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The Age of Imperialism 357
MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
EMPIRE BUILDING As the
Mughal Empire declined, Britain
seized Indian territory and soon
controlled almost the whole
subcontinent.
India, the second most
populated nation in the world,
has its political roots in this
colony.
• sepoy
•“jewel in
the crown”
• Sepoy
Mutiny
• Raj
4
SETTING THE STAGE British economic interest in India began in the 1600s,
when the British East India Company set up trading posts at Bombay, Madras,
and Calcutta. At first, India’s ruling Mughal Dynasty kept European traders
under control. By 1707, however, the Mughal Empire was collapsing. Dozens of
small states, each headed by a ruler or maharajah, broke away from Mughal con-
trol. In 1757, Robert Clive led East India Company troops in a decisive victory
over Indian forces allied with the French at the Battle of Plassey. From that time
until 1858, the East India Company was the leading power in India.
British Expand Control over India
The area controlled by the East India Company grew over time. Eventually, it
governed directly or indirectly an area that included modern Bangladesh, most
of southern India, and nearly all the territory along the Ganges River in the north.
East India Company Dominates Officially, the British government regulated
the East India Company’s efforts both in London and in India. Until the begin-
ning of the 19th century, the company ruled India with little interference from
the British government. The company even had its own army, led by British offi-
cers and staffed by
sepoys, or Indian soldiers. The governor of Bombay,
Mountstuart Elphinstone, referred to the sepoy army as “a delicate and danger-
ous machine, which a little mismanagement may easily turn against us.”
Britain’s “Jewel in the Crown” At first, the British treasured India more for its
potential than its actual profit. The Industrial Revolution had turned Britain into
the world’s workshop, and India was a major supplier of raw materials for that
workshop. Its 300 million people were also a large potential market for British-
made goods. It is not surprising, then, that the British considered India the bright-
est
“jewel in the crown,” the most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies.
The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from oper-
ating on its own. British policies called for India to produce raw materials for
British manufacturing and to buy British goods. In addition, Indian competition
with British goods was prohibited. For example, India’s own handloom textile
industry was almost put out of business by imported British textiles. Cheap cloth
and ready-made clothes from England flooded the Indian market and drove out
local producers.
British Imperialism in India
R
ecognizing E
ff
ect
s
U
se
a
d
iagram to i
d
entify t
h
e
e
ffects of t
h
e t
h
ree causes
l
i
s
t
e
d.
TAKING NOTES
Ca
us
e
1
. Decli
n
e o
f
the Mughal
E
m
p
ir
e
. Co
onia
p
o
l
icie
s
3
.
S
epo
y
M
u
t
in
y
E
ffec
t
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
10.4.1 Describe the rise of industrial
economies and their link to imperialism and
colonialism (e.g., the role played by national
security and strategic advantage; moral
issues raised by the search for national
hegemony, Social Darwinism, and the mis-
sionary impulse; material issues such as land,
resources, and technology).
10.4.3 Explain imperialism from the
perspective of the colonizers and the
colonized and the varied immediate and
long-term responses by the people under
colonial rule.
10.4.4 Describe the independence struggles
of the colonized regions of the world,
including the roles of leaders, such as Sun
Yat-sen in China, and the roles of ideology
and religion.
Page 1 of 5
British Transport Trade Goods India became increasingly valuable to the British
after they established a railroad network there. Railroads transported raw products
from the interior to the ports and manufactured goods back again. Most of the raw
materials were agricultural products produced on plantations. Plantation crops
included tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and jute. Another crop was opium. The British
shipped opium to China and exchanged it for tea, which they then sold in England.
Trade in these crops was closely tied to international events. For example, the
Crimean War in the 1850s cut off the supply of Russian jute to Scottish jute mills.
This boosted the export of raw jute from Bengal, a province in India. Likewise, cot-
ton production in India increased when the Civil War in the United States cut off
supplies of cotton for British textile mills.
Impact of Colonialism India both benefited from and was harmed by British colo-
nialism. On the negative side, the British held much of the political and economic
power. The British restricted Indian-owned industries such as cotton textiles. The
emphasis on cash crops resulted in a loss of self-sufficiency for many villagers. The
conversion to cash crops reduced food production, causing famines in the late
1800s. The British officially adopted a hands-off policy regarding Indian religious
and social customs. Even so, the increased presence of missionaries and the racist
attitude of most British officials threatened traditional Indian life.
On the positive side, the laying of the world’s third largest railroad network was
a major British achievement. When completed, the railroads enabled India to
develop a modern economy and brought unity to the connected regions. Along with
the railroads, a modern road network, telephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges,
and irrigation canals enabled India to modernize. Sanitation and public health
improved. Schools and colleges were founded, and literacy increased. Also, British
troops cleared central India of bandits and put an end to local warfare among com-
peting local rulers.
