analyzed primary and secondary sources and used historical thinking skills to evaluate those sources.
In this chapter, we will help guide students to synthesize their research and formulate a historical argument.
HISTORICAL ARGUMENTATION
Students in middle and high school understand the concept of making an argument. They begin arguing in earnest with parents,
guardians, and friends in everyday conversation. As teachers, we can use this natural stage of adolescence to help them develop the
skill of creating a historical argument in the classroom.
Teaching students how to craft substantiated arguments also necessitates and emphasizes choice; they must decide what
conclusions to draw based on the evidence that they nd. There is no searching the textbook for pre-determined answers. Remind
students that they are the ones who decide how to interpret the events of the past. Choice is a powerful enticement for student
engagement. Students must complete several steps to craft an argument.
› Make inferences.
› Draft a working historical argument.
› Prove that argument using reasoning and evidence.
Pushing students to explain why their research is relevant is not only the point of this discipline but also is uproariously fun. Using
teenage language is a great way to bring home to students that they must draw conclusions about why their research topic matters
today. “So what?” or “Why do I have to read this?” usually elicits a knowing smile from students when said in a friendly manner by
their teacher. Along with that smile can come a erce determination to prove that their work matters.
NATIONAL HI
STORY DAY
®
When students are ready to present their research, National History Day (NHD) provides an opportunity for students
to showcase their historical research in the form of papers, websites, performances, exhibits, or documentaries.
Generally, contests begin at the regional level, and successful students can advance to the aliate (state) contest and
the National Contest. Learn more at nhd.org.
National History Day and the Library of Congress are collaborating to develop a student guide that will help students
connect the resources of the Library with their NHD project. This guide will be downloadable and available in advance
of the 2023 NHD National Contest. To explore other resources developed by the two organizations, visit nhd.org/
library-congress-tps.
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THE BEGINNINGS OF AN ARGUMENT: MAKING INFERENCES
After drafting a research question (see Chapter Two) and nding sources (see Chapters Four and Five), a preliminary step in
creating an argument is to draw inferences. What is an inference? An inference is a preliminary conclusion based on facts. To teach
students how to make an inference, ask the following questions to guide them:
1. What is suggested by the source?
2. What conclusions may be drawn from the source?
3. What biases are indicated in the source?
4. What contextualizing information, while not directly evident, may be suggested from the source?”
1
HISTORY OF SLAVERY AND RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY
The activities in this chapter will model skills using primary sources about resistance to slavery. The Library of
Congress has extensive resources relating to the history of American slavery and the various ways in which enslaved
people resisted their enslavement.
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
African American Perspectives: Materials Selected from the Rare Book Collection
loc.gov/collections/african-american-perspectives-rare-books/about-this-collection/
Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936 to 1938
loc.gov/collections/slave-narratives-from-the-federal-writers-project-1936-to-1938/
Frederick Douglass Papers at the Library of Congress
loc.gov/collections/frederick-douglass-papers/about-this-collection/
Slaves and the Courts, 1740 to 1860
loc.gov/collections/slaves-and-the-courts-from-1740-to-1860/
Voices Remembering Slavery: Freed People Tell Their Stories
loc.gov/collections/voices-rem
embering-slavery/
William A. Gladstone Afro-American Military Collection
loc.gov/collections/gladstone-african-american-military-collection/about-this-collection/
ONLINE EXHIBITION
The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship
loc.gov/exhibits/african-american-odyssey/
PRINTS & PHOTOGRAPHS DIVISION
Images of African American Slavery and Freedom
loc.gov/rr/print/list/082_slave.html
RESEARCH GUIDE
Slavery in America: A Resource Guide
guides.loc.gov/slavery-in-america
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will examine various primary sources from the Library of Congress online exhibition, The
African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship, and then work with a partner to make inferences about resistance
to slavery.
David Hicks, Peter E. Doolittle, and E. Thomas Ewin, “The SCIM-C Strategy: Expert Historians, Historical Inquiry, and Multimedia,” Social Education, 68(3) (April
2004): 221–225. https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/april2004/scimc-strategy-expert-historians-historical-inquiry-and-multimedia-.
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1
ACTIVITY ONE: MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT RESISTANCE TO
SLAVERY
ACTIVITY TIME: 45 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Broadside, $200 Reward. Ranaway from the subscriber . . . Five Negro Slaves, October 1, 1847
Wm. Russell
Library of Congress (2005684861)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2005684861/
Broadside, To be sold . . . a cargo of 170 prime young likely healthy Guinea slaves, July 25, 1774
Library of Congress (cph5094)
www.loc.gov/exhibits/african-american-odyssey/slavery-the-peculiar-institution.html#obj12
The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late Insurrection in Southampton, Virginia . . . , 1832 (excerpt)
Nat Turner and Thomas R. Gray
Library of Congress (07009643)
https://www.loc.gov/item/07009643/
Engraving, Death of Captain Ferrer, the Captain of the Amistad, July 1839, 1840
John Warner Barber (lithographer)
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, New York Public Library
(b14109788)
https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-1a6d-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99
Wood Engraving, The Africans of the slave bark “Wildre”--The slave deck of the bark “Wildre,” brought into Key West, April 30, 1860,
Harper’s Weekly, June 2, 1860
Library of Congress (98501624)
www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3a20849/
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Resisting Slavery Handout
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Organize students into pairs.
› Make one copy of the primary source set for each pair of students (or distribute electronically).
› Make one copy of the Resisting Slavery Handout for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Test all online resources before class.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
WHAT IS AN INFERENCE? (15 MINUTES)
› Organize students next to their partners.
› Distribute one copy of the Resisting Slavery Handout to each student.
› Project The Africans of the slave bark “Wildre” . . . on the screen for students to analyze.
› Ask students to examine the image for 60 seconds silently and to write down what they observe.
215
3
› Ask students to share with their partner what that they noticed in the image. Direct students to share only what they
observe.
› Ask students to think for 30 seconds about the denition of inference.
› Ask students to share and discuss their answers with their partners. If answers dier, students should develop one
denition of inference. Partners should write their denition in part one of the Resisting Slavery Handout.
› As a class, develop a denition of inference that is close to the idea that it is a preliminary conclusion based on facts
and previous knowledge. Instruct students to write down the class denition on their handout.
› Ask student groups to use this denition to make an inference about the Africans on Board the Slave Bark “Wildre” . . .
engraving. Instruct students to support their inference with one detail from the image.
› Circulate to monitor students’ work.
› Ask students to share their answers with the class. Record the answers on the board.
MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT ENSLAVED AFRICANS’ RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY (30 MINUTES)
› Distribute one primary source set to each pair of students. Instruct students to select two of the four sources to analyze.
› Ask students to work with their partner to describe the two sources they chose and enter the description in part two of
the Resisting Slavery Handout.
› Ask students to use the information they observe in the sources, prior knowledge, and consideration about what is
missing in the sources they have selected and the source analyzed in the rst part of the lesson to create an inference.
› Remind students to use these four questions as a guide:
1. What is suggested by the source?
2. What conclusions may be drawn from the source?
3. What biases are indicated in the source?
4. What contextualizing information, while not directly evident, may be suggested from the source?
2
› Direct students to add one piece of evidence supporting the inference from each of the two sources they used.
› Share inferences and evidence that supports each in a whole-class discussion. Focus on how enslaved Africans resisted
slavery and how students came to that conclusion.
ADAPTATION
› Modify the primary sources to be more accessible to younger students, students with a lower reading level,
or students learning English.
3
› For older or more advanced students, include more sources that contain longer texts and can lead to a
deeper understanding of resistance to slavery.
2 Hicks, Doolittle, and Ewin, “The SCIM-C Strategy.”
3 Sam Wineburg and Daisy Martin. “Tampering with History: Adapting Primary Sources for Struggling Readers.” Social Education, 73(5) (September 2009):
212-216. https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/september2009/tampering_with_history.
216
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TEACHING HARD HISTORY
4
Slavery is an essential and foundational topic that students must study to understand American history.
Teaching about slavery can be dicult and can elicit many dierent reactions and emotions from teachers
and students. How should we teach slavery? Historian Daina Ramey Berry states, “I believe we start with
the truth.”
5
She and other scholars who study slavery rightly argue that slavery must also be taught from the
perspective of the enslaved to help students fully understand slavery and the diverse experiences of the human
beings who were enslaved.
6
To avoid students pushing inaccurate or biased interpretations of slavery onto the
sources, teachers can structure questions and provide primary sources that help guide student learning. The
Southern Poverty Law Center’s report and articles on teaching slavery in the K 12 classroom can help with
lesson plans and advice.
7
Learning for Justice (learningforjustice.org/) has many helpful resources that are
free to teachers online and in print.
4 Teaching Tolerance, Teaching Hard History: A 6-12 Framework for Teaching American Slavery. (Montgomery: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2019). https://
www.learningforjustice.org/sites/default/les/2019-11/Teaching-Hard-History-American-Slavery-6-12-Framework.pdf. See also Hasan Kwame Jeries,
“The Courage to Teach Hard History,” Teaching Tolerance, February 1, 2018, https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/the-courage-to-teach-hard-
history.
5 Daina Ramey Berry, “Lecture 12, Synthesizing Slavery Studies,” Lives of the Enslaved, (class lecture, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, 2020).
6 Berry, “Lecture 12, Synthesizing Slavery Studiess” See also Susan Eva O’Donovan, “Teaching Slavery in Today’s Classroom,” OAH Magazine of History,
23(2) (April 2009): 7–10.
7 Adrienne van der Valk, “Teaching Hard History,” Teaching Tolerance, Spring 2018, https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/spring-2018/teaching-
hard-history.
217
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Wood Engraving, The Africans of the slave bark
“Wildre”--The slave deck of the bark “Wildre,”
brought into Key West, April 30, 1860, Harper’s
Weekly, June 2, 1860
Library of Congress (98501624)
www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3a20849/
Broadside, To be sold . . . a cargo of 170 prime
young likely healthy Guinea slaves, July 25, 1774
Library of Congress (cph5094)
www.loc.gov/exhibits/african-american-
odyssey/slavery-the-peculiar-institution.
html#obj12
218
The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the
Late Insurrection in Southampton, Virginia . . . ,
1832 (excerpt)
Nat Turner and Thomas R. Gray
Library of Congress (07009643)
https://www.loc.gov/item/07009643/
Engraving, Death of Captain Ferrer, the Captain of the Amistad, July 1839, 1840
John Warner Barber (lithographer)
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, New York
Public Library (b14109788)
https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-1a6d-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99
219
Broadside, $200 Reward. Ranaway from the subscriber . . . Five Negro Slaves, 1847
WM. Russell
Library of Congress (2005684861)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2005684861/
220
RESISTING SLAVERY HANDOUT
Part One: Whole Class Warm-Up
Examine the projected engraving, The Africans of the slave bark “Wildre” . . . Write down in the space below what you and your
partner observe.
1. What do you and your partner think is the denition of inference?
2. Write down the class’ denition of inference.
3. What can be inferred from the engraving The Africans of the slave bark “Wildre” . . . ?
221
Part Two: Making Inferences about Enslaved Africans’ Actions
1. Choose two of the sources to examine. Describe the contents of the source in the chart below. Make one inference for
each source. What preliminary conclusion can you come to based on what you see in the source and what you already
know about slavery?
Source Title Description of the content of the source: What do you see?
Describe images, language, stories, events, etc.
Write an inference in the box below. Both partners must agree. What conclusion can be drawn about enslaved Africans’
resistance to slavery based on the sources analyzed and what is already known about slavery?
Source Title Inference
222
2. Add one supporting detail from each source that supports the inference.
Example:
› Inference: Many teenagers enjoy spending time online.
› Evidence:
1. “[U.S.] teens spend an average of more than seven hours per day on screen media for entertainment.”
8
2. “. . . small doses of screen time can be a mental health-positive way of relaxing, reducing stress, and connecting
socially to friends and family members.”
9
Evidence:
1 Evidence to Support the Inference
Source
2 Evidence to Support the Inference
Source
8 Kristen Rogers, “US teens use screens more than seven hours a day on average -- and that’s not including school work” CNN, October 29, 2019. https://
www.cnn.com/2019/10/29/health/common-sense-kids-media-
use-report-wellness/index.html.
9 Angela Ryan, “Screen time and kids: New findings parents need to know,” ABC News, November 4, 2019.
https://abcnews.go.com/Health/screen-time-
kids-findings-parents/story?id=66751520.
223
MAKING A HISTORICAL ARGUMENT
Now that students have learned how to make inferences and have researched their topic, they are ready to construct arguments.
A historical argument is sometimes referred to as a thesis or a claim. Using these terms helps explain what students are doing.
Since students have already generated several research questions and gathered and analyzed primary and secondary source
evidence, their task is to answer the research questions in a statement that becomes their argument. Giving students guidelines and
examples can help them make precise and supportable claims.
To describe these guidelines, students will use the following thesis statements based on the source set in Activity One:
Enslaved Africans had to combat the government of the colonies and nation, the press, and individuals who supported slavery in their eorts
to free themselves.
