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The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 1 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
Understanding Variation
in Human Skin Color
INTRODUCTION
A look around the world shows that people’s skin comes in many different shades from the lightest pink to
darkest brown. All of this variation can’t be explained by differences in a single gene. Skin comes in such an array
of colors because it is a polygenic trait. Polygenic traits are determined by a combined effect of more than one
gene located at different loci (locations) throughout the genome and each with two or more alleles.
PROCEDURE
Answer the questions in each of the sections that follow.
PART 1: Using a model to understand skin color genetics
Scientists often use models to explain or predict phenomena. In this section, you will explore a simple
mathematical model to understand the relationship between the number of genes involved in a trait and the
number of phenotypes generated from different combinations of alleles. The assumptions of the model are
listed below:
Each gene involved in skin color variation has exactly two alleles. Allele 1 results in pigment; Allele 0
results in no pigment.
Each gene affects skin color to the same degree.
Each allele acts in an additive fashion. In other words, any one allele is not dominant over the other.
Using this model, if there is one gene affecting skin color (gene A) with two alleles (A
1
A
0
), there’d be four
possible genotypes: A
1
A
1
, A
1
A
0
, A
0
A
1
, and A
0
A
0
. According to the model, A
1
A
0
and A
0
A
1
would result in identical
phenotypes, so there are three possible phenotypes: two pigment alleles (A
1
A
1
), one pigment allele (A
1
A
0
and
A
0
A
1
), and zero pigment alleles (A
0
A
0
).
The table on the following page shows all the genotypes possible when there are one, two, or three genes
contributing to skin color in our model. Complete the table by determining the number of unique phenotypes
for two genes. Use colored pens or pencils to circle the genotypes that correspond to each unique phenotype.
Hint: Add up the number of pigment alleles (A
1
, B
1
, or C
1
) present in a genotype. Genotypes with the same
number of pigment alleles will have the same phenotype.
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 2 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
Table 1: Data from the model in three different scenarios.
Scenario
Possible Genotypes
Number of Unique
Phenotypes
1: One gene
(A)
A
1
A
1
A
1
A
0
A
0
A
1
A
0
A
0
3
2: Two genes
(A, B)
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
1
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
1
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
1
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
0
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
0
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
0
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
1
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
1
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
1
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
1
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
0
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
0
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
0
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
0
3: Three genes
(A, B, C)
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
1
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
1
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
1
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
1
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
1
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
1
B
0
C
0
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
1
C
0
A
0
A
0
B
0
B
0
C
0
C
0
7
1. Describe the basic relationship between the number of unique skin color phenotypes generated in the
model and the number of genes responsible.
2. Look at the number of unique phenotypes for one gene and two genes. The number of unique phenotypes
for three genes is seven. Develop a mathematical expression to summarize the number of phenotypes (P)
that can form from N number of genes.
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 3 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
3. Based on the mathematical expression, predict how many distinct phenotypes would result from six genes,
each with two alleles, according to the model. _______________________________
4. Studies into the genetics of human skin color have concluded that at least 34 genes (Sturm and Duffy 2012)
have a detectable influence on skin color, but there are likely many more. Based on the expression you
developed above, and assuming that each of the 34 genes has two alleles, how many unique phenotypes
would be generated? Show your work.
PART 2: Searching for skin color genes
How do we know which genes are involved in skin color? Scientists use genome-wide association studies to
determine how differences in DNA among individuals or even populations relate to different phenotypes. These
studies involve comparing DNA sequences across the genomes of a large number of individuals in search of
variations that are consistently associated with particular phenotypes. These variations are called single-
nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs (pronounced “snips”). A SNP is a variation in a single nucleotide at a
particular position, or locus, in the genome. Not all single-nucleotide changes are SNPs. To be classified as a SNP,
the change must be found in more than 1% of the population. SNPs are also called markers.
Once a SNP locus has been identified, scientists can use the differences in populations to determine the gene or
genes that generate the phenotypes they see. Using this approach, many genes have been identified as having a
role in determining skin pigmentation. The genes identified as having the strongest effect on skin color are TYR,
TYRP1, OCA2, SLC45A2, SLC24A5, and MC1R. Among these, the melanocortin 1 receptor gene (MC1R) is the
major contributor to normal pigment variation. To date, scientists have identified more than 50 SNPs within the
MC1R gene. Each SNP represents a different allele, so there are more than 50 known alleles for the MC1R gene.