Summarizing
On which conti-
nents were Indian
goods being
traded?
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
South
China
Sea
East
China
Sea
Yellow
Sea
Sea
of
Japan
I
n
d
u
s
R
.
G
a
n
g
e
s
R
.
H
u
a
n
g
H
e
C
h
a
n
g
J
i
a
n
g
(
Y
a
n
g
t
z
e
R
.
)
(
Y
e
l
l
o
w
R
.
)
P
e
r
s
i
a
n
G
u
l
f
Delhi
Rangoon
Calcutta
Madras
Bombay
Bangkok
Beijing
Tokyo
Hong Kong
(Britain)
Saigon
Manila
Hanoi
Macao
(Portugal)
Singapore
(Britain)
Batavia
PERSIA
ARABIA
BRITISH
INDIA
BURMA
BHUTAN
TIBET
MALAY
STATES
SIAM
KOREA
(Japan)
JAPAN
TAIWAN
(Japan)
SARAWAK
BRITISH
N. BORNEO
BRUNEI
PHILIPPINES
CHINA
N
E
P
A
L
A
F
G
H
A
N
I
S
T
A
N
I
N
D
O
C
H
I
N
A
F
R
E
N
C
H
D
U
T
C
H
E
A
S
T
I
N
D
I
E
S
CEYLON
Borneo
New Guinea
H
I
M
A
L
A
Y
A
S
0° Equator
40°N
120°E
80°E
Tropic of Cancer
France
Germany
Great Britain
The Netherlands
United States
0
0
1,000 Miles
2,000 Kilometers
Western-Held Territories in Asia, 1910
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
1. Region Which nation in 1910 held the most land in colonies?
2. Location How is the location of India a great advantage for trade?
Vocabulary
jute: a fiber used for
sacks and cord
358
Page 2 of 5
The Age of Imperialism 359
The Sepoy Mutiny
By 1850, the British controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. However, there
were many pockets of discontent. Many Indians believed that in addition to con-
trolling their land, the British were trying to convert them to Christianity. The Indian
people also resented the constant racism that the British expressed toward them.
Indians Rebel As economic problems increased for Indians, so did their feelings of
resentment and nationalism. In 1857, gossip spread among the sepoys, the Indian sol-
diers, that the cartridges of their new Enfield rifles were greased with beef and pork
fat. To use the cartridges, soldiers had to bite off the ends. Both Hindus, who con-
sider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news.
A garrison commander was shocked when 85 of the 90 sepoys refused to accept
the cartridges. The British handled the crisis badly. The soldiers who had disobeyed
were jailed. The next day, on May 10, 1857, the sepoys rebelled. They marched to
Delhi, where they were joined by Indian soldiers stationed there. They captured the
city of Delhi. From Delhi, the rebellion spread to northern and central India.
Some historians have called this outbreak the
Sepoy Mutiny. The uprising spread
over much of northern India. Fierce fighting took place. Both British and sepoys tried
to slaughter each other’s armies. The East India Company took more than a year to
regain control of the country. The British government sent troops to help them.
The Indians could not unite against the British due to weak leadership and seri-
ous splits between Hindus and Muslims. Hindus did not want the Muslim Mughal
Empire restored. Indeed, many Hindus preferred British rule to Muslim rule. Most
of the princes and maharajahs who had made alliances with the East India
Recognizing
Effects
Look back at
Elphinstone’s com-
ment on page 357.
Did the Sepoy
Mutiny prove him
correct?
Social Class in India
In the photograph at right, a British officer is waited on by
Indian servants. This reflects the class system in India.
British Army
Social class determined the way of life for the British Army
in India. Upper-class men served as officers. Lower-class
British served at lesser rank and did not advance past the
rank of sergeant. Only men with the rank of sergeant and
above were allowed to bring their wives to India.
Each English officer’s wife attempted to re-create
England in the home setting. Like a general, she
directed an army of 20 to 30 servants.
Indian Servants
Caste determined Indian occupations. Castes were divided
into four broad categories called varna. Indian civil servants
were of the third varna. House and personal servants were
of the fourth varna.
Even within the varna, jobs were strictly regulated,
which is why such large servant staffs were required. For
example, in the picture here, both servants were of the
same varna. However, the person washing the British
officer’s feet was of a different caste than the person
doing the fanning.
Page 3 of 5
360 Chapter 11
Recognizing
Effects
In what ways
did the Sepoy
Mutiny change the
political climate of
India?
▼ This engraving
shows sepoys
attacking the
British infantry
at the Battle of
Cawnpore in
1857.
