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Guidelines for Programs Serving Students

With Visual Impairments

2014 Revised Edition

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition i

Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………1

Chapter One…………………………………………………………………………………...7

Identifying and Assessing Unique Educational Needs

Chapter Two………………………………………………………………………………… 29

The Core Curriculum and the Expanded Core Curriculum for students with Visual

Impairments

Chapter Three………………………………………………………………………………. 55

Planning and Providing Instruction and Services

Chapter Four………………………………………………………………………………. 107

Organizing and Supporting Instruction and Services

Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………… 133

Self-Review Guide

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………… 153

Assessing Vision/Low Vision

Functional Vision Assessment Children/Adults

Functional Vision Assessment Children with additional disabilities

Appendix C………………………………………………………………………………… 179

Determining the Appropriate Learning Medium

Appendix D………………………………………………………………………………… 187

California School for the Blind

Appendix E………………………………………………………………………………… 193

Specialized Books, Materials and Equipment

Appendix F………………………………………………………………………………… 199

Legal Requirements

Appendix G………………………………………………………………………………… 225

Resources for Technical Assistance

Appendix H………………………………………………………………………………… 231

The Early Start Program

Appendix I…………………………………………………………………………………. 237

A Brief Overview of Cerebral Visual Impairment (CVI)

Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………… 241

PAGE INTENTIONALLY BLANK

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 1

Introduction

Why Update the Guidelines

These guidelines are developed in response to a mandate in the California Education

Code EC 56136 - Guidelines for Low Incidence Disability Areas

56136. The superintendent shall develop guidelines for each low incidence disability

area and provide technical assistance to parents, teachers, and administrators

regarding the implementation of the guidelines. The guidelines shall clarify the

identification, assessment, planning of, and the provision of, specialized services to

pupils with low incidence disabilities. The superintendent shall consider the guidelines

when monitoring programs serving pupils with low incidence disabilities pursuant to

subdivision (a) of Section 56836.04. The adopted guidelines shall be promulgated for

the purpose of establishing recommended guidelines and shall not operate to impose

minimum state requirements.

Since the last update of the guidelines in 1997, many important changes have occurred

in laws and regulations related to the education of students with visual impairments.

Some of the changes have occurred due to both the reauthorizations of the Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 and the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act which was reauthorized in 2002 and was named No Child Left Behind

(NCLB). Additionally, laws related to assistive technology have been passed since the

last update of the guidelines. Equally important was the adoption of the Braille Reading

and Math Standards by the State Board of Education in 2006.

Process for updating the Guidelines

In order to ensure that the updates to the guidelines include all important aspects of

education for students with visual impairments, the California Department of Education

(CDE) called together two workgroups in 2010. The committees, composed of teachers

of students with visual impairments administrators, parents, professors from higher

education, paraprofessionals, and representatives from consumer organizations of the

blind, provided initial input to CDE toward updating the Guidelines. In 2013 two new

workgroups were convened with similar representation. A list of individuals who served

on the committees is included at the end of the introduction.

Committees were able to provide input in face to face meetings as well as virtual input.

In addition to the committee meetings, presentations about the updates related to the

guidelines were provided via a Webinar and a Power point presentation on the CDE

Web site. Also, presentations were given at the annual conference of the California

Transcribers and Educators of the Blind and Visually Impaired and in regional

workshops in Northern and Southern California to obtain feedback from educators,

program administrators, and families. In addition, initial presentations were made at the

2 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

state convention of the National Federation of the Blind of California.

The committees and the presentations focused on both content and format of the

guidelines. Each group was asked to focus on the question: “What needs to be added to

the guidelines and what needs to be deleted from the Guidelines that will ensure they

provide teachers, families, administrators and students with the most up-to-date

information about the education of students with visual impairments?” The updated

guidelines represent the work from the committees and input from the presentations as

they answered this question.