SNPs can also be used to gain insight into an individual’s ancestry. Scientists have compared SNPs among
populations of indigenous people, or people native to a particular place, and quantified how often a given allele
(SNP) of a specific gene is present within that population. This measure of the relative frequency of a given
allele, which is called allele frequency, is often expressed as a percentage. For example, the skin color gene
SLC24A5 has a SNP locus known as rs1426654. There are two alleles at this locus; an individual can have an
adenine (A) or a guanine (G). Studies of indigenous populations have revealed that the allele frequency of the A
allele is 100% among Europeans (making the frequency of the G allele 0%) and 2.5% among Africans (making the
frequency of the G allele 97.5%). If you were to consider just these two groups of people, you would consider a
person with two A alleles to most likely be of European ancestry, whereas a person with two G alleles most likely
would be of African ancestry. By looking at the frequencies of SNPs throughout their genome, a researcher can
make an informed hypothesis about an individual’s ancestry based on their DNA, as you will see in Part 3.
5. To search for genes involved in determining skin color, scientists look for SNPs associated with different skin
color phenotypes. SNPs are variations at a single nucleotide within the genome. How can a change in a
single nucleotide be responsible for differences in skin color or the function of a gene in general?
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 4 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
Most phenotypic traits vary among the individuals in a population. For many traits, an individual’s phenotype is
determined by environmental influences as well as their genetic makeup. A measure of the degree to which
differences in a trait are the result of genetics is called heritability. Heritability values range from 0 to 1.
A heritability value of 1.0 means that 100% of the differences in a trait found among individuals in a
population are caused by genetic differences.
A heritability value of 0.0 means that 100% of the differences in a trait found among individuals in a
population are caused by environmental differences.
For any given trait, heritability usually falls somewhere between these two extremes. As long as a trait has
heritability greater than 0, it can be acted on by natural selection. Note that a measure of heritability is only
useful for a given population at a given time. It is not an absolute and unchanging number.
Biologists estimate heritability of a trait in a population by comparing a trait among close relatives, for example,
among parents and children or between twins. The more similar the expression of a trait is between close
relatives, the more likely it is to have a high heritability.
6. Why are identical twins a good source of data for studies into the heritability of a trait?
In one particular study (Clark et al. 1981), scientists measured skin color using a reflectometer (a device that
measures reflectance of a surface) in 134 pairs of twins. Some of the twins were identical, others were fraternal.
Study participants lived in the same geographic area and had similar sun exposure. The study concluded that
skin color has a heritability of 0.83.
7. Support this claim using evidence from the information provided: Differences in human skin color are
caused primarily by differences in genetics.
8. We know that multiple genes (some with many different alleles) contribute to skin color, but genes alone do
not account for the diversity of pigmentation we see among humans; environmental factors play a role.
Propose an explanation for how one of these factors could alter the expression of skin color genes.
PART 3: Using skin color-related allele frequencies to infer ancestry
Have you ever wondered how companies are able to trace your ancestry by analyzing a saliva sample? By
understanding genetics and mathematical modeling, and having the ability to sequence DNA, scientists can use
computers to compare an individual’s DNA against a database of known allele frequencies tied to different
geographic regions. First, DNA is extracted from the saliva sample and analyzed using a SNP chip, a small piece
of silicon glass with short pieces of DNA attached to it. These pieces of DNA are complementary to certain SNPs.
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 5 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
When an individual’s DNA is exposed to the SNP chip, only the DNA molecule whose nucleotide is
complementary “sticks,” or anneals, to the chip. This identifies the nucleotide at a designated SNP locus. A single
SNP chip can look at several hundred thousand SNPs in a sample. An individual’s SNPs are then compared to the
data bank to make a prediction about their ancestry. This process is accomplished using a mathematical model.
In this activity, you will practice analyzing a person’s set of SNPs to make an estimate of their region of ancestry.
Table 2 provides the allele frequencies for various SNPs of five different genes involved in human skin
pigmentation. Frequency data is provided for four different indigenous populations: European, Chinese,
Japanese, and African.
The analysis you are conducting involves two simplifications. First, you will look at profiles with only 13 SNPs and
all the SNPs are related to skin pigmentation. In reality, estimating someone’s ancestry requires looking at many
SNPs throughout the entire genome and the SNPs used in the analyses are not only from loci associated with
skin pigmentation. Second, you will only consider one allele at each locus for the two individuals explored in the
activity. In some cases, people could be homozygous for a particular SNP in which case using only one SNP at a
locus is accurate, but in other cases people may have two different alleles at a locus.