Company did not take part in the rebellion. The Sikhs, a religious group that had
been hostile to the Mughals, also remained loyal to the British. Indeed, from then
on, the bearded and turbaned Sikhs became the mainstay of Britain’s army in India.
Turning Point The mutiny marked a turning point in Indian history. As a result of
the mutiny, in 1858 the British government took direct command of India. The part
of India that was under direct British rule was called the Raj. The term
Raj referred
to British rule over India from 1757 until 1947. A cabinet minister in London
directed policy, and a British governor-general in India carried out the govern-
ment’s orders. After 1877, this official held the title of viceroy.
To reward the many princes who had remained loyal to Britain, the British
promised to respect all treaties the East India Company had made with them. They
also promised that the Indian states that were still free would remain independent.
Unofficially, however, Britain won greater and greater control of those states.
The Sepoy Mutiny fueled the racist attitudes of the British. The British attitude
is illustrated in the following quote by Lord Kitchener, British commander in chief
of the army in India:
PRIMARY SOURCE
It is this consciousness of the inherent superiority of the European which has won for us
India. However well educated and clever a native may be, and however brave he may
prove himself, I believe that no rank we can bestow on him would cause him to be
considered an equal of the British officer.
LORD KITCHENER, quoted in K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance
The mutiny increased distrust between the British and the Indians. A political
pamphlet suggested that both Hindus and Muslims “are being ruined under the
tyranny and oppression of the . . . treacherous English.”
Page 4 of 5
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• sepoy • “jewel in the crown” • Sepoy Mutiny • Raj
USING YOUR NOTES
2. Which of the effects you listed
later became causes?
(10.4.4)
MAIN IDEAS
3. Why did Britain consider India
its “jewel in the crown”?
(10.4.3)
4. Why didn’t Indians unite
against the British in the Sepoy
Mutiny?
(10.4.3)
5. What form did British rule take
under the Raj?
(10.4.3)
SECTION ASSESSMENT
4
CREATING A POLITICAL CARTOON
In 1947, India was divided into two countries: mostly Hindu India and mostly Muslim Pakistan.
However, the two countries maintain a tense relationship today. Research to learn about the
cause of this tension and illustrate it in a political cartoon.
(10.4.4)
CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
6. MAKING INFERENCES How did economic imperialism
lead to India’s becoming a British colony?
(10.4.1)
7. EVALUATING DECISIONS What might the decision to
grease the sepoys’ cartridges with beef and pork fat
reveal about the British attitude toward Indians?
(10.4.3)
8. SYNTHESIZING How did imperialism contribute to unity
and to the growth of nationalism in India?
(10.4.4)
9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write an editorial
to an underground Indian newspaper, detailing
grievances against the British and calling for self-
government.
(Writing 2.5.a)
EMPIRE BUILDING
CONNECT TO TODAY
The Age of Imperialism 361
Analyzing Motives
Why would the
British think that
dividing the Hindus
and Muslims into
separate sections
would be good?
Nationalism Surfaces in India
In the early 1800s, some Indians began demanding more modernization and a
greater role in governing themselves. Ram Mohun Roy, a modern-thinking, well-
educated Indian, began a campaign to move India away from traditional practices
and ideas. Sometimes called the “Father of Modern India,” Ram Mohun Roy saw
arranged child marriages and the rigid caste separation as parts of religious life that
needed to be changed. He believed that if the practices were not changed, India
would continue to be controlled by outsiders. Roy’s writings inspired other Indian
reformers to call for adoption of Western ways. Roy also founded a social reform
movement that worked for change in India.
Besides modernization and Westernization, nationalist feelings started to surface
in India. Indians hated a system that made them second-class citizens in their own
country. They were barred from top posts in the Indian Civil Service. Those who
managed to get middle-level jobs were paid less than Europeans. A British engineer
on the East India Railway, for example, made nearly 20 times as much money as an
Indian engineer.
Nationalist Groups Form This growing nationalism led to the founding of two
nationalist groups, the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the Muslim League
in 1906. At first, such groups concentrated on specific concerns for Indians. By the
early 1900s, however, they were calling for self-government.
The nationalists were further inflamed in 1905 by the partition of Bengal. The
province was too large for administrative purposes, so the British divided it into a
Hindu section and a Muslim section. As a result, acts of terrorism broke out. In
1911, yielding to pressure, the British took back the order and divided the province
in a different way.
Conflict over the control of India continued to develop between the Indians and
the British in the following years. Elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the same struggles
for control of land took place between local groups and the major European pow-
ers that dominated them. You will learn about them in Section 5.
Ca
use
1
. Decli
n
e of
the Mughal
E
m
p
ire
2
. Co
l
onia
l
p
o
l
icies
3
.
S
epoy
M
u
t
iny
E
ffec
t
Page 5 of 5
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