Purpose of the Guidelines

The guidelines have been developed as a resource for families, staff, and administrators

in assessing, identifying, planning, providing, evaluating, and improving the quality and

cost effectiveness of programs serving students with visual impairments. These

guidelines serve to:



Clarify the processes for the identification, assessment, planning, and provision

of instruction and services to meet the unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments, including students with visual impairments and additional

disabilities.



Provide information that will assist families, staff, and administrators in

evaluating, improving, and maintaining quality programs.



Provide criteria for the self-review and monitoring of programs serving students

with visual impairments.

In previous guidelines standards were discussed that were established to serve as a

model framework of expectations for the identification, assessment, planning,

evaluation, improvement, and provision of instruction and services to students with

visual impairments. However, due to the increased use of the term standards in various

aspects of education, the committee members felt that the content of the chapters

should be approached in a different format. Therefore, the reference to standards will

not appear in the chapters.

This document contains guidelines to assist local programs in meeting the unique

educational needs of students with visual impairments, including students with visual

impairments and additional disabilities and is not intended to impose additional

mandates beyond those already existing in the state and federal laws or regulations.

Scope of the Guidelines

These guidelines focus on the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments. Unique educational needs for students with visual impairments are

delineated by a specialized curriculum. While students with visual impairments require

instruction in all areas of the California Common Core Curriculum (Reading, Language

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 3

Arts, Science, Social Studies), they also need specialized instruction in the Expanded

Core Curriculum (Hatlen, 1996). This curriculum includes nine areas of curriculum

content that all teachers of students with visual impairments (TVI) are responsible for

assessing and teaching. The nine areas include:



Compensatory Skills (Braille instruction, listening skills, study & organization

skills, abacus) & Functional Academics



Orientation & Mobility



Social Interaction Skills



Independent Living Skills



Recreation & Leisure Skills



Career Education



Use of Assistive Technology



Sensory Efficiency Skills



Self-Determination

Each of these content areas will be described in greater detail in Chapter 1 of this

document.

All instruction and services provided to students with visual impairments must be

planned and coordinated to meet their needs and strengths. Close cooperation and

coordination among all agencies, programs, and individuals assessing and providing

instruction and services are the keys to meeting these needs successfully and to

improving local programs. In order for these services to be delivered to students in a

quality manner, they must be provided by a credentialed TVIs and a certified Orientation

& Mobility specialist.

Since 1997 the diversity and complexity of students with visual impairments has

increased. TVIs are being asked to serve students with multiple disabilities, students

who are English Learners (EL), infant and preschool-age students, and students who

are transitioning from school to adult life. Sections will be included in these guidelines

that address the needs of these groups.

These guidelines will also include a section on some aspects of the common core

curriculum. Because of the adoption of the common core state standards that have

been established for each grade level, it is important for teachers to understand how

these standards and standardized testing are interrelated. According to No Child Left

Behind, all students must participate in some aspect of state standardized testing. In

California starting in 2015, all students including those with visual impairments will be

4 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

involved in state testing using Smarter Balanced. All state testing will be provided via

computer adaptive testing (CAT).

Use of the Guidelines

This document was designed to be used in three major ways:

First, the use of these guidelines can help families, staff members, and administrators to

improve their effectiveness in understanding and meeting the unique educational needs

of students with visual impairments.

Second, these guidelines can serve as a tool for improving the effectiveness of

programs in meeting the needs of students with visual impairments and in making

maximum use of available resources. The Guidelines provided a Program Self- Review

(See Appendix A). Throughout the Guidelines the reader will see questions that relate

back to the Program Self-Review document. These questions provide a way for local

educational agencies (LEAs) and special education local plan areas (SELPAs) to

evaluate the effectiveness of programs for students with visual impairments.

Third, these guidelines provide references for information and resources to assist

parents, staff members, and administrators in improving both individual and program

effectiveness. The guidelines and the appendixes can be used for:



Obtaining basic information and suggestions regarding the identification,

assessment, and provision of instruction and services to students with visual

impairments



Reviewing pertinent legal requirements (See Appendix F)



Identifying sources of funding and materials and equipment (See Appendix E)



Using local, state, and national resources (See Appendix G)

At the end of each chapter there will be information specifically for families. This

information reviews the chapter content in a family friendly manner.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 5

Content of the Appendices

Appendixes A through H and the glossary provide additional information and sources of

assistance for the reader.