A few tips about thesis statements:
› Thesis statements must be actual arguments and cannot just be repetitions of apparent facts. The example thesis above
proposes something quite dierent from the statement, Africans were enslaved in the colonies and later in the United States. The latter
is a statement of fact.
› A thesis must make an argument that can be supported by evidence.
› A thesis statement can and should change as new evidence points the student in a new direction or provides a narrower focus.
Students must be able to argue about an argument. Students will not nd themselves debating with their parents or guardians
about something on which they agree. “Leslie, please be home by eight o’clock.” “No, mom! I refuse to come home after eight
o’clock! That is the exact right time for my curfew!” That is a ridiculous argument. Here is where adolescents can genuinely and
deeply understand making a valid argument: people have to disagree about a claim. It must be refutable. If dierent sources existed,
someone else could argue against it.
TEACHER TIP
Do not drive students to develop an argument or thesis statement too early in the research process. It is imperative
that evidence drives the argument and that the argument does not drive the search for evidence.
In addition to setting clear guidelines, reminding students that they are becoming a part of the dynamic enterprise of making history
helps them feel engaged in the academic work that they are doing. An excellent poster produced by teachinghistory.org proclaims
that “History is an Argument about the Past.”
10
Making an argument in the form of a thesis is essential work. Remind students that
they are becoming part of the historical profession as they oer their interpretation of the past and then provide evidence and
reasoning to support their arguments. Their arguments matter and can shape future interpretations of the events that they have
chosen to study.
The thesis—the description of the argument—should be about one to three sentences long. It should be clear and specic. The rest
of the paper or project will provide evidence and reasoning to support the thesis, but the claim itself should be brief and have a
laser-like focus. It is good to emphasize this with students by joking that if the teacher has become obsessed with a new television
show and has decided to forgo grading, this teacher could limit herself to reading the thesis statement and still understand the
student’s argument. Another way to communicate this to students is that the working thesis should answer the student-generated
research question (see Chapter Two) in one, two, or three sentences.
TEACHER TIP
Help students practice with thesis statements by projecting two statements about a historical event. Project one
that is factual and one that is argumentative, and have students evaluate them. Once students draft their own thesis
statements, give them time to peer edit. Remind them that arguments usually take multiple drafts and should be edited.
10 “Interactive Historical Thinking Poster (Secondary),” National History Education Clearinghouse, 2018, https://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-poster-2.
224
Stating an argument is surprisingly tricky. Consider the last time you had an argument with a friend or a family member. It is
challenging to articulate your idea and support that argument with evidence in a concise manner. However, the skill of precisely
communicating a thesis that is more than a repetition of obvious fact and one that is clear, specic, and addresses the research
question can and should be taught. Ask students (or teams of students) to write thesis statements all year long, even as an exit ticket
task. Practice leads to success.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will use two sections of William Still’s The Underground Railroad to practice writing thesis
statements.
225
ACTIVITY TWO: WRITING THESES, MAKING ARGUMENTS
ACTIVITY TIME: 60 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCE
The underground railroad. A record of facts, authentic narratives, letters &c., narrating the hardships, hair-breadth escapes and death
struggles of the slaves in their eorts for freedom, 1879 (excerpts)
William Still
Library of Congress (31024984)
https://www.loc.gov/item/31024984/
SECONDARY SOURCES
Diane D. Turner, “William Still’s National Signicance,” William Still: An African-American Abolitionist
Temple University Libraries
http://stillfamily.library.temple.edu/exhibits/show/william-still/historical-perspective/william-still---s-national-sig
“Uncovering William Still’s Underground Railroad”
Historical Society of Philadelphia
https://hsp.org/history-online/digital-history-projects/uncovering-william-stills-underground-railroad
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Write a Thesis, Make an Argument
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Become familiar with the story of William Still and the Vigilance Committee of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition
of Slavery using the secondary sources listed above. Still, a free-born Black man assisted enslaved Africans in claiming
their freedom through his work with the Vigilance Committee in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He published the interviews
that he conducted with freedom seekers in The Underground Railroad in 1872. This primary source has provided historians
essential details about the lives and escapes of the enslaved people who sought their freedom.
› Make one copy of the Write a Thesis, Make an Argument handout for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Make one copy of the excerpts from William Still’s The Underground Railroad for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Organize students into groups of three students each.
› Gather one sheet of chart paper and one marker per group.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
READING THE SOURCES AND CULLING INFORMATION (30 MINUTES)
› Explain who William Still was and his role as a conductor on the Underground Railroad.
› Explain to students that they will be reading Still’s description of the escapes of two formerly enslaved people, Clarissa
Davis and Henry Predo. Ask students: What might we be able to nd out from Still’s written record of the interviews that he
conducted with enslaved people who were taking their freedom?
› Conduct a class discussion to explain that from these sections of the primary source, they can better understand why
some enslaved people chose to escape from slavery and the methods that they used to escape.
› Distribute one copy of Write a Thesis, Make an Argument handout and the excerpts from William Still’s The Underground
Railroad to each student.
› Direct students to read each story in the excerpts handout and underline the text where they nd reasons that Davis or
Predo took their freedom and methods by which they escaped.
226
› Ask students to enter that information in the chart provided in part one of the Write a Thesis, Make an Argument
handout. Circulate and intervene if students have too much underlining, very little underlining, or incorrect information in
their charts.
MAKING AND IMPROVING AN ARGUMENT (30 MINUTES)
› Explain that students will use the information they learned about Clarissa Davis and Henry Predo to make an argument
that responds to the question: How and why did some enslaved people resist slavery?
› Ask students to write their one- to two-sentence draft thesis in the handout.
› Arrange students into groups of three.
› Tell students to pass their handout to the student on their right. Students should not have their own handout.
› Ask students to read the other student’s thesis and then note one strength of the thesis and one suggestion of something
the student could do to improve the thesis.
› Ask students to return the handout to its original owner.
› Ask for a volunteer to share his or her thesis.
› Write or project the thesis on the board.
› Discuss thesis with students:
• What parts of this thesis are clear?
• What parts of this thesis are specic?
• What about this thesis could be controversial?
• What about this thesis could be argued against?
• What about this thesis could be supported by the evidence found in Davis’s and Predo’s stories?
› Ensure students have a good idea of how to improve their theses and what a successful argument looks like.
› Direct students to rewrite their thesis statements, incorporating the suggestions noted on the handout. Suggestions can
be rejected, but something about the thesis must change to grow increasingly accurate, clear, and/or specic.
› Tell students to pass the handout to a dierent group member to repeat the process by recording strengths and
suggestions for improvement. When complete, return handouts to the original owners.
› Ask students to revise their thesis statements a second time and ask for a dierent volunteer to share his or her thesis.
› Write the thesis on a projected computer or a board.
› Discuss the thesis with students:
• What parts of this thesis are clear?
• What parts of this thesis are specic?
• What about this thesis could be controversial?
• What about this thesis could be argued against?
• What about this thesis could be supported by the evidence from Davis’s and Predo’s story?
› Ask each group to share one of their thesis statements by writing it on chart paper and hanging it on the wall where all
students can see it.
› Direct groups to walk around the room together, examine each thesis, and determine which are clear, arguable, and
specic. Students should put checkmarks next to the examples that meet these specications.
› A similar activity could be done with less text-heavy sources. Images can also be used to help students make arguments.
› This activity could also use more of the excerpts from Still’s work, as there are many examples of formerly enslaved
people who risked their lives to seek their freedom. Another way to expand this activity is to use the testimonies of the
formerly enslaved, several of which are available through the Library of Congress and also through Documenting the
American South, hosted by the University of North Carolina.
11
11 “North American Slave Narratives,” Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/.
227
- - - -
-
HARRIET TUBMAN
Stu
dents interested in resistance to slavery may be interested in the story of Harriet Tubman and her work on
the Underground Railroad. The Library of Congress contains primary and secondary sources to help students
research her contributions. This topic can be a good choice for struggling readers because there many young
adult books about her.
BLOG POST
Arlene Balkansky, “Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad” (June 16, 2020)
blogs.loc.gov/headlinesandheroes/2020/06/harriet-tubman-conductor-on-the-underground-railroad/
RE
SEARCH GUIDE
“Harriet Tubman: A Resource Guide”
guides.loc.gov/harriet-tubman
228
229
EXCERPTS FROM WILLIAM STILL’S THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD
The underground railroad. A record of facts, authentic narratives, letters &c., narrating the hardships, hair-breadth escapes and death
struggles of the slaves in their eorts for freedom, 1879 (excerpts)
William Still
Library of Congress (31024984)
https://www.loc.gov/item/31024984/
CLARISSA DAVIS EXCERPT
230
231
PREDO EXCERPT
232
WRITE A THESIS, MAKE AN ARGUMENT
Denition: A thesis is a one- to three-sentence statement that proposes an argument about an event in history. It should be
clear and specic.
In this activity, students will work in a group of three to practice creating, evaluating, and revising thesis statements.
Part One. Complete the First Part Individually.
Read the stories of Clarissa Davis and Henry Predo found in the excerpts from Williams Still’s The Underground Railroad. List
the reasons that each chose to take their freedom and list the methods they used to escape.
Clarissa Davis Henry Predo
List the reasons
why Davis and
Predo chose
to take their
freedom
List the
methods Davis
and Predo
used to escape
slavery
What is one argument that can be made about resistance to slavery by Clarissa Davis and Henry Predo? Write a specic
one- to two-sentence thesis that states this argument.
233
Part Two. Complete the Second Part in a Group of Three.
Within each group, students will pass their thesis to the person on their right. On the group member’s paper, write one
strength of the thesis and one suggestion that would make the argument clearer or more accurate. Since we have all read
the same sources, comment on both content and style.
Name of student reviewer:
Strength of thesis
Suggestion for improvement
Return this handout to its owner to rewrite the thesis to incorporate suggestions or improve it in other ways.
Working Thesis: Take Two!
Repeat these steps with the other person in the group of three.
Name of student reviewer:
Strength of thesis
Suggestion for improvement
Working Thesis: Take Three!
234
–
- - -
WHERE IS THE PROOF?
What makes a strong thesis? Evidence must be used to corroborate the student’s claims along with the student’s description of why
that evidence supports their argument (known as reasoning). By this point in the research process, students have found primary
and secondary sources and have assessed their validity. They have decided that a controversial argument can be made and have
stated it clearly. Now the question for students becomes, where is the proof? Just because you “say so” does not mean that I
believe you. To support their stated argument, students need to include evidence from a source, a description of why the evidence
supports their point, and corroboration though multiple sources that support the argument.
In Activity One, students examined multiple sources and stated their preliminary ndings about resistance to slavery. That inference
should next be transformed into a thesis statement. The thesis proposed earlier in this lesson was:
Enslaved Africans had to combat the government of the colonies and nation, the press, and individuals who supported slavery in their eorts to
free themselves.
To support that argument, students must use evidence. But what is evidence? What would support this argument? Students can nd
evidence in text, images, and quotations from reputable secondary sources. Evidence is all around us.
Engraving, John W. Barber, Death of Captain Ferrer . . . Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books
Division, New York Public Library (b14109788).
THE AMISTAD
The Amistad is one of the most famous mutinies in U.S. history. Students interested in the topic should review the
Library of Congress resources on the subject.
DIGITAL COLLECTION
Today in History March 9: Survivors of the Amistad Mutiny Released
loc.gov/item/today-in-history/march-09/
WISE GUIDE
“From Mutiny to Freedom”
loc.gov/wiseguide/mar08/mutiny.html
235
If a class were to examine the engraving, Death of Captain Ferrer . . . , students could nd evidence to support an argument about
enslaved people’s resistance to slavery. The source prominently displays a drawing of the Amistad Africans revolting in an attempt
to claim their freedom aboard the ship. Evidence from the drawing could include the observation that several Africans have
weapons raised, and a white man just to the left of center, who is most likely one of the crew and probably Captain Ferrer, seems to
have been beaten.
12
Undoubtedly, this shows African resistance to slavery. This source is also interesting because it includes text.
Thus a student could use a quotation from the text and description of the image as evidence to support his or her claim. A superb
quotation from the source might be “. . . the African captives on board, in order to obtain their freedom, and return to Africa, armed
themselves with cane knives and rose upon the captain and crew of the vessel.”
Evidence is important, but it is not sucient. Students must also propose reasoning that states why the evidence they are using
helps their argument. Another way to think about this is as “a sentence that explains how their quote or evidence supports their
argument.”
13
Broadside, $200 Reward. Ranaway from the subscriber . . . Five Negro Slaves, October 1, 1847. Library of Congress (2005684861).
If students analyze the broadside $200 Reward . . . in conjunction with Death of Captain Ferrer . . . , they could claim that enslaved
Africans resisted slavery in multiple ways. Evidence culled from both sources would likely lead students to conclude that people
resisted their enslavement during both the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Students should also reason that whether enslaved
people rebelled with force or secretly left their place of enslavement, many of those caught in the web of slavery tried to aect their
freedom by any means necessary. An explanation of why the evidence supports the thesis could also be that both sources show
that enslaved Africans had to combat the government and individuals who supported slavery to free themselves.
