Recreational SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus) can provide recreational divers with an enjoyable
sport safer than many other activities. The risk of diving is
increased by certain physical conditions, which the relationship to
diving may not be readily obvious. Thus, it is important to screen
divers for such conditions.
The RECREATIONAL SCUBA DIVER’S PHYSICAL EXAMINA-
TION focuses on conditions that may put a diver at increased risk
for decompression sickness, pulmonary overinflation syndrome
with subsequent arterial gas embolization and other conditions
such as loss of consciousness, which could lead to drowning.
Additionally, the diver must be able to withstand some degree of
cold stress, the physiological effects of immersion and the optical
effects of water and have sufficient physical and mental reserves
to deal with possible emergencies.
The history, review of systems and physical examination should
include as a minimum the points listed below. The list of condi-
tions that might adversely affect the diver is not all-inclusive, but
contains the most commonly encountered medical problems. The
brief introductions should serve as an alert to the nature of the
risk posed by each medical problem.
The potential diver and his or her physician must weigh the
pleasures to be had by diving against an increased risk of death
or injury due to the individual’s medical condition. As with any
recreational activity, there are no data for diving enabling the cal-
culation of an accurate mathematical probability of injury. Experi-
ence and physiological principles only permit a qualitative
assessment of relative risk.
For the purposes of this document, Severe Risk implies that an
individual is believed to be at substantially elevated risk of decom-
pression sickness, pulmonary or otic barotrauma or altered con-
sciousness with subsequent drowning, compared with the gener-
al population. The consultants involved in drafting this document
would generally discourage a student with such medical prob-
lems from diving. Relative Risk refers to a moderate increase in
risk, which in some instances may be acceptable. To make a
decision as to whether diving is contraindicated for this category
of medical problems, physicians must base their judgement on
an assessment of the individual patient. Some medical problems
which may preclude diving are temporary in nature or respon-
sive to treatment, allowing the student to dive safely after they
have resolved.
Diagnostic studies and specialty consultations should be obtained
as indicated to determine the diver’s status. A list of references is
included to aid in clarifying issues that arise. Physicians and
other medical professionals of the Divers Alert Network (DAN)
associated with Duke University Health System are available for
consultation by phone +1 919 684 2948 during normal business
hours. For emergency calls, 24 hours 7 days a week, call +1 919
684 8111 or +1 919 684 4DAN (collect). Related organizations
exist in other parts of the world – DAN Europe in Italy +39 039
605 7858, DAN S.E.A.P. in Australia +61 3 9886 9166 and Divers
Emergency Service (DES) in Australia +61 8 8212 9242, DAN
Japan +81 33590 6501 and DAN Southern Africa +27 11 242
0380. There are also a number of informative websites offering
similar advice.
NEUROLOGICAL
Neurological abnormalities affecting a diver’s ability to perform
exercise should be assessed according to the degree of compro-
mise. Some diving physicians feel that conditions in which there
can be a waxing and waning of neurological symptoms and
signs, such as migraine or demyelinating disease, contraindicate
diving because an exacerbation or attack of the preexisting dis-
ease (e.g.: a migraine with aura) may be difficult to distinguish
from neurological decompression sickness. A history of head
injury resulting in unconsciousness should be evaluated for risk
of seizure.
Relative Risk Conditions
• Complicated Migraine Headaches whose symptoms or
severity impair motor or cognitive function, neurologic
manifestations
• History of Head Injury with sequelae other than seizure
• Herniated Nucleus Pulposus
• Intracranial Tumor or Aneurysm
• Peripheral Neuropathy
• Multiple Sclerosis
•
Trigeminal Neuralgia
• History of spinal cord or brain injury
Temporary Risk Condition
History of cerebral gas embolism without residual where pul-
monary air trapping has been excluded and for which there
is a satisfactory explanation and some reason to believe that
the probability of recurrence is low.
Severe Risk Conditions
Any abnormalities where there is a significant probability of
unconsciousness, hence putting the diver at increased risk of
drowning. Divers with spinal cord or brain abnormalities where
perfusion is impaired may be at increased risk of decompression
sickness.
Some conditions are as follows:
• History of seizures other than childhood febrile seizures
• History of Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) or Cerebrovas-
cular Accident (CVA)
• History of Serious (Central Nervous System, Cerebral or
Inner Ear) Decompression Sickness with residual deficits
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS
Relative Risk Conditions
The diagnoses listed below potentially render the diver unable to
meet the exertional performance requirements likely to be
encountered in recreational diving. These conditions may lead
the diver to experience cardiac ischemia and its consequences.
Formalized stress testing is encouraged if there is any doubt
regarding physical performance capability. The suggested mini-
mum criteria for stress testing in such cases is at least 13
METS.* Failure to meet the exercise criteria would be of signifi-
cant concern. Conditioning and retesting may make later qualifi-
cation possible. Immersion in water causes a redistribution of
blood from the periphery into the central compartment, an effect
that is greatest in cold water. The marked increase in cardiac
preload during immersion can precipitate pulmonary edema in
patients with impaired left ventricular function or significant valvu-
lar disease. The effects of immersion can mostly be gauged by
an assessment of the diver’s performance while swimming on the
surface. A large proportion of scuba diving deaths in North Amer-
ica are due to coronary artery disease. Before being approved to
scuba dive, individuals older than 40 years are recommended to
undergo risk assessment for coronary artery disease. Formal
exercise testing may be needed to assess the risk.
* METS is a term used to describe the metabolic cost. The MET at rest
is one, two METS is two times the resting level, three METS is three
times the resting level, and so on. The resting energy cost (net oxygen
requirement) is thus standardized. (Exercise Physiology; Clark, Prentice
Hall, 1975.)
Guidelines for Recreational Scuba Diver’s Physical Examination
Instructions to the Physician:
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