Appendix A, “Self-Review Guide”, can assist parents, staff, and administrators in

evaluating and improving the effectiveness of local programs in meeting the unique

curricular and instructional content presented in these chapters. The “Self-Review

Guide” can be used to:



Conduct an internal or external review of the program.



Identify areas and establish goals for program improvement.



Identify possible topics for local evaluation studies.



Identify needs for technical assistance.

Appendix B, “Assessing Vision/Low Vision”, contains examples of widely used

functional Vision Assessments (FVAs) and links to additional resources.

Appendix C, “Determining the Appropriate Learning Medium”, contains examples of

Learning Media Assessments and links to additional resources.

Appendix D contains information about the California School for the Blind in Fremont,

including the referral and admissions procedures, residential policy, and assessment

program.

Appendix E, “Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment”, discusses where to find

funding for specialized books, materials, and equipment and sources for obtaining them.

Information on the American Printing House for the Blind Federal Quota Program is also

provided.

Appendix F, “Legal Requirements”, contains pertinent sections from the Education

Code and from California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Education that apply to the

content of this publication. The purpose of this appendix is to give readers an opportunity

to review important legal requirements that relate to the education of visually impaired

students.

Appendix G, “Resources for Technical Assistance”, lists addresses and telephone

numbers from the California Department of Education and other resources in California

and nationwide.

Appendix H, “The Early Start Program”, presents information on legislation that created

the Early Start Program in California; Early Start intervention services and individualized

family service plans; 14 basic elements of Part H of IDEA and California’s Early Start

Program; and key points for addressing the unique needs of infants, toddlers, and

preschoolers with visual impairments. The glossary contains definitions for terminology

used in identifying visual impairments and in educating students with visual impairments;

6 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

these terms may be unfamiliar to some readers of this publication.

Appendix I, “A Brief Overview of Cerebral Visual Impairment (CVI)” provides a

discussion of the impact of a CVI on learning ability.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 7

Chapter One

Identifying and Assessing Unique Educational Needs

This chapter contains information about the eligibility of students with visual

impairments for special education, a discussion of the identification of these students

and assessment of their educational needs. Descriptions of the requirements for

assessment personnel and of the variables that affect the unique educational needs of

students who are visually impaired also appear here (see Appendix F for legal

requirements).

Eligibility for Special Education

To be eligible for special education, “a pupil has a visual impairment which, even with

correction, adversely affects a pupil’s educational performance.”(California Code of

Regulations, Title 5, Education Section 3030(d)).- When an assessment of a student

with a visual impairment determines that he or she has educational needs that cannot

be met without special education and related services, this student is provided with

instruction, specialized services, and materials and equipment in accordance with his or

her individualized education program (IEP). (See Appendix H for eligibility requirements

for infants and preschool children, ages zero to five.) The term visually impaired

includes, for educational purposes:



Functionally blind students (who because of the severity of their visual

impairment rely basically on senses other than vision as their major channels for

learning)



Low vision students (who use vision as a major channel for learning)

Definition of Neurological Visual Impairment

The definition of students with visual impairments includes students with neurological

visual impairments who are functionally blind or who have low vision, even with best

correction. This qualifies them to receive services from a teacher of students with visual

impairment. Many students who have neurologically based visual impairments have

visual perceptual and/or visual motor dysfunction.

A visual impairment does not include visual perceptual or visual motor dysfunction

resulting solely from a learning disability; students who have visual perceptual or visual

motor dysfunction resulting solely from a learning disability do not meet the eligibility

criteria for “visual impairment” or “low incidence disability” and are therefore not eligible

for vision services or low incidence funding for specialized support services, books,

materials, and equipment available to a student with a low incidence disability. (Please

8 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

see Appendix I for additional information related to strategies to support students with

Neurological Visual Impairment [CVI].)