Finally, students must ensure that their argument is corroborated by evidence from multiple sources. In other words, the student
“synthesizes multiple pieces of evidence that work together to support the claim. The argument recognizes and addresses
conicting or counter-evidence.”
14
Thus, it is not enough to nd just one bit of information in one source that supports the claim.
Multiple sources must do so, and students must also acknowledge and deal with sources that do not seem to support the claim.
12 Historian Marcus Rediker noted that Barber depicted individual Africans in this engraving. Cinque, the leader of the rebellion is shown attacking Captain Ferrer. See
Marcus Rediker, “The African Origins of the Amistad Rebellion, 1839,” International Review of Social History, 58(21) (2013): 25.
13 Chauncey Monte-Sano, Susan De La Paz, and Mark Felton, Reading, Thinking, and Writing About History: Teaching Argument Writing to Diverse Learners in the Common
Core Classroom, Grades 6–12. (New York: Teachers College Press, 2014), 25.
14 Chauncey Monte-Sano, “What Makes a Good History Essay? Assessing Historical Aspects of Argumentative Writing,” Social Education, 76(6) (November/December
2012): 294–298, https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/november-december2012/what_makes_good_history_essay_assessing_historical_
aspects_argumentative_writing.
236
Wood Engraving, Africans on Board the Slave Bark “Wildre” . . . brought into Key West, April 30, 1860. Printed in Harper’s Weekly, June 2, 1860. Library of
Congress (98501624).
While both $200 Reward . . . and Death of Captain Ferrer . . . provide evidence that supports the sample thesis, this source, The Africans
of the slave bark “Wildre”—The slave deck of the bark “Wildre,” brought into Key West on April 30, 1860, does not immediately seem to
support the argument that enslaved Africans resisted slavery to free themselves. Thus the student could examine this source and
note that though Africans were not rebelling at this time, it did not mean that they would not resist enslavement later. Students could
also point out that the Africans are seated in a uniform position because of the crew’s fear of an uprising or because the ship was
too crowded.
Further research would uncover that this engraving was from Harper’s Weekly, which reported that a United States steamer captured
this ship because it illegally engaged in the international slave trade. The ship was towed to Florida, and the image depicts the
captive Africans before they were to be set free.
15
In any case, this source cannot be discarded simply because it does not neatly
support the thesis.
Argumentation is challenging. Using graphic organizers and checklists can help students articulate and support an argument. Once
students understand a task, their eort can be directed toward completing it, rather than struggling in confusion. The next two pages
include sample graphic organizers that students can use to outline their arguments.
15 “The Slave Deck of the Bark ‘Wildre,’” Africans in America, PBS, updated 1999, accessed December 1, 2020. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1h300.html.
237
HISTORICAL ARGUMENTATION PLAN GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
16
Thesis
Thesis Checklist
¨ Clearly stated argument
¨ Evidence
¨ Reasoning (explain why the evidence supports the argument)
¨ Ensure that more than one source supports the argument.
¨ Discuss any conicting information or sources that do not seem to support the argument.
Sub-arguments
Develop several sub-arguments. These should be two to three statements (one or two sentences each) that show
how the thesis will be proven.
Sub-argument One Sub-argument Two Sub-argument Three
16 Adapted from National History Day.
238
Evidence
Now that the sub-argument has been developed, decide which pieces of evidence will best support each sub-
argument. List each piece of evidence in the chart below. Hint: if there is no evidence for a sub-argument, it might be
a weak argument. Revise as needed.
Sub-argument One Sub-argument Two Sub-argument Three
239
GOOD PRELIMINARY THESIS! STRONGLY SUPPORTED!
SO WHAT?
One of my longtime colleagues once noted that “kids are always asking me [in class], ‘why should I learn this?’” She then observed
the value of teaching argumentation: just as teachers should know why the content or skill they are teaching matters, students must
argue why their conclusions are important. This stage is the perfect time to turn the question back on students.
During the research process, push students to consider why the event they are studying made a dierence. Asking repeated
questions of students can help them narrow their focus, engage with recent events, and become more attached to their historical
argument. It will force them to acknowledge the ramications of the event they are studying.
Most questions should be serious:
› What changed because of this event?
› Does this event aect us today? How so?
› Did this event lead to another event in the short-term? In the long-term?
› Why is this event important?
Sometimes, lighthearted questions can poke at the same goals:
› Why should I care about this event?
› Why does this event matter?
› So what?
This part of crafting an argument can be very dierent from the earlier stages. Secondary sources are often benecial in sparking
ideas. Many students choose research topics because they are curious about the present-day ramication of the events. Some
teachers promote topics out of chronological order, from the present to the past. If students are interested in today’s mass
incarceration crisis, they might then research the links to slavery and discrimination.
Recently, a tenth-grade student group created an argument that the Amistad Africans, by mutinying and through the ensuing
Supreme Court case, broke the barrier of their enslavement and freed themselves. Their primary and secondary sources provided
evidence for the thesis, and their reasoning was logical and explained how the evidence supported the argument. But why does the
Amistad mutiny matter today? The group returned to their sources and looked for clues.
In the short term, they discovered that “the result was to expand and radicalize the movement against slavery, to strengthen
what we might call ‘abolitionism from below,’ involving the enslaved, the African American community more broadly, and those
who wanted to take militant action to bring bondage to an end.”
17
But what were the longer-term legacies? They found that some
members of the Amistad Committee, who had supported the Africans in their ght for freedom at the Supreme Court, became
supporters of the American Missionary Association (AMA). The AMA founded multiple schools for Black children following the Civil
War. While all of these schools educated Black youth, several of the schools, notably Fisk University, provided education for those
who became leaders in the Civil Rights Movement.
18
The student group was then able to look at documents from the Library of
Congress to understand the AMA’s work more fully.
17 Marcus Rediker, The Amistad Rebellion: An Atlantic Odyssey of Slavery and Freedom (New York: Viking, 2012), 228.
18 Sam A. Cooley, School marms and African American children, Photograph, c.1862, Library of Congress (2013648979), https://www.loc.gov/item/2013648979/.
See also Lester Sullivan, “American Missionary Association,” Amistad Research Center, Tulane University, 2012. http://amistadresearchcenter.tulane.edu/
archon/?p=creators/creator&id=27.
240
Education of Colored Children, 1872. Library of Congress (91898971).
Using this information, the group worked toward the “so what?”
The Africans freed themselves, returned to live in Africa, and eventually, a group who supported the Africans in their quest for
freedom turned their attention to the newly freed African Americans’ education after the Civil War. Many of those educated in
schools set up by the AMA became leaders in their communities and our nation. Diane Nash, who attended Fisk University, became
an activist whose work during the Civil Rights Movement deeply impacted the United States.
19
Returning to the sample thesis one nal time can illuminate how students should state their claim of importance. Previously, the
thesis read: Enslaved Africans had to combat the government of the colonies and nation, the press, and individuals who supported slavery in
their eorts to free themselves. Now students must add the consequences of the actions of the enslaved Africans. The two most visible
results of these eorts were that individuals were able, albeit through incredible bravery and perseverance, to free themselves
19 “Women in the Civil Rights Movement,” Library of Congress, Civil Rights History Project. https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-rights-history-project/articles-
and-essays/women-in-the-civil-rights-movement/?fa=subject%3Ainterviews and “Lonnie C. King oral history interview conducted by Emilye Crosby in Atlanta,
Georgia,” oral history interview, May 29, 2013, Library of Congress (2015669189). https://www.loc.gov/item/2015669189/.
241
and sometimes their families.
20
A longer-term result is that the actions of the many enslaved people who seized liberty “pushed
the nation toward confronting the truth about itself,” which led to the Civil War.
21
Students should take it further: why do the brave
actions of enslaved Africans matter today? According to Nikole Hannah-Jones in the 1619 Project,
. . . despite being violently denied the freedom and justice promised to all, black Americans believed fervently in the American
creed. Through centuries of black resistance and protest, we have helped the country live up to its founding ideals. And not
only for ourselves—black rights struggles paved the way for every other rights struggle, including women’s and gay rights,
immigrant and disability rights.
Without the idealistic, strenuous and patriotic eorts of black Americans, our democracy today would most likely look very
dierent—it might not be a democracy at all.
22
Thus the thesis could be nished in several dierent ways that incorporate ramications of the event(s) studied.
Enslaved Africans had to combat the government of the colonies and nation, the press, and individuals who supported slavery in their eorts
to free themselves. Their actions sometimes led to individual freedom. This resistance exacerbated the cleavages that caused the Civil War and
inspired a fuller manifestation of freedom and equality today.
CONCLUSION
Student research is important. The best student research can add to the historical debate around a topic. Ensuring that students
craft a strong argument supported by evidence and reasoning along with the claim of an enduring legacy gives those students the
opportunity for meaningful exchanges with historians, the school community, and the wider public, especially when developed into
projects.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students develop the plan for a historical argument, ask students to reect on the research process:
› How can you improve your historical argument?
› What questions do you have at this stage of the research process?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
Once students develop an argument, they need to learn how to present their argument to a wider audience, integrating textual,
visual, and multimedia evidence.
20 William Still, The underground railroad. (Philadelphia: People’s Publishing Company, 1879). Library of Congress (31029484). https://www.loc.gov/item/31024984/.
21 Andrew Delbanco, The War Before the War: Fugitive Slaves and the Struggle for America’s Soul from the Revolution to the Civil War. (New York: Penguin Press, 2018), 2.
22 Nikole Hannah-Jones, “The Idea of America,” New York Times, August 8, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/1619-america-slavery.
html.
242
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
BOOKS
Board of Education of Savannah and the American Missionary Association of New York. Education of Colored Children. Savannah:
Morning News Steam-Power Press, 1872. Library of Congress (91898971). https://www.loc.gov/item/91898971/.
Still, William. The Underground Railroad. Philadelphia: People’s Publishing Company, 1879. Library of Congress (31024984). https://
www.loc.gov/item/31024984/.
Turner, Nat and Thomas R. Gray. The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late Insurrection in Southampton, Virginia . . . Richmond:
Thomas R. Gray, 1832. Library of Congress (07009643). https://www.loc.gov/item/07009643/.
BROADSIDES AND ENGRAVINGS
$200 Reward. Ranaway from the subscriber . . . Five Negro Slaves. Broadside. 1847. Library of Congress (2005684861). https://www.loc.
gov/item/2005684861/.
The Africans of the Slave Bark Wildre . . . April 30, 1860. Wood Engraving. Printed in Harper’s Weekly, June 2, 1860. Library of Congress
(98501624). www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3a20849/.
Barber, John Warner. Death of Captain Ferrer, the Captain of the Amistad, July 1839. Engraving. Schomburg Center for Research in Black
Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, New York Public Library (b14109788). https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/
items/510d47e3-1a6d-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99.
To be sold . . . a cargo of 170 prime young likely healthy Guinea slaves. Broadside. July 25, 1774. Library of Congress (cph5094). www.loc.
gov/exhibits/african-american-odyssey/slavery-the-peculiar-institution.html#obj12.
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
African American Perspectives: Materials Selected from the Rare Book Collection. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.
gov/collections/african-american-perspectives-rare-books/about-this-collection/.
Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936 to 1938. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.
gov/collections/slave-narratives-from-the-federal-writers-project-1936-to-1938/.
Frederick Douglass Papers at the Library of Congress. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/frederick-
douglass-papers/about-this-collection/.
Slaves and the Courts, 1740 to 1860. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/slaves-and-the-courts-
from-1740-to-1860/.
Today in History - March 9: Survivors of the Amistad Mutiny Released. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/item/
today-in-history/march-09/.
Voices Remembering Slavery: Freed People Tell Their Stories. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/
voices-remembering-slavery/.
William A. Gladstone Afro-American Military Collection. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/gladstone-
african-american-military-collection/about-this-collection/.
ORAL HISTORY INTERVIEW
“Lonnie C. King oral history interview conducted by Emilye Crosby in Atlanta, Georgia.” Oral History Interview. May 29, 2013. Library
of Congress (2015669189). https://www.loc.gov/item/2015669189/.
PHOTOGRAPH
Cooley, Sam A. School marms and African American children. Photograph, c.1862. Library of Congress (2013648979). https://www.loc.
gov/item/2013648979/.
243
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLES
Hicks, David, Peter E. Doolittle, and E. Thomas Ewin. “The SCIM-C Strategy: Expert Historians, Historical Inquiry, and Multimedia.”
Social Education 68(3) (April 2004): 221-225. https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/april2004/scimc-strategy-
expert-historians-historical-inquiry-and-multimedia-.
Jeries, Hasan Kwame. “The Courage to Teach Hard History.” Teaching Tolerance February 1, 2018. https://www.tolerance.org/
magazine/the-courage-to-teach-hard-history.
Monte-Sano, Chauncey. “What Makes a Good History Essay? Assessing Historical Aspects of Argumentative Writing,” Social
Education 76(6) (November/December 2012): 294-298. https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/november-
december2012/what_makes_good_history_essay_assessing_historical_aspects_argumentative_writing.
O’Donovan, Susan Eva. “Teaching Slavery in Today’s Classroom.” OAH Magazine of History 23(2) (April 2009): 7-10.