Table 2: Frequencies of various skin pigmentation alleles in different native populations.
(Data from Strum R.A. 2009 and The 1000 Genomes Project Consortium.)
Allele Frequency in Indigenous Population
Gene
SNP Locus
Allele
European
Chinese
Japanese
African
TYR
rs1042602
C
0.583
1.0
1.0
1.0
A
0.417
0.0
0.0
0.0
rs1800422
G
0.604
1.0
1.0
0.935
A
0.396
0.0
0.0
0.065
rs1126809
G
0.783
1.0
1.0
1.0
A
0.217
0.0
0.0
0.0
TYRP1
rs1408799
C
0.30
0.989
0.978
0.775
T
0.70
0.011
0.022
0.225
rs2733832
C
0.367
0.989
0.977
0.933
T
0.633
0.011
0.023
0.067
OCA2
rs1800401
C
0.935
1.0
1.0
0.979
T
0.065
0.0
0.0
0.021
rs1800407
G
0.933
1.0
1.0
1.0
A
0.067
0.0
0.0
0.0
rs1800414
A
1.0
0.367
0.477
1.0
G
0.0
0.633
0.523
0.0
rs12913832
T
0.208
1.0
1.0
1.0
C
0.792
0.0
0.0
0.0
SLC45A2
rs26722
G
1.0
0.611
0.591
0.95
A
0.0
0.389
0.409
0.05
rs16891982
G
0.017
0.989
1.0
1.0
C
0.983
0.011
0.0
0.0
SLC24A5
rs1426654
G
0.0
0.989
0.989
0.975
A
1.0
0.011
0.011
0.025
KITLG
rs642742
A
0.136
0.267
0.114
0.922
G
0.864
0.733
0.886
0.0778
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 6 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
Profile 1 (below) shows the alleles present in those five genes in an individual. Use the information in Table 2 to
determine the most likely predominant ancestry of that individual; in other words, is this individual of mostly
European, Chinese, Japanese, or African ancestry?
To answer this question, look at each allele present in this individual and record its associated frequency in each
of the four populations from Table 2. For example, this individual has allele C for the TYR SNP rs1042602.
According to Table 1, the frequency of this allele in Europeans is 0.583, which means that 58.3% of European
individuals have this allele. On the other hand, this allele’s frequency is 100% among people of Chinese,
Japanese, and African ancestry.
After you fill in the frequencies, circle the highest one(s) for each allele to help you conclude the most likely
predominant ancestry for the individual profiled. Row 1 has been completed for you.
Profile 1
Allele Frequency in Indigenous Population
Gene
SNP Locus
Allele
European
Chinese
Japanese
African
TYR
rs1042602
C
0.583
1.0
1.0
1.0
rs1800422
G
rs1126809
G
TYRP1
rs1408799
C
rs2733832
C
OCA2
rs1800401
C
rs1800407
G
rs1800414
A
rs12913832
T
SLC45A2
rs26722
G
rs16891982
C
SLC24A5
rs1426654
G
KITLG
rs642742
A
9. Based on your analysis, is this individual of mostly European, Chinese, Japanese, or African ancestry? Explain
your answer.
Understanding Variation in Human Skin Color
The Biology of Skin Color Revised November 2017
www.BioInteractive.org Page 7 of 7
Activity
Student Handout
Repeat the process for this individual.
Profile 2
Allele Frequency in Indigenous Population
Gene
SNP Locus
Allele
European
Chinese
Japanese
African
TYR
rs1042602
C
rs1800422
G
rs1126809
G
TYRP1
rs1408799
T
rs2733832
C
OCA2
rs1800401
C
rs1800407
G
rs1800414
G
rs12913832
T
SLC45A2
rs26722
A
rs16891982
G
SLC24A5
rs1426654
G
KITLG
rs642742
G
10. What can you conclude about the predominant ancestry of this individual based on the data? Explain your
answer.
11. When trying to distinguish ancestry, some SNP alleles are more helpful than others. Which is more useful in
determining likely ancestry: a C allele at rs1042602 or a C allele at rs12913832? Explain your answer.
12. How could additional SNP loci help to draw conclusions about the ancestry of the individual with Profile 2?
13. If you were to develop a SNP chip using five of the loci from Table 2, which five would you choose, and why?
14. When a person gets their ancestry information back from the company, it is often not conclusive. Instead of
stating “You are Japanese,” one might be told that they were 23% European, 65% Japanese, 6% Chinese, and
6% African. How might an individual come to have such a varied ancestry?
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