(See Appendix F for legal requirements.)

Identification of Students with Visual Impairments

How does the program ensure that students with visual impairments who may require

special education are referred (including referrals from the vision screening program)?

Identifying a student’s visual problems at an early age is important. Local procedures to

locate and refer individuals suspected of having a visual impairment include the

following:



Coordination with the vision screening program (See Appendix G, “Resources for

Technical Assistance.”)



Activities to inform staff members and parents of behaviors that may indicate a

visual impairment.



Coordination with local eye specialists and other possible referral sources, such

as regional centers and infant and preschool programs.

Variables Affecting Educational Needs

How does the program’s staff consider the variables that affect students’ unique

educational needs when students with visual impairments are being assessed?

When assessing the unique educational needs for each student and providing

instruction and services, one must consider the variables that influence individual

needs. These include but are not limited to:



Congenital or adventitious visual impairments



Students with visual impairments who have additional disabilities



Infants and preschool children



Elementary school and secondary school students



The nature of the student’s visual impairment

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 9



Students who are functionally blind or have low vision



Students with other special needs

Each of these topics is discussed in the section that follows.

Congenital or Adventitious Visual Impairments

The terms congenital and adventitious identify the time of onset of a visual impairment.

A congenitally visually impaired student has had a visual impairment since birth or early

infancy and generally has difficulty with concepts and skills that are visual in nature. An

adventitiously visually impaired student has a visual impairment that was acquired after

birth or early infancy; the student usually already has some visual concepts and skills,

depending on the age when the onset of the visual impairment occurred. This student

may need to integrate and acquire new visual concepts and may have needs relating to

his or her adjustment to the visual impairment.

Students with Visual Impairments who have Additional Disabilities

The assessment of students with visual impairments who have additional disabilities

requires systematic observation and an understanding of the implications of the

additional disabilities on growth, development, and learning. An awareness of age-

appropriate developmental and educational expectations is critical for identifying and

assessing unique educational needs.

When a student with a visual impairment has other known or suspected disabilities, it is

important to understand and keep in perspective several variables. These variables will

influence the interpretation of assessment results; the determination of necessary

instructional strategies, goals or objectives, or both; and the recommendations to the

educational team for appropriate educational placement and related services. Variables

to be considered include but are not limited to:



The nature and extent of other disabilities (sensory, cognitive, physical, health, or

behavioral) and the manner in which each one, individually or in combination, has

an adverse developmental/educational impact.



The fact that the visual impairment may not correctly account for, or completely

explain, the present levels of developmental and/or educational functioning

observed.



The learning rate and learning style that reflect other known or suspected

disabilities.



Special assistive materials, devices, and/or equipment needed to address the

adverse impact of another disability.

10 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



Instructional methods, modifications or both needed to address the impact of

another disability.



Adaptive or medically required positioning of the student as necessary to allow

physical access to instructional materials or equipment or both.



Alternative placement and/or positioning of materials or equipment that enables

or enhances access to instruction and learning



Multiple trials using different materials to validate results and to distinguish

difficulties related to a visual impairment from those of another disability. (Eliciting

a desired response will require the use of motivating materials and

reinforcement.)



The need to determine, during a functional vision assessment, whether observed

or reported difficulties reflect an inability to see compared with an inability to

interpret what is seen; e.g., a visual impairment compared with a visual

perceptual or visual motor dysfunction or both. (The size, distance, contrast,

lighting, or other visual variables should be varied to help make this

determination.)



Additional factors that may affect learning, performance, and progress, such as

attention span, range of motion, inappropriate behaviors, mood and motivation.

When students with one or more additional disabilities are being assessed, it is

important to:



Consult with the educational staff, family, and eye care specialist.



Conduct a functional vision assessment, which is required for students who have

remaining vision. (See Appendix F, “Legal Requirements,” and Appendix B,

“Assessing Vision/Low Vision”)



Conduct a learning media assessment, which is required for functionally blind

students. (See Appendix F, “Legal Requirements,” and Appendix C, “Determining

the Appropriate Reading Medium”)



Observe the student in natural environments. There is considerable

“spontaneous” information that can be obtained about vision-related behavior,

including apparent strengths and limitations and apparent skills restricted by

other physical, sensory, and cognitive, and/or behavioral disabilities.