Rediker, Marcus. “The African Origins of the Amistad Rebellion, 1839.” International Review of Social History 58(21) (2013): 25.
van der Valk, Adrienne. “Teaching Hard History,” Teaching Tolerance (58) Spring 2018. https://www.tolerance.org/magazine/
spring-2018/teaching-hard-history.
Wineburg, Sam and Daisy Martin. “Tampering with History: Adapting Primary Sources for Struggling Readers.” Social Education 73(5)
(September 2009): 212-216. https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/september2009/tampering_with_history.
BLOG POST
Balkansky, Arlene. “Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad.” Headlines & Heroes: Newspapers, Comics & More
Fine Print Blog. Library of Congress. June 16, 2020. https://blogs.loc.gov/headlinesandheroes/2020/06/harriet-tubman-conductor-
on-the-underground-railroad/.
BOOKS
Delbanco, Andrew. The War Before the War: Fugitive Slaves and the Struggle for America’s Soul from the Revolution to the Civil War. New
York: Penguin Press, 2018.
Monte-Sano, Chauncey, Susan De La Paz, and Mark Felton. Reading, Thinking, and Writing About History: Teaching Argument Writing to
Diverse Learners in the Common Core Classroom, Grades 6-12. New York: Teachers College Press, 2014.
Rediker, Marcus. The Amistad Rebellion: An Atlantic Odyssey of Slavery and Freedom. New York: Viking, 2012.
Teaching Tolerance. Teaching Hard History: A 6-12 Framework for Teaching American Slavery. Montgomery: Southern Poverty Law
Center, 2019. https://www.tolerance.org/sites/default/les/2019-11/Teaching-Hard-History-American-Slavery-6-12-Framework.pdf.
LECTURE
Berry, Daina Ramey. “Lecture 12, Synthesizing Slavery Studies.” Lives of the Enslaved. Class lecture at Gilder Lehrman Institute of
American History, 2020.
ONLINE EXHIBITION
The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship. Online Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african-
american-odyssey/.
RESEARCH GUIDES
“Harriet Tubman: A Resource Guide.” Research Guide. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/harriet-tubman.
“Slavery in America: A Resource Guide.” Research Guide. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/slavery-in-america.
WEBSITES
“From Mutiny to Freedom.” Library of Congress. March 2008. https://www.loc.gov/wiseguide/mar08/mutiny.html.
244
Hannah-Jones, Nikole. “The Idea of America.” 1619 Project, New York Times Magazine, August 8, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/
interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/1619-america-slavery.html.
“Images of African-American Slavery and Freedom.” Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress. Accessed December 1,
2020. https://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/082_slave.html.
“Interactive Historical Thinking Poster (Secondary).” National History Education Clearinghouse. Updated 2018. Accessed July 7,
2020. https://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-poster-2.
“Library of Congress.” National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org//library-congress-tps.
National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/.
“North American Slave Narratives” Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Accessed July 31,
2020. https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/.
Rogers, Kristen. “US teens use screens more than seven hours a day on average -- and that’s not including school work.” CNN.
Updated October 29, 2019. Accessed July 7, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/29/health/common-sense-kids-media-use-
report-wellness/index.html.
Ryan, Angela. “Screen time and kids: New ndings parents need to know,” ABC News. Updated November 4, 2019. Accessed July 7,
2020. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/screen-time-kids-ndings-parents/story?id=66751520.
“The Slave Deck of the Bark’ Wildre.’” Africans in America, PBS. Updated 1999. Accessed July 30, 2020. https://www.pbs.org/
wgbh/aia/part1/1h300.html.
Sullivan, Lester. “American Missionary Association.” Amistad Research Center, Tulane University. Updated 2012. Accessed July 7,
2020. http://amistadresearchcenter.tulane.edu/archon/?p=creators/creator&id=27.
Turner, Diane D. “William Still’s National Signicance.” Temple University Libraries. Accessed July 7, 2020. http://stillfamily.library.
temple.edu/exhibits/show/william-still/historical-perspective/william-still---s-national-sig.
“Uncovering William Still’s Underground Railroad.” Historical Society of Philadelphia. Accessed July 7, 2020. https://hsp.org/history-
online/digital-history-projects/uncovering-william-stills-underground-railroad.
“Women in the Civil Rights Movement.” Civil Rights History Project, Library of Congress. Accessed July 7, 2020. https://www.loc.
gov/collections/civil-rights-history-project/articles-and-essays/women-in-the-civil-rights-movement/?fa=subject%3Ainterviews.
CHAPTER TEN: MAKING YOUR CASE:
CRAFTING A HISTORICAL ARGUMENT IN
DIFFERENT MEDIUMS
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
The last chapter focused on helping students make inferences, develop a historical thesis statement, and organize their historical
arguments to reect their argument, reasoning, and evidence. This chapter will present that argument in three dierent mediums—
exhibits, websites, and documentaries.
IN THE HISTORICAL COURTROOM
Imagine sitting in a courtroom watching a prosecutor.
She starts by setting the scene for the crime and making her argument. Then she begins to present her case. She calls witnesses,
people who can speak to the case rsthand. She also introduces evidence, key items that help her build the argument. And she may
call in experts to testify, people who understand the type of case in question. She will also have to counter the defense’s arguments
and explain to the jury why her version of the story holds the truth. In the end, her combination of witnesses, experts, and evidence
needs to convince the jury.
As students construct a historical argument, keep this scene in mind because they essentially have the prosecutor’s job. Their
opening statement is the introduction, showing the jury (readers or viewers) their argument and why it matters in history. The
eyewitnesses and evidence, in this case, are primary sources. The experts are secondary sources, historians writing after the
fact who can speak to the topic. And like the prosecutor, students need to make their arguments strong enough to withstand
counterarguments and convince readers of their truth and value.
Previous chapters address dierent ways of compiling and evaluating sources and drawing conclusions from them. To help
students develop the habits for making their most robust case: organizing thoughts, sorting through sources, and choosing the best
presentation method for the types of sources they have, this chapter highlights the exhibit, website, and documentary methods.
1
HAVE A POINT, HAVE A PLAN
Any history project needs to have two absolutes: a point (the argument being made) and a plan (how to execute that argument).
2
In
this chapter, we will be using Jim Thorpe as our case study. Thorpe was a remarkable athlete who played professional baseball and
football. A member of the Sac and Fox Nation, he was the rst Native American to win an Olympic gold medal for the United States.
Given this brief biography, “Jim Thorpe was a great athlete” does not make for a good argument. He was indisputably great at the
game. Instead, students should nd a way to approach the topic from a unique perspective, a point to defend through research and
argument. For our purposes, we will work with the following argument throughout this chapter:
Jim Thorpe broke barriers in amateur and professional sports in the early twentieth century. However, the press’s focus on race instead of athletic
achievements led to the loss of his Olympic medals and far fewer opportunities to market his image compared to other athletes of his generation.
1 To learn more about the ve National History Day categories, go to https://www.nhd.org/categories.
2 “Argument Papers,” Purdue Online Writing Lab, accessed July 26, 2020. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/argument_
papers/index.html.
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No matter what type of project a teacher has assigned, students must have a plan or an outline that lays out their historical
argument so that the reader or viewer can follow. Creating this plan will look similar regardless of the presentation method. After
students complete their initial research, they must nd the running narrative to their story, a way to carry the argument from start to
nish. They should outline the various parts of the narrative to see their whole historical case laid out.
JIM THORPE
Jim Thorpe, two time Olympic Gold medalist, made history when he became the rst Native American to win a gold
m
edal for the United States at the 1912 Summer Olympics. The Library of Congress houses resources relating to Jim
Thorpe, the U.S. Olympics, and Native American experiences in the United States.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Native American Boarding Schools
loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-american-boarding-schools/
R
ESEARCH GUIDE
Jim Thorpe, Native American Athlete
guides.loc.gov/chron
icling-america-jim-thorpe
BLOG POSTS
Audrey Fischer, “Trending: Olympic Games” (August 4, 2016)
blogs.loc.gov/loc/2016/08/lcm-trending-olympic-games/
Rebecca Newland, “Bringing the Olympic Games into Your Classroom with Primary Sources” (February 7, 2014)
blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/bringing-the-olympic-games-into-your-classroom-with-primary-sources/
ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTS
Let us pretend that a student has turned in an outline for Jim Thorpe in four sections.
I. Introduction with Thesis
II. Thorpe’s Olympic career and loss of medals
III. Ways the press covered Thorpe
IV. Thorpe’s career after sports
This layout shows the student’s main topics but leaves a great deal of uncertainty as the student begins the writing process. It does
not explain what sources or information would be used or how these points prove the argument.
A next step would be to add the elements of the argument to each section:
I. Introduction and Thesis
A. Introduction: background and historical context
B. Thesis: Jim Thorpe broke barriers in amateur and professional sports in the early twentieth century. However,
the press’s focus on race instead of his athletic achievements led to the loss of his Olympic medals and far fewer
opportunities to market his image compared to other athletes of his generation.
II. Thorpe’s Olympic career and loss of medals
A. How Thorpe won (and then lost) his Olympic medal
B. The debate over the challenge to his medals
III. Ways the Press Covered Thorpe–Examples of newspaper coverage focusing on Thorpe’s race
IV. Thorpe’s career after sports
A. Limited opportunities presented to Thorpe
B. Impact in Hollywood for American Indian actors
247
This step slightly improves the outline. Students complete these projects over an extended period, and a more thorough outline
helps them map out their initial thoughts and makes it easier to resume work later. It allows teachers to steer them in the right
direction.
The best outlines go one step further and include the sources that students use for each section. For our sample project, we can
add two sources from the Library of Congress.
I. Introduction and Thesis
A. Introduction: background and historical context
B. Thesis: Jim Thorpe broke barriers in amateur and professional sports in the early twentieth century. However, the press’s
focus on race instead of his athletic achievements led to the loss of his Olympic medals and far fewer opportunities to
market his image compared to other athletes of his generation.
II. Thorpe’s Olympic career and loss of medals
A. How Thorpe won (and then lost) his Olympic medals
B. The debate over the challenge to his medals
III. Ways the Press Covered Thorpe–Examples of newspaper coverage focusing on Thorpe’s race
A. “Jim Thorpe Will Go Down Into History as the Greatest Indian Athlete of All Time,” Evening Capital News [Boise,
Idaho], November 24, 1912
B. “American Sprinters Who Beat the World,” New-York Tribune, July 8, 1912
IV. Thorpe’s career after sports
A. Limited opportunities presented to Thorpe–Always Kickin’, National Film Registry. This lm demonstrates the type of
opportunities presented to Thorpe in his later years
B. Impact in Hollywood for American Indian actors
Although this example outline is very abbreviated, if a student were to present this outline, a teacher would be able to discern how
each section would support the overall argument and what sources would make the case. It is much easier to help students when
they are this thorough before project construction. A more detailed outline also helps students keep their thoughts in order if they
are completing the project over several weeks or months.
248
3
WHICH SOURCES STAY, WHICH SOURCES GO
Once students have established the road map that explains their case to the reader, they need to decide which sources should
appear in the nal project. In previous chapters, we discussed nding quality sources, so students should know how to develop a
bibliography. Now some triage is in order. What sources do they need to use to make their case, and which ones were good for
background knowledge but may not have a place in the nal product?
As a general rule, the closer a source gets to the argument’s subject, the better. So while students may have several database
articles or encyclopedic entries in their bibliography that give them background, a good argument will include other secondary
sources. These sources—books, lectures, peer-reviewed articles, journal articles—will likely contain more specic and useful
information. A primary source gets even closer to the subject. As students outline, consider which sources merit attention and
space in their nal product.
REVISION ALERT!
A vague or incomplete outline makes constructing the project more dicult. A detailed outline, on the other hand,
helps teachers and students see the sources that students have selected for the project and determine whether they
will make a strong argument. Argumentation projects spur analysis, communication, and problem-solving skills, so it
is important to build in time and support for students to rene a topic and select resources that lead to an argument
rather than a summary.
3
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity One, students will develop their analytical skills by determining why a source is more or less useful than
other sources and practice the act of sorting through a large group of sources (like a bibliography) to nd the best
evidence to support an argument.
Elliot Seif, “Seven Types of Projects that Foster Powerful Learning,” ACSD In-Service Blog, February 25, 2014. https://inservice.ascd.org/seven-types-of-projects-
that-foster-powerful-learning/.
3
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ACTIVITY ONE: BOBBY’S GREATEST DAY
ACTIVITY TIME: 30 MINUTES
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Bobby’s Greatest Day Worksheet
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
Make one copy of the Bobby’s Greatest Day Worksheet for each student.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCING BOBBY’S GREATEST DAY (5 MINUTES)
› Distribute a copy of Bobby’s Greatest Day to each student.
› Read the introduction for Bobby’s Greatest Day with students to help them understand the concept. Explain that their job
is to tell Bobby which seven of these sources would be the most useful to help him remember and explain the day.
› Ask for questions.
SORTING THE SOURCES (15 MINUTES)
› Organize students in groups of two to four students each.
› Instruct student groups to read through the list of items, discuss the importance of each, and complete the handout by
writing down the seven sources they think are most important or meaningful and explain why.
› Circulate among groups, asking questions:
› What makes that source useful?
› How would that help to tell the story?
› Why is one source better than the other one?
DEBRIEFING (10 MINUTES)
› Ask groups to oer some examples of the sources they chose and have them explain why. Ask whether other groups
also selected that source and if a group did not, have them explain why not. Allow the initial group a chance to defend
their choice.
› Explain to students that this is the type of critical dialogue they must have with themselves as they look over a large
number of sources in a bibliography, asking questions like, Which sources matter to my argument? Which ones are just nice to
have?
ADAPTATIONS
› Have students rank their top four artifacts and justify why three of the seven artifacts did not make the list.
That will force students to argue why those artifacts are good, but not good enough.
› If time to debrief is limited, have each group write their answers on the board. Ask more pointed questions
about common answers, rather than soliciting individual responses from the groups.
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BOBBY’S GREATEST DAY
In June 2001, Bobby’s parents took their family to AdventureLand, the state’s most incredible theme park. By the end of the
day, it was clear: this had been the greatest day EVER! Bobby wanted to make sure that, when he got older, he could tell his
children and grandchildren all about that memorable day. Over the next few years, he collected several items that he thought
would help him remember the greatest day ever, things he could use to tell the story in the future. He stored these items in
his attic.
In the summer of 2021, Bobby was ready to tell his children about the greatest day ever. He went up to the attic and opened
the box to show his kids, but he realized that he would show his kids every item in the box if it were just up to him. His kids
do not have the attention span for that. So he asked for help.
Your Job
› Help Bobby gure out which items from the box would be the most useful and most reliable to help him tell the story
of his greatest day ever to his children. All of them have something to do with Bobby, his family, AdventureLand, or the
trip’s time period.
› Use only seven items of the artifacts listed below. List the seven choices on the chart.
› Since Bobby loves them all, it is important to justify the seven choices. Why are these the most important, meaningful
artifacts that could help him tell the story?
Artifacts in the Box
1. A paper copy of Bobby’s family tree
2. A video of Bobby’s family talking about the trip at a family reunion in 2019
3. A photograph of Bobby’s lunch from his favorite food stand in AdventureLand
4. A dog collar from Spike, the family dog, in 2001
5. A map of AdventureLand that is given to every guest who enters the park
6. An oral report Bobby gave in high school English class a few years later for an assignment called “My Greatest Day”
7. A picture of Bobby’s family at the gate of AdventureLand before they walked in
8. A stued animal that Bobby won when he sank three basketball shots in a row at one of the games in AdventureLand
9. Bobby’s ticket stub from AdventureLand
10. A television commercial advertising AdventureLand from 2001
11. A picture of Bobby and his sister screaming on a roller coaster that day, the kind purchased as a souvenir after the ride
12. A signed baseball from the Arizona Diamondbacks, the team that won the World Series in 2001, the year of Bobby’s
Greatest Day
13. A newspaper from the day of the AdventureLand trip
14. A home movie of Bobby talking about the Greatest Day from that night, after they got home from AdventureLand
15. A portrait of George W. Bush, the President of the United States in 2001
16. The shoes Bobby wore that day that got soaked on the SuperDuperSoaker ride
17. A handout from AdventureLand that each guest receives at the entrance, telling the history behind the park
18. Bobby’s report card from 2001
19. A book called 2001: What a Year!, published in 2019
20. A picture of the car Bobby’s family drove to AdventureLand that day
21. A 2003 episode of a show called How We Built It! in which the program explains how AdventureLand was built
22. Bobby’s diary entry from the day of the trip
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Artifact Why We Chose This Artifact
252
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FINDING THE RIGHT PRESENTATION METHOD
After students complete their outlines, the next step is to determine the best presentation method for their topic and research. They
will have text sources that they can paraphrase and quote and visual sources that they can describe or include.
This section will examine how dierent types of sources could lead students to methods of presentation other than written papers.
While numerous presentation methods exist, we will explore three in this chapter: exhibits, websites, and documentaries. Each is
divided into four sections:
› What Is It?
› Questions to Ask
› What Needs to be Included?
› Revision Alert!
Be sure to check in with students before they have progressed too far in their project. Checking in with students early in the process
helps to ensure that the type of project they chose ts their research.
NATIONAL HISTORY DAY
®
W
hen students are ready to present their research, National History Day (NHD) provides them with an opportunity
to showcase their historical research in the form of papers, websites, performances, exhibits, or documentaries.
Generally, contests begin at the regional level, and successful students can advance to the aliate (state) contest and
the National Contest. Learn more at nhd.org.
National History Day and the Library of Congress are collaborating to develop a student guide to connect to the
Library’s resources. These resources will be downloadable and available in advance of the 2023 NHD National Contest.
To explore other resources developed by the two organizations, visit nhd.org/library-congress-tps.
PRESENTATION METHOD ONE: EXHIBIT
WHAT IS IT?
An exhibit is a stand-alone, three-dimensional physical structure that incorporates color, images, documents, objects, graphics,
design, and words to present the historical argument.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
› Do I enjoy creating artistic layouts?
› Do I enjoy constructing projects by hand?
› Do I have many photographs, images of primary documents, charts, maps, or other engaging visuals?
4
Creating exhibits begins with a point and a plan. Students need strong evidence, a thesis, and all of the elements that make a good
paper. They must have a thorough road map, which includes a detailed outline so that they are not scrambling to throw the exhibit
together at the last minute.
In an exhibit’s visual storytelling technique, students incorporate visuals instead of only words to spell out their arguments. It is
essential to design the exhibit panels to make the starting point and the argument’s path evident to the viewer, using sources to
supplement the visual journey. Photographs, reproductions of documents, posters, maps, and pamphlets now come into play,
replacing student-written text with visual information and arguments. For instance, rather than saying that the press focused on
Thorpe’s Sac and Fox heritage over his accomplishments, students can share a primary source to provide evidence and add an
analysis statement in their own words.
Amanda Hilliard Smith, How to Create a Historical Exhibit (College Park: National History Day, 2015): 4. 4
253
-
“ . . . the red skin held onto
the leather [football] like
the grip of death.”
The press used
racial language
to attribute his
athletic success
to his racial
background,
thereby
degrading his
accomplishments.
“ ‘noblest red skin of them all.’ ”
“this aborigine . . . ”
“Like all good Indians, Thorpe is
a wonder at lacrosse. He plays
basketball, soccer, hockey and
handball equally well.”
“Jim Thorpe Will Go Down Into History as the Greatest Indian Athlete of All Time,” Evening Capital News [Bo
ise, Idaho], November 24, 1912.
Students create a more compelling story when they use directly involved characters or experts who have studied and written about
the matter. Strong exhibits use images and quotations from primary sources with minimal student-composed text. A good baseline
number to use is 500 student-composed words, though teachers can adjust the number as needed. The limit pushes students to
uncover sources and determine whether they have enough visual and text material to select an exhibit for their project. It also keeps
the project from becoming an essay spread across a trifold. Captions should be short, transition statements brief, and the project’s
visual path easy to follow. Emphasizing a detailed outline at the outset of the project increases the likelihood the exhibit will be logical
and use the sources eectively to support the argument.
Many museums enliven displays with technology. While students may not have the same multimedia capacity as museums, they can
use laptops, tablets, or smartphones to accomplish similar goals. They can play contemporary music to add to the ambiance or a
lm clip for the viewer to experience.
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Exhibits also give viewers something to manipulate: a replica of a document or an artifact from the subject in question. In this case,
maybe the student has a replica of a football from the early twentieth century to add to the exhibit.
Exhibits oer more artistic and visual learners a path to make their case. To see what some students have done to create unique
and engaging exhibits for National History Day, visit nhd.org/project-examples.
REVISION ALERT!
Before students start constructing their exhibit, build in time for them to select one panel or one topic and storyboard
that topic, drawing it out on paper with a rough plan of where the sources and words could go. Students could also
outline this in a collaborative document (Google Docs, Microsoft 365, etc.) and add the teacher as an editor. This
strategy allows the teacher access to their work to “pop in” and check students’ progress. Are they following their
outline? If not, have the students explain their reasoning. Are students using several visual techniques? If students do
not have a variety of visual sources to complete one panel, or if their layout is complicated to follow, it may be a sign
that an exhibit would not be the best choice.
SPORTS HIS
TORY
Students with an interest in sports history might want to learn more about the history of baseball. These blog posts
explore Library of Congress resources on how baseball dened World War I, Japanese Americans’ everyday lives
during World War II, or even its part in Hawaiian culture.
Naomi Coquillon, “Baseball and World War I” (September 27, 2018)
blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/09/baseball-and-world-war-i/
Ryan Reft, “Japanese America’s Pastime: Baseball” (May 25, 2018)
blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/05/ja
panese-americas-pastime-bas
eball/
Mark Harsell, “Baseball Americana: Playing Behind Barbed Wire” (May 17, 2018)
blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/05/base
ball-americana-playing-behind-barbed-wire/
Stacie Moats, “Aloha, Hawaii! Celebrating Asian-Pacific American Month” (April 12, 2012)
blogs.loc.gov/te
achers/2012/04/aloha-hawaii-celebrating-asian-pacific-american-month/
PRESENTATION METHOD TWO: WEBSITE
WHAT IS IT?
A website is a collection of web pages interconnected by hyperlinks. It is an interactive, visual format that incorporates color, images,
documents, multimedia, and words to present the historical argument.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
› Do I enjoy creating artistic layouts?
› Do I enjoy using technology to develop a project?
› Do I have many photographs, images of primary documents, charts, maps, or other engaging visuals?
› Do I have audio and video clips?
5
Nate Sleeter, How to Create a Historical Website (College Park: National History Day, 2015): 4. 5
255
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–
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-
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WHAT NEEDS TO BE INCLUDED?
Creating websites begins with a point and a plan. Students need strong evidence, a thesis, and all of the elements that make a good
paper. They must have a comprehensive road map, which includes a detailed outline so that they are not scrambling to throw the
website together at the last minute.
Websites should be encouraged for students with an abundance of multimedia and visual sources who understand the importance
of incorporating the navigational features and attributes available within a website to take full advantage of this presentation method.
Each separate page on the website should include relevant images, artifacts, and a logical structure to present a dierent part of the
topic. This allows the viewer to fully digest one page’s purpose and its contribution to the argument before moving on to a related
section, regardless of whether or not it is found on the following page or somewhere else on the website.
A website gives students a chance to emphasize specic sources to engage viewers. For instance, students can enlarge key text
or images to draw attention to critical ideas. They can set images to scroll or toggle. A website also brings multimedia clips into
play. If students have a wealth of primary or secondary footage, this online presentation allows them to excerpt clips and place
them strategically throughout the project. Hearing from and seeing the website’s subjects can be a powerful alternative to a written
description of these same sources.
For students with an artistic eye, a website can be a creative outlet. The website’s layout should intentionally lead viewers’ eyes in
the desired direction, dictating the logic of the historical argument. Students can guide readers by color-coding text. For example,
text quotes from the main subject (in this case, Jim Thorpe) could be one color, other primary sources a second color, and
secondary sources a third. This strategy enables the reader to identify who is speaking and distinguishes between sources and
student-composed words. Also, primary images sometimes make for engaging backgrounds on a website, oering an alternative for
a student whose research is heavy on primary sources.
Ultimately, a website provides students with a graphic design background or an interest in coding a way to play to those strengths.
When sorting through sources, students should be mindful of variety to prevent the project from becoming an essay typed onto a
website. Visiting National History Day’s website of exemplar projects at nhd.org/project-examples oers top-level websites to show
what students can do with this presentation type.
HISTORY
OF BASEBALL
Baseball, America’s pastime, has a long standing history and saw many changes, including two world wars and the
desegregation of Major League Baseball. The Library of Congress has resources relating to baseball’s long history in
their collections, including Jackie Robinson’s archive and an online exhibit.
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Baseball Cards (Prints & Photographs Collection)
l
oc.gov/pictures/coll
ection/bbc/
Baseball Sheet Music
loc.gov/collections/baseball-sheet-music/about-this-collection/
By Popular Demand: Jackie Robinson and Other Baseball Highlights, 1860s 1960s
loc.gov/collections/jackie-robinson-baseball/about-this-collection/
EXHIBITION
Baseball
Americana
loc.gov/exhibits/baseball-an-american-sport/
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Baseball Across a Changing Nation
loc.gov/classroom-materials/baseball-across-a-changing-nation/
WEB GUIDE
Baseball Resources at the Library of Congress
loc.gov/rr/program/bib/baseball/
256
REVISION ALERT!
Allow time for students to take one page of their website and storyboard that page, drawing it out on paper with a
rough plan of which sources go where. Direct them to check for enough images and other multimedia sources from
which to draw. If they cannot produce any, they may need further research before making a website.
6
PRESENTATION METHOD THREE: DOCUMENTARY6
WHAT IS IT?
A documentary is a multimedia presentation that intertwines visual images and video clips, music, and student-written and
presented narration to explain the historical argument.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
› Do I have many photographs, images of primary documents, charts, maps, or other engaging visuals?
› Do I enjoy working with computers and technology?
› Do I have audio and video clips?
› Do I enjoy lming and editing?