Evaluate students’ preferences, strengths, and weaknesses through the use of

other sensory modalities and alternative learning media (tactual, visual, aural,

olfactory, and so forth).

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 11



Coordinate with staff members who are knowledgeable about the student’s

disability or disabilities to facilitate a multidisciplinary approach as appropriate.

This approach maximizes the interpretation of assessment data and the

determination of appropriate instructional strategies and delivery of service.

Instruction and services are provided by the general education teacher, the special

education teacher, or teacher specialists according to their credentialed areas of

expertise. (See Appendix F, “Legal Requirements”) Determination of the need for

service by a teacher of students with visual impairments or the orientation and mobility

specialist or both is based on assessment. The type of service and frequency is

determined by the educational team based on assessment results, and addressing the

student’s individual learning requirements with regard to the Expanded Core Curriculum

(See Chapter 2).

Infants and Preschool Children

Infants and preschool children who are visually impaired have differentiated educational

needs. It is critical, therefore, that services begin as soon as a child is identified as

having a visual impairment. Specialized support services need to be provided by staff

members who have training and expertise in working with young children with visual

impairments.

Most infants and preschool children who are sighted learn through imitation and

modeling. Therefore, young children with visual impairments need opportunities for

experiential learning through the use of their other senses, such as associating sounds,

shapes, and objects with their purposes—a process that often occurs incidentally with

sighted children. Because research studies have shown that the first five years of a

child’s life are the most important for developing a foundation for learning, special

emphasis must be given to the infant and preschool child whose opportunities to learn

through visual observation are limited or nonexistent.

Assessment of infants and preschool children should consider and include the following:



Potential for delays in development and learning because of limited experiential

opportunities in the following areas:

o Sensory/motor development –For example, children who are visually impaired

may be delayed in crawling and walking because visual cues are limited.

o Communication skills development –Although communication skills may not

be delayed in children with visual impairments, the nature of the

communication may be different because of the lack of visual input. For

example, children may exhibit echolalia, pronoun confusion, extensive

questioning, and egocentric language.

12 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

o Cognitive development –Young children with visual impairments are not able

to conceptualize the world until they have real learning experiences. Children

need opportunities to taste, touch, hear, and feel objects in their environment

so that abstract concepts become meaningful.

o Daily living skills development –Young children with visual impairments need

to become contributing members of the family unit. Learning independent

living skills requires the support of family members and professionals. For

example, a toddler may need specialized assistance in learning to use

utensils in order to eat independently.

o Social/emotional development, including the development of self-concept and

self-esteem –All young children learn through play. However, young children

with visual impairments require assistance and support in learning to interact

with peers; e.g., imitating, turn taking, sharing, and pretend play.



Acceptance of the family as the primary provider of experiential and learning

activities



Opportunities for family members to provide recommendations and to learn, from

qualified personnel, the manner in which they can assist with their child’s learning



Provision for the integration of concepts and the ability to generalize



Provision, through early and appropriate introduction to educational processes,

for a smooth transition from the infant program to the preschool program and

from the preschool program to the elementary school program (See Appendix H

for additional information).

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 13

Elementary School and Secondary School Students

The unique educational needs of elementary school or secondary school students

outlined in Chapter 2 should be appropriately addressed so that these students may

have equal access to the Common Core Curriculum (CCC) described in Chapter 2. This

section contains a discussion of how these students’ needs can be met to accomplish

this goal.

Elementary school students– Students in an elementary school program may have the

same needs as those described in the previous section, “Infants and Preschool

Children,” particularly if these students have developmental delays or have not received

needed instruction and services at the infant or preschool level. Elementary school

students should be provided intensive instruction in the basic skills required to function

independently in the regular education classroom. A resource room for students with

visual impairment may be the ideal setting to receive specialized instruction. (See

Chapter 4 for a discussion of placement in the least restrictive environment.)