› Do I have contemporary music and video clips from my project’s era?
› Do I have access to video-editing software?
7
WHAT NEEDS TO BE INCLUDED?
Creating documentaries begins with a point and a plan. Students need strong evidence, a thesis, and all of the elements that make a
good paper. They must have a comprehensive road map, which includes a detailed outline so that they are not scrambling to throw
the documentary together at the last minute.
Most student documentaries will likely run ve to ten minutes. Even though that does not sound long or complicated, students will
need a variety of lm clips and images to supplement their scripted narration. Students interested in a documentary should focus
early in the process on gathering visual sources and video or lm clips for each section of their outline to determine whether they
have enough sources to make a documentary feasible.
This process forces students to evaluate the variety of their sources. Redundancy of images causes the documentary to drag.
Furthermore, the pictures should support the part of the argument being discussed as the image appears. Imagine for a moment
that a line of narration reads, “Thorpe’s athleticism was unmatched. He played multiple professional sports, including football and
baseball.” Below are two possible pairs of photographs a student could use to illustrate this narration.
6 Janet Temos, “Design, Assign (and Survive) a Multimedia Class Project?,” McGraw Center for Teaching and Learning, Princeton University, last updated October 12,
2015, accessed July 26, 2020. https://mcgrawect.princeton.edu/design-assign-and-survive-a-multimedia-class-project/.
7 Elaine Koontz, Timothy Maset, and Lynne M. O’Hara, How to Create a Historical Documentary (College Park: National History Day, 2015): 5.
257
SEQUENCE A

SEQUENCE B

8 On the left: Underwood & Underwood, Jim Thorpe, the Olympic hero, Photograph, March 27, 1913, Library of Congress (2011649818). https://www.loc.
gov/item/2011649818/. On the right: “Curve Ball Causes Famous Athlete’s Release,” South Bend News-Times [South Bend, Indiana], June 21, 1922. https://
chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn87055779/1922-06-21/ed-1/seq-12/.
9 On left: Harris & Ewing, FOOTBALL PLAYER [Jim Thorpe], Photograph, c.1910–1920. Library of Congress (2016854474). https://www.loc.gov/item/2016854474/. On
right: Bain News Service, [Jim Thorpe, New York NL (baseball)], photograph, c.1917, Library of Congress (2014705385), https://www.loc.gov/item/2014705385/.
258
In Sequence A, the rst photograph shows Thorpe writing at a desk. The second image is just another picture of Thorpe and does
not help the viewer lock in with the narration that his “athleticism was unmatched.” Sequence B shows Thorpe in athletic uniforms
and an action shot playing baseball, both supporting the narration.
Music can help place the viewer in the appropriate era and is vital to keep a viewer immersed. The same rules outlined for images
apply to music. Suppose students have appropriate music from the time or music that matches the presentation’s emotional mood.
In that case, the music will help to convey the tone of the presentation to the viewer. Remind students that music is a source that
should be credited at the end of the documentary and included in its bibliography.
10
Student-composed narration ties the documentary together. Students who choose a documentary must write a script that conveys
their historical argument and present it in their voices, speaking slowly and clearly. However, students’ voices should not be the
only ones the viewer hears. Students should include primary footage and interview excerpts where appropriate. Like an expert
witness in a trial, a well-placed historian can reinforce the argument’s validity to the viewer. The Internet is a great place to nd
documentaries that feature historians in their element. Remind students that they need to assess the reliability of any internet
source. While students may be allowed to use segments of documentaries under educational fair use provisions, it is key that
students appropriately credit segments or interviews that they pull from other sources.
An excellent site for students to use is C-SPAN’s Booknotes archive (c-span.org/series/?booknotes), which features non-ction
authors talking about their work. For instance, students can nd an interview with Kate Buford, author of Native American Son, on the
site.
11
Documentaries can bring a historical argument to life. Layout and editing demand special attention, and students must have the
right mix of visual sources to make the documentary eective. With more user-friendly software readily available than ever before,
students can use this medium to present their argument. Students can see exemplars created by National History Day students at
nhd.org/project-examples.
REVISION ALERT!
Have students complete a minute’s worth of script and video as a rough draft. View this cut with the students, focusing
on the elements outlined above. If the teacher has diculty following the connection between the images on the screen
and the narration, or if the narration does not include much source material, have the students explain their reasoning.
The teacher should suggest constructive changes according to the students’ outline. If appropriate visual images, video
clips, music and other audio, and narration are not available, a documentary may not be the best method to present this
information moving forward.
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In Activity Two, students will evaluate what types of sources work best for dierent project mediums.
10 A quick search of the Library of Congress Notated Music Division yields results searching the keywords “Olympic” and “baseball.”
11 Kate Buford, “Native American Son,” video le, March 18, 2011, C-SPAN. https://www.c-span.org/video/?298562-8/native-american-son.
259
ACTIVITY TWO: TAKE TWO!
ACTIVITY TIME: 45 MINUTES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Film, Always Kickin’, 1932 (excerpt)
National Film Registry, Library of Congress (2018601439)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2018601439/
Newspaper Article, “Jim Thorpe, Though 36, Still Is the Superman of Football,” The Morning Tulsa Daily World,
December 20, 1921
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-12-20/ed-1/seq-10/
Newspaper Photographs, “American Sprinters Who Beat the World,” New-York Tribune, July 8, 1912
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1912-07-08/ed-1/seq-1/
Photograph, Bain News Service, [Jim Thorpe, New York NL, at Polo Grounds, NY (baseball)], 1913
Library of Congress (2014694437)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2014694437/
Photograph, Jim Thorpe greeted by Mayor Gaynor . . . and other dignitaries in Olympic ceremony at City Hall, 1912
Library of Congress (98510715)
https://www.loc.gov/item/98510715/
Press Sheet, Always Kickin’
Blog Post, Mike Mashon, “As a Matter of Fact, We ARE Ready for Some Football”
Now See Hear! The National Audio-Visual Conservation Center Blog, Library of Congress
https://blogs.loc.gov/now-see-hear/2015/09/as-a-matter-of-fact-we-are-ready-for-some-football/
SECONDARY SOURCES
Video interview, Kate Buford, Native American Son, March 18, 2011 (excerpt)
C-SPAN
https://www.c-span.org/video/?298562-8/native-american-son
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Take Two! worksheet
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Spend time becoming familiar with the sources in this activity.
› Decide whether students will work individually or in small groups.
› Make one copy of the Take Two! worksheet for each student (or distribute electronically).
› Test all online resources before class.
260
—
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
INTRODUCING TAKE TWO! (10 MINUTES)
› Distribute a copy of the Take Two! worksheet and the collection of sources to each student.
› Explain to students that they will be viewing seven dierent sources related to Jim Thorpe—images, videos, and
excerpts—and decide the presentation methods that would work best.
› Read the introduction and the “Your Job” section of the activity.
› Review the chart instruction with the students.
DEBATING THE SOURCES (25 MINUTES)
› If students are not working individually, organize them into groups of two or three students each.
› Allow time for students to use the Take Two! worksheet to complete the chart to evaluate sources.
› Circulate among students, asking questions such as, What makes this source better for that presentation method? If students
are not understanding, nudge them towards a clearer direction: Have you considered what it might be like to do this other
medium for that source?
› Ensure that students are not just writing down the same response for each source. That keeps them focused on the
dierent ways to use a source beyond just quoting it in a paper.
DEBRIEF (10 MINUTES)
› Call on groups to share their ideas for each source. As they read their justication, ask other groups whether their
answers align or not. If not, have them explain why to encourage dialogue.
› Explain to students that this type of thinking will be critical as they decide what type of project they will construct. They
will complete this reection process as they look to transform their project from a comprehensive outline to a nal
product.
ADAPTATIONS
› Walk through one of the sources with the students as an example. Remind them of cues from the chapter
what makes a source good for a given type of project.
› Assign dierent sources to dierent groups. Have students report their conclusions to the class by group.
The same activity can be completed with just one or two sources.
261
SOURCE ONE
Newspaper Photographs, “American
Sprinters Who Beat the World,” New-York
Tribune, July 8, 1912
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn83030214/1912-07-08/ed-1/seq-1/
SOURCE TWO
Photograph, Jim Thorpe greeted by Mayor
Gaynor . . . and other dignitaries in Olympic
ceremony at City Hall, 1912
Library of Congress (98510715)
https://www.loc.gov/item/98510715/
262
SOURCE THREE
Photograph, Bain News Service, [Jim
Thorpe, New York NL, at Polo Grounds, NY
(baseball)], 1913
Library of Congress (2014694437)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2014694437/
SOURCE FOUR
Newspaper Article, “Jim Thorpe, Though 36,
Still Is the Superman of Football,” The Morning
Tulsa Daily World, December 20, 1921
Chronicling America, Library of Congress
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn85042345/1921-12-20/ed-1/seq-10/
263
SOURCE FIVE
Press Sheet, Always Kickin’
Blog Post, Mike Mashon, “As a
Matter of Fact, We ARE Ready
for Some Football”
Now See Hear! The National
Audio-Visual Conservation
Center Blog, Library of
Congress
https://blogs.loc.gov/now-
see-hear/les/2015/08/
AlwaysKickin_copyrightreg.jpg
SOURCE SIX
Film, Always Kickin’, 1932
National Film Registry, Library of Congress (2018601439)
https://www.loc.gov/item/2018601439/
Watch an excerpt of Jim Thorpe playing himself, from 2:43-6:00.
SOURCE SEVEN
Video interview, Kate Buford, Native American Son, March 18, 2011 [9:50-11:30]
C-SPAN
https://www.c-span.org/video/?298562-8/native-american-son
Watch an excerpt of author Kate Buford, author of Native American Son, from 9:50-11:30.
264
TAKE TWO!
Once a detailed outline is complete, the next step is to select a presentation method to present the research. To get a feel for
this process, below is a list of sources that all relate to Jim Thorpe and his impact on baseball and culture. (Good news: you
do not need to know anything about baseball or football for this activity!) Based on what you have learned about connecting
sources to presentation methods, determine how they could benet dierent presentation methods.
YOUR JOB
› View or read each of the assigned sources.
› For each source, explain how it can best be used in two dierent mediums. Is it a powerful quote that could be read for
narration in a documentary? Is it a statistic that could be used in a website? Is it an image that helps tell the story in an
exhibit?
› Remember, it is important to look at the type of source, not the content. It is not necessary to have a working knowledge
of the subject. It is essential to know how the source would be best used in the project.
› Complete the Breakdown Chart to show and explain each choice in two sentences.
265
BREAKDOWN CHART
Choose two presentation methods that best t this source. Check the box for the two project types for each source. In two
sentences, explain why that source would be helpful in those mediums.
D = Documentary
W = Website
E = Exhibit
Source D W E Explain why these two project types are best suited for the source.
Newspaper
Photographs,
“American
Sprinters Who
Beat the World”
Photograph, Jim
Thorpe greeted by
Mayor Gaynor . . .
Photograph, Jim
Thorpe, New York
NL . . .
266
Source D W E Explain why these two project types are best suited for the source.
Newspaper
Article, “Jim
Thorpe, Though
36, Still Is the
Superman of
Football”
Press Sheet,
Always Kickin’
Film, Always Kickin’
Video interview,
Kate Buford
on Thorpe in
Hollywood
267
CONCLUSION
We are fortunate to live in a time where virtually any kind of source a student could want is a click away. Just as all of the evidence
in the world is nothing without a good prosecutor to sort it out and present it to a jury, a student’s research will not make a good
argument without attention to organization and presentation. An eective teacher will help guide students through every step of the
process by bringing students back to their point and plan. Once the argument is outlined, the sources students have selected will go
a long way toward helping them choose the appropriate presentation method for their project.
The goal of this chapter is to learn how to help students get organized and choose a presentation method. Each of the activities for
this chapter is designed to help students practice those skills. For more specics on each dierent presentation method, a helpful
resource is National History Day’s Making History series (nhd.org/making-history-series), which follows through the whole
process of creating a historical project. Visit nhd.org/categories to learn more.
REFLECTION REMINDER
After helping students develop a plan to present their historical argument, ask students to reect on the research
process:
› What did you learn about presenting historical research in various mediums?
› What questions do you have at this stage as you begin to build your research project?
Teachers, ip to Chapter Eleven to reect on student progress at this stage of the research process.
COMING NEXT
The nal chapter of this book will explore the process of reection. It will emphasize strategies to help students learn and grow from
their historical research project and apply what they have learned through the process to apply to future learning opportunities.
268
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
DIGITAL COLLECTIONS
Baseball Cards. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/baseball-cards/about-this-collection/.
Baseball Sheet Music. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/baseball-sheet-music/about-this-
col le ction/.
By Popular Demand: Jackie Robinson and Other Baseball Highlights, 1860s-1960s. Digital Collection. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.
gov/collections/jackie-robinson-baseball/about-this-collection/.
FILM
Education Film Exchanges, Inc. Always Kickin’. Film. 1932. Library of Congress (2018601439). https://www.loc.gov/item/2018601439/.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
“American Sprinters Who Beat the World.” New-York Tribune [New York, New York], July 8, 1912. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/
lccn/sn83030214/1912-07-08/ed-1/seq-1/.
“Curve Ball Causes Famous Athlete’s Release.” South Bend News-Times [South Bend, Indiana], June 21, 1922. https://
chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn87055779/1922-06-21/ed-1/seq-12/.
“Jim Thorpe, Though 36, Still Is the Superman of Football,” The Morning Tulsa Daily World [Tulsa, Oklahoma], December 20, 1921.
https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-12-20/ed-1/seq-10/.
“Jim Thorpe Will Go Down Into History as the Greatest Indian Athlete of All Time.” Evening Capital News [Boise, Idaho], November 24,
1912. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88056024/1912-11-24/ed-1/seq-19/.
PRIMARY SOURCE SET
Baseball Across a Changing Nation. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/baseball-
across-a-changing-nation/.
Native American Boarding Schools. Primary Source Set. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-
american-boarding-schools/.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Bain News Service. [Jim Thorpe, New York NL, at Polo Grounds, NY (baseball)]. Photograph. 1913. Library of Congress (2014694437).
https://www.loc.gov/item/2014694437/.
Bain News Service. [Jim Thorpe, New York NL (baseball)]. Photograph. c.1917. Library of Congress (2014705385). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2014705385/.
Harris & Ewing. FOOTBALL PLAYER [Jim Thorpe]. Photograph. c.1910-1920. Library of Congress (2016854474). https://www.loc.gov/
item/2016854474/.
Jim Thorpe greeted by Mayor Gaynor . . . and other dignitaries in Olympic ceremony at City Hall. Photograph. 1912. Library of Congress
(98510715). https://www.loc.gov/item/98510715/.
Underwood & Underwood. Jim Thorpe, the Olympic hero. Photograph. March 27, 1913. Library of Congress (2011649818). https://
www.loc.gov/item/2011649818/.
269
SECONDARY SOURCES
BLOG POSTS
Coquillon, Naomi. “Baseball and World War I.” Library of Congress Blog. September 27, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/09/
baseball-and-world-war-i/.
Fischer, Audrey. “Trending: Olympic Games.” Library of Congress Blog. August 4, 2016. https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2016/08/lcm-
trending-olympic-games/.
Harsell, Mark “Baseball Americana: Playing Behind Barbed Wire.” Library of Congress Blog. May 17, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/
loc/2018/05/baseball-americana-playing-behind-barbed-wire/.
Moats, Stacie. “Aloha, Hawaii! Celebrating Asian-Pacic American Month.” Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog. April 12,
2012. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2012/04/aloha-hawaii-celebrating-asian-pacic-american-month/.
Newland, Rebecca. “Bringing the Olympic Games into Your Classroom with Primary Sources.” Teaching with the Library of
Congress Blog. February 7, 2014. https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2014/02/bringing-the-olympic-games-into-your-classroom-with-
primary-sources/.
Reft, Ryan. “Japanese-America’s Pastime: Baseball.” Library of Congress Blog. May 25, 2018. https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2018/05/
japanese-americas-pastime-baseball/.
Seif, Elliot. “Seven Types of Projects that Foster Powerful Learning.” ACSD In-Service Blog. February 25, 2014. https://inservice.
ascd.org/seven-types-of-projects-that-foster-powerful-learning/.
BOOKS
Harris, Jason. How to Create a Historical Documentary. College Park: National History Day, 2015.
Koontz, Elaine, Timothy Maset and Lynne M. O’Hara. How to Create a Historical Documentary. College Park: National History Day, 2016.
O’Hara, Lynne M. How to Write a Historical Paper. College Park: National History Day, 2015.
Smith, Amanda Hilliard. How to Create a Historical Exhibit. College Park: National History Day, 2016.
Sleeter, Nate. How to Develop a Historical Website. College Park: National History Day, 2016.
EXHIBITION
Baseball Americana. Exhibition. Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/baseball-americana/.
RESEARCH GUIDE
“Jim Thorpe, Native American Athlete: Topics in Chronicling America.” Research Guide. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/
chronicling-america-jim-thorpe.
WEBSITE
“Argument Papers.” Purdue Online Writing Lab. Accessed July 26, 2020. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_
writing_assignments/argument_papers/index.html.
“Baseball Resources at the Library of Congress.” Library of Congress. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/rr/
program/bib/baseball/.
“Categories.” National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/categories.
“C-SPAN Booknotes.” C-SPAN. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://www.c-span.org/series/?booknotes.
“Library of Congress.” National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org//library-congress-tps.
“Making History Series.” National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/making-history-series.
National History Day. Accessed December 3, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/.
270
“Project Examples.” National History Day. Accessed July 4, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/project-examples.
Temos, Janet. “Design, Assign (and Survive) a Multimedia Class Project?” McGraw Center for Learning and Teaching, Princeton
University. Updated October 12, 2015. Accessed July 26, 2020. https://mcgrawect.princeton.edu/design-assign-and-survive-a-
multimedia-class-project/.
VIDEO
Buford, Kate. “Native American Son.” C-SPAN Booknotes. March 18, 2011. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://www.c-span.org/
video/?298562-8/native-american-son.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: REFLECTING ON THE
RESEARCH PROCESS AND NATIONAL HISTORY
DAY PROJECTS
IN THE LAST CHAPTER
Chapter Ten focused on strategies to present a historical argument through three dierent types of media (exhibits, websites,
and documentaries). The techniques help students consider how they present their information to maximize the impact of their
argument. This chapter will focus on specic strategies to help both students and teachers reect on what they have learned during
the National History Day (NHD) project that they can apply to other academic studies or life beyond school.
REFLECTING ON AN NHD RESEARCH PROJECT
Once students complete a research project and submit their work to a teacher or a National History Day contest, all breathe a sigh
of relief. Students feel like the work is done. Teachers feel the weight of evaluating the students’ work. The reection process must
continue even after students submit a research project. Throughout this book, we have oered suggested questions to encourage
student reection at each stage of the research process.
METACOGNITION
Metacognition is dened as “one’s own knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them.”
1
Put
more simply; it is the ability to think about the learning process. If teachers want students to engage in problem-solving strategies,
they need to teach students to explicitly consider and discuss what they learned and how they learned it. Metacognition plays a role
throughout planning, researching, creating, and most importantly, having a structured reection when the project is complete.
Metacognition is crucial to success in both post-secondary education and careers. Students who struggle in college lack strong
cognitive skills, including “analyzing, reasoning and argumentation, interpretation, self-monitoring, and study skills.”
2
Students
who use metacognitive strategies not only “perform at a higher level, but they will acquire the content more quickly because they
consciously consider which strategies might be more eective and then use them.”
3
Students need to understand how they learn
best and that learning is an active process.
For students transitioning from secondary education into career settings, metacognition helps them recognize the limits of their
knowledge and abilities and seek to learn more to ll those gaps. Workers in any job need to identify what they do not know (or do)
well and the knowledge of how to “learn specic (and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice them.
4
1 Kimberly D. Tanner, “Promoting Student Metacognition,” Life Sciences Education 11 (Summer 2012): 113. https://www.lifescied.org/doi/pdf/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033.
2 Stewart, Penée W, Clay Rasmussen, and Spencer Okey. “Meeting the C3 Framework through Metacognition: A Roadmap to Modifying Social Studies Lessons” The
Georgia Social Studies Journal, 5(2) (Fall 2015): 77. https://coe.uga.edu/assets/downloads/misc/gssj/Stewart-2015.pdf.
3 Stewart, Rasmussen, and Okey. “Meeting the C3 Framework through Metacognition”, 78.
4 Nancy Chick, “Metacognition,” Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt University, accessed December 11, 2020. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/.
271
272
- - - - -
METACOGNITION IN THE CLASSROOM
To learn more about integrating metacognitive strategies in the classroom setting, see “Promoting Metacognition” from
The Harriet W. Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning at Brown University:
brown.edu/sheridan/teaching-lear
ning-resources/teaching-resources/classroom-practices/promoting-metacognition.
Metacognition is not innate, and students need help to understand that learning happens through intentional and reective practice.
No author writes the perfect paragraph in the rst draft. Studies show that teachers who employ metacognitive thinking strategies
nd “changes in student focus, student attitude, and reduction in clarifying questions directed to the teacher.”
5
These strategies are
most eective when “adapted to reect the specic learning contexts of a specic topic, course or discipline.”
6
Historical research projects provide opportunities to engage in metacognition because they require active learning, and “active
learning techniques lend themselves to metacognition” and strengthen student motivation.
7
ACTIVITY ALERT!
In this activity, students will reect on their processes and nal products independently, in small groups, and with the
whole class. Consider using this activity on the day that students submit their nal product in class. Not only will this
give the teacher the logistical time to collect student work in an organized fashion, but also it will allow students to
respond while ideas are fresh in their minds.
5 Stewart, Rasmussen, and Okey. “Meeting the C3 Framework through Metacognition”, 82.
6 Chick, “Metacognition.”
7 “Encouraging Metacognition in the Classroom,” Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University, accessed December 11, 2020. https://poorvucenter.
yale.edu/MetacognitioninClassrooms. See also “Active Learning,” Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University, accessed December 11, 2020. https://
poorvucenter.yale.edu/ActiveLearning.
273
ACTIVITY: STUDENT REFLECTION ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY TIME: 50 MINUTES
TEACHER CREATED MATERIALS
Student Reection Journal for Individual Projects
Student Reection Journal for Group Projects
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
› Make one copy of the Student Reection Journal for Group Projects or Student Reection Journal for Individual Projects
as appropriate (or distribute electronically).
› Gather one or two index cards per student.
› Pre-set groups of three to ve students for the second part of the activity.
ACTIVITY PROCEDURE
STUDENT JOURNALING (20 MINUTES)
› While collecting students’ nal research projects, thank them for their hard work and ask them to engage in some
metacognitive thinking about their work.
› Distribute the Student Reection Journal to each student.
› Set a timer for 15 minutes.
› Ask students to independently engage with Part A’s questions for that time. Remind students that honesty is crucial and
that their responses have no positive or negative impact on their project’s grade.
› Start the timer and allow students to write. Collect and organize student projects while students write.
› Ask students: Please share with a partner one idea that surprised you as you wrote.
VERBAL REFLECTION AND SYNTHESIS (30 MINUTES)
› Organize students into groups of three to ve students each.
› If students completed the project in a group, ask groups to gather.
› If students worked independently, organize them into groups with other students who worked independently.
› Direct students to Part B of the Student Reection Journal. Ask students to engage in a small-group discussion based on
these questions for ten minutes.
› Distribute one or two index cards to each student and ask them to write one or two pieces of advice for a student who
will complete this project (or a similar one) in the next semester or year. Save these cards and distribute them to that
next group of students. Consider posting quotations in the classroom or on a class website.
› Collect the Student Reection Journals for use in the Teacher Reection Activity.
› Lead a brief, whole-class discussion based on the following questions:
› What is the best skill you learned during this research and creation process?
› What skills did you learn that you can apply to work in another class or another setting?
› If you could start this process over again, what is one thing you would do dierently? Why?
ADAPTATION
Some students, especially those on the autism spectrum, may nd metacognition challenging. Consider giving
students these questions ahead of time to begin thinking before the limited timeframe in class. Engage special
educators or case managers when needed.
274
STUDENT REFLECTION JOURNAL FOR INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS
Part A: Independent Reflection
Choose three of the following prompts to answer in the chart below.
1. Is this project nished to the best of my ability? Why or why not?
2. To what extent did I accomplish my goals in this project?
3. To what extent did I use the resources available to me to complete this project? Could I have used additional resources?
4. If I were to begin this project again today, what would I do dierently?
5. If I were to begin this project again today, what skills or strategies would I use?
6. Five years from now, what do I want to remember about this project?
7. If I were the teacher of this course, what would I do dierently to help my students on this project?
8. What more could I have learned from this project?
Question Number Student Response
Select One
275
Question Number Student Response
Part B: Group Discussion
Assemble as a group with other students who completed individual projects. Engage in a discussion based on the following
questions. Remember to listen as well as speak, and create an environment for all group members to participate.
› What is the most exciting piece of historical content that you learned in your project?
› What would you investigate further if you had more time?
› What is the best skill that you learned while creating this project?
› What did you learn about yourself as a student and a scholar during this project?
› What did you learn about yourself as a person during this project?
Select One
Select One
276
STUDENT REFLECTION JOURNAL FOR GROUP PROJECTS
Part A: Independent Reflection
Choose three of the following prompts to answer in the chart below.
1. Is this project nished to the best of our collective ability? Why or why not?
2. To what extent did we accomplish our goals in this project?
3. To what extent did we use the resources available to us to complete this project? Could we have used additional
resources?
4. If we were to begin this project again today, what would we do dierently?
5. If we were to begin this project again today, what skills or strategies would we use?
6. Five years from now, what do we want to remember about this project?
7. If we were the teachers of this course, what would we do dierently to help our students on this project?
8. What more could we have learned from this project?
Question Number Student Response
Select One
277
Question Number Student Response
Part B: Group Discussion
Assemble with the other students in your group. Engage in a discussion based on the following questions. Remember to
listen as well as speak, and create an environment for all group members to participate.
› What is the most exciting piece of historical content that we learned in our project?
› What would you like to investigate further if you had more time?
› What is the best skill that each of us learned while creating this project?
› What did we learn about ourselves as students and scholars during this project?
› What did we learn about ourselves as people during this project?
› If applicable, how did our group communicate and work together? What individual contributions could have improved the
group’s dynamic and nal product? What have we learned from this process?
Select One
Select One
278
RECEIVING AND RESPONDING TO FEEDBACK THROUGHOUT
THE PROJECT
Students who work on a project for several weeks or months often become invested in the project at a level beyond academics.
When they present their work to their teacher or a panel of judges at the National History Day Contest, it is often dicult for
students to receive feedback. But feedback is a critical stage of the process, and students who are most successful will reect early
and often on how to incorporate this feedback.
When students see a nished project (book, documentary, stage performance, website, museum exhibit, etc.), they often assume
that what they see is the rst draft of adults’ work. But as anyone who has participated in any one of these processes can explain,
a nished project is often the result of months or years of work that included several rounds of feedback from editors, directors,
graphic designers, supervisors, audience members, or the general public.
Understanding how teachers or judges will evaluate their work can help students accept feedback, and teachers can help by
explaining and reviewing their expectations with students. Evaluation needs to be multi-dimensional and provide students with
specic feedback focused on growth and improvement. Remind students that evaluation is not meant to be negative. Rather, it helps
learners identify their strengths and areas for improvement.
NHD EVALUATION
National History Day projects are evaluated at regional and aliate (state) contests, and the National Contest using an
evaluation form that assesses the student’s work on ten dimensions.
Students can submit papers, websites, performances, documentaries, or exhibits. The evaluation is broken into
Historical Quality (80%) and Clarity of Presentation (20%). Historical Quality includes the following and is consistent
across all ve project categories:
› Historical argument
› Wide research
› Primary sources
› Historical context
› Multiple perspectives
› Historical accuracy
› Signicance in history
› Student voice
Clarity of Presentation (20%) varies based on the type of project a student is submitting (e.g., papers have dierent
criteria than documentaries). To learn more about the NHD categories, go to www.nhd.org/categories.
To access the NHD Evaluation Forms, go to www.nhd.org/evals. While designed for the NHD Contest, many teachers
use these forms in the classroom to help students build and revise their projects.
Provide students with layers of feedback from as many people as possible. While teachers ultimately have the responsibility to
provide an evaluation (and often a grade), feedback from others can oer valuable and varied perspectives. Strategies that have
proven helpful for teachers to provide feedback to students include:
› Ask students to use the evaluation form to provide peer feedback. This process helps the peer evaluators recognize strengths
and weaknesses in other students’ projects and then apply that knowledge when revising their own projects.
› Engage other adults in providing feedback. Schools and communities are full of adults who can give age-appropriate feedback
to students. Be sure to follow school rules and protocols regarding visitors to the school or sharing student work outside of the
school. You may be required to secure parent permission or remove student identifying information to engage in this process.
Some who might be willing to provide feedback in the classroom or remotely include:
› Administrators (both in-building and from the district oce)
› Guidance counselors
279
› School or public librarians
› Volunteers from a local historical society
› Local museum professionals, such as museum educators
› Art teachers (great for exhibit students)
› Web designers (great for website students)
› Media experts from a local television or radio station (great for documentary students)
› English Language Arts teachers (great for paper students)
› Drama or music teachers (great for performance students)
› Recently retired teachers or administrators
› Educational assistants or paraprofessionals
If students enter their projects in a National History Day Contest, provide time for them to edit their work before the submission
deadline. Students must stick with their topic and their project category (e.g., a student cannot revise an exhibit into a documentary
once the contest process begins)., but they are strongly encouraged to revise their projects between levels of the competition. They
can rene their title, project content, and written materials between each level of the contest. Understanding this can help students
receive and actively seek feedback to help them improve their projects.
TEACHER REFLECTION
Just as students need to reect on their practice, so do teachers. Eective teaching requires teachers to sit down, review what
is and is not working, and make adjustments to improve over time. Master teachers follow a process of continuous evaluation,
monitoring, and adjusting. They use what is working, tweak what works for most, and change what is not eective. Reective
practitioners recognize what is not working and are open to nding and implementing new practices and active learning strategies.
Project-based learning and historical research and argumentation require that teachers adjust the process to meet their learners’
needs. This adjustment includes both “in-action” real-time monitoring and adjustment that happens daily in the classroom and
“on-action” reection that takes place after the project nishes.
8
Teachers should actively undertake this step in all stages of their
careers.
In addition to reecting on their practice, master teachers also look outward to consider how their thoughts, feelings, and actions
impact their students.
9
This is especially important as educators grapple with issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion. To ensure all
students’ success, teachers need to engage in “confronting assumptions, raising awareness of diverse learning needs and critiquing
social justice principles and equity issues.”
10
By confronting these issues, teachers are actively engaging what H. Richard Milner IV
calls the “opportunity gap framework,” where educators “consider inputs—the mechanisms, practices, policies, and experiences that
inuence students’ opportunities to learn.”
11
The last resource in this book is a graphic organizer to help teachers consider the logistical, pedagogical, and equity considerations
at all project phases. One of the most signicant benets of teaching is adapting, revising, and trying again. Most challenges have
solutions. This graphic organizer is designed to help teachers think through the various stages of the research and project-creation
process. Prompt questions help teachers consider areas where their students succeeded and places where they struggled.
TEACHER TIP
Note that each section of the chart corresponds with a chapter in this book. If you seek improvement in an area, review
and consider some of the strategies presented in that chapter to reinforce or provide options or methods to consider.
8 Mihela Monica Stîngu, “Reexive Practice in Teacher Education: Facts and Trends,” Procedia – Social and Behaviors Sciences 33 (2012): 617-621. https://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812002030#bbib0020.
9 Thomas Ryan, “When You Reect Are You Also Being Reexive?” Ontario Action Researcher 8(1), 2015. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ844460.
10 Robyn Bentley-Williams and Jennifer Morgan, “Inclusive Education: Pre-service Teachers’ Reexive Learning on Diversity and Their Challenging Role,” Asia-Pacic
Journal of Teacher Education 41(2), 2013. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1359866X.2013.777024.
11 H. Richard Milner IV, Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2020): 21.
280
REFLECTING ON STUDENT LEARNING
Generating and Refining Questions to Guide the Research Process
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Did students have access to
databases to conduct the rst phase
of preliminary research?
Were students taught strategies to
generate, rene, and select good
questions about their topic?
Could students generate a solid
research question?
Were all students heard in the
question-development process?
Were ideas removed or downplayed
that did not t the status quo?
Teacher Reection
Developing a Research Plan
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Did students have access to
resources to conduct preliminary
research?
Were students able to generate a
feasible research plan?
Were all students heard in the
research plan development
process?
Teacher Reection
281
Using Secondary Sources in Historical Research
Logistical
Did students have access to libraries
(in person or virtually) to conduct
Pedagogical
Were students able to nd
secondary sources to establish
Equity
Were all research topics supported
at an appropriate level?
secondary source research? historical context?
Were additional resources needed in
some areas to support topics that t
student interests?
Teacher Reection
Finding Primary Sources from the Library of Congress
Logistical
Did students have access to
the Library of Congress’ digital
collections to conduct primary
Pedagogical
Could students identify the holdings
of the Library of Congress and
determine whether its sources apply
Equity
Were all research topics supported
at an appropriate level?
source research?
to their project?
Were students able to nd primary
sources to support their research (if
appropriate to the topic)?
Were additional resources needed in
some areas to support topics that t
student interests?
Teacher Reection
282
Analyzing Primary Sources from the Library of Congress
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Did students have access to
the Library of Congress’ digital
collections to conduct primary
Could students use the tools
provided by the Library of Congress
to analyze a source?
Were all learning styles supported at
an appropriate level?
source research?
Were students able to understand
the role that perspective plays in
analyzing primary sources?
Teacher Reection
Three Cs of Scholarly Thinking: Context, Close Reading, and Corroboration
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Were students given enough time
and practice at these skills to
develop a level of competence?
Were additional supports, examples,
or scaolding needed?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of historical context?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of close reading of
historical sources?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of corroborating evidence?
Were all students meeting these
benchmarks equally, or did
performance vary?
Could instruction be dierentiated
to meet the needs of all students
to develop these historical thinking
skills?
Teacher Reection
283
Reliability, Validity, Perspective, and Missing Narratives
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Were students given enough time
and practice at these skills to
develop a level of competence?
Were additional supports, examples,
or scaolding needed?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of reliable sourcing?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of recognizing and using
multiple perspectives?
Did students’ projects reect
evidence of acknowledging missing
narratives?
Were all students meeting these
benchmarks equally, or did
performance vary?
Could instruction be dierentiated
to meet the needs of all students
to develop these historical thinking
skills?
Teacher Reection
Constructing an Argument in the History Classroom
Logistical
Were students given enough time
and practice at these skills to
develop a level of competence?
Pedagogical
Were students able to construct
(and revise) a historical argument to
organize their project?
Equity
Were all students meeting these
benchmarks equally, or did
performance vary?
Were additional supports, examples,
or scaolding needed?
Were they able to marshal evidence
from historical sources to support
their argument?
Could instruction be dierentiated
to meet the needs of all students to
develop a historical argument?
Teacher Reection
284
Crafting a Historical Argument in Dierent Mediums
Logistical Pedagogical Equity
Were students given enough time to
develop and revise their projects?
Were additional supports, examples,
or scaolding needed?
Were students able to complete (and
revise) a project that demonstrates
their historical argument?
Does the project show evidence
of the skills taught throughout the
project?
Did all students have access to the
resources they need to select their
project type (i.e., software, printers,
exhibit boards, etc.)?
Could varied presentation formats
help meet students’ needs and give
them a way to demonstrate their
learning?
Teacher Reection
285
CONCLUSION
Historical research and argumentation provide multiple opportunities to engage students in active learning strategies. When students
select a topic, research it, develop their arguments and interpretations supported by evidence, and draw conclusions, they think
(and act) like historians. They develop twenty-rst-century skills, including communication, critical thinking, creativity, media literacy,
collaboration, exibility, and initiative. These skills reect those required for success in both the academic and career paths.
An understanding of history makes students better-informed citizens. Giving students the skills to look at a current issue, understand
its historical roots, ask questions, and make an evidence-based, reasoned decision supports them in being engaged citizens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SECONDARY SOURCES
BOOKS
Milner IV, H. Richard. Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2020.
Swan, Kathy, et al. College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 Civics,
Geography, and History. Silver Spring: National Council for the Social Studies, 2013. https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/les/
c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies-rev0617.pdf.
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Bentley-Williams, Robyn and Jennifer Morgan. “Inclusive Education: Pre-service Teachers’ Reexive Learning on Diversity and
Their Challenging Role.” Asia-Pacic Journal of Teacher Education 41(2), 2013. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/135986
6X.2013.777024.
Matthews, Brian and John Hessel. “Reective and Reexive Practice in Initial Teacher Educator: A Critical Case Study” Teaching in
Higher Education 3(2), 1998: 231-243. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1356215980030208.
Ryan, Thomas. “When You Reect Are You Also Being Reexive?” Ontario Action Researcher 8(1), 2015. https://eric.
ed.gov/?id=EJ844460.
Stewart, Penée W, Clay Rasmussen, and Spencer Okey. “Meeting the C3 Framework through Metacognition: A Roadmap to
Modifying Social Studies Lessons” The Georgia Social Studies Journal, 5(2) (Fall 2015): 77-84. https://coe.uga.edu/assets/downloads/
misc/gssj/Stewart-2015.pdf.
Stîngu, Mihela Monica. “Reexive Practice in Teacher Education: Facts and Trends.” Procedia–Social and Behaviors Sciences 33 (2012):
617-621. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812002030#bbib0020.
Tanner, Kimberly. “Promoting Student Metacognition,” Life Sciences Education 11 (Summer 2012): 113-120. https://www.lifescied.org/
doi/pdf/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033.
WEBSITES
“Active Learning.” Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University. Accessed December 11, 2020. https://poorvucenter.
yale.edu/ActiveLearning.
“Categories.” National History Day. Accessed December 11, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/categories.
Chick, Nancy. “Metacognition.” Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt University. Accessed December 11, 2020. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/
guides-sub-pages/metacognition/.
“Encouraging Metacognition in the Classroom.” Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University. Accessed December 11,
2020. https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/MetacognitioninClassrooms.
“National History Day Contest Rule Book.” National History Day. Accessed December 11, 2020. www.nhd.org/rulebook.
“National History Day Evaluation Forms.” National History Day. Accessed December 11, 2020. https://www.nhd.org/evals.
“Promoting Metacognition.” The Harriet W. Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning at Brown University. Accessed December
11, 2020. https://www.brown.edu/sheridan/teaching-learning-resources/teaching-resources/classroom-practices/promoting-
metacognition.
“TPS Journal.” Library of Congress. Accessed December 14, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/programs/teachers/about-this-program/
teaching-with-primary-sources-partner-program/tps-journal/.
286
287
NOTES
288
289
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