Students in elementary schools should receive instruction and services that will prepare

them for the secondary school level. This preparation should include all 9 areas of the

Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) described in Chapter 2, in addition to the CCC.

These students also need instruction in accepting responsibility for their educational

needs.

Secondary school students.–Students in a secondary school program should be

encouraged to become increasingly responsible for their educational needs, including

obtaining necessary adapted classroom materials, equipment, and technology and

selecting and using readers. Secondary students should receive instruction and

services focused on skills that will enable the students to function independently as

adults, particularly in assistive technology and career skills.

Secondary school students should, as much as possible, meet the standards for all

students, including the requirements of the prescribed course of study and the

proficiency standards for graduation. These students should be provided appropriate

modifications and accommodations (such as additional time, large print or braille) to

meet the proficiency standards, alternative standards or both, as determined by the

individualized education team. Additional information about modifications and

accommodations can be obtained at the CDE Web site:

www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/sa/documents/matrix2012fnl.doc.

Elementary & Secondary Students with Visual Impairments & Additional Disabilities–

Instruction for students with visual impairments and additional disabilities should

emphasize the acquisition of academic skills with modified curricula. In addition,

emphasis on the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) to meet the unique needs of these

students is essential. Assessment and placement decisions for students with visual

impairments and additional disabilities should be made by the educational team.

14 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Nature of the Student’s Visual Impairment

A student’s unique educational needs will be influenced by the cause or type of vision

loss as well as by the student’s age or when the onset of the visual impairment

occurred.



A student’s visual status may be stable, fluctuating, slowly or rapidly

deteriorating, or capable of improvement.



A student’s visual impairment may range from a mild, moderate, or severe

impairment to functional blindness. (See Appendix B for a discussion of the kinds

of visual impairments.)

Students Who Are Functionally Blind or Have Low Vision

Functionally blind students will have needs related to using their other senses as

primary channels for learning. Reading and writing in braille are particularly important.

Students should not rely solely on vision when it is not efficient or effective for reading

or writing. (See Appendix C)

Students who have low vision will have needs related to using their vision as a primary

channel for learning. The low vision and functional vision assessment information will be

particularly useful in identifying and meeting these needs. Students with low vision my

use their auditory and tactile skills (Braille) to access reading and writing materials.

Students with Other Special Needs

Some students will have other special needs that assessors should consider. Students

with other special needs include students who are English language (EL) learners

gifted, educationally disadvantaged, and those at risk because of specialized health

care needs. The persons conducting assessments of students with other special needs

must work closely with staff from programs and agencies providing services to meet

those needs. (See Appendix G “Resources for Technical Assistance”) For example,

when assessing a student who is an EL learner with visual impairment the following

should be considered:



Obtaining and preparing materials in the appropriate language and medium.



Providing a translator as needed during assessment and when reporting

assessment results to families whose primary language is not English.



Having an understanding and appreciation of the individual’s culture.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 15

Assessment of Students with Visual Impairments

How does the program ensure that students with suspected visual impairments are

assessed, when appropriate, in the areas related to their disability?

To identify all the unique educational needs of a student resulting from his or her visual

impairment, those conducting the assessment must be sure that the initial

comprehensive and ongoing assessments address all appropriate areas of the ECC

described in Chapter 2. (See Appendix F for legal requirements, Appendix B for

information that will be helpful in assessing a student’s vision/low vision, and Appendix

C for determining the appropriate reading medium.)

The paragraphs that follow present a discussion of the assessment of students with

visual impairments.

Reports on Vision

Diagnosis of a visual impairment will be made by an appropriate medical professional

(e.g. eye care specialist, pediatrician, or neurologist). The assessment should begin

with the report of an examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. It is important to

acquire as much information about the student’s visual functioning from the eye

specialist as possible. This information will be reported in the “Eye Report for Children

with Visual Problems” and in the “Educationally Oriented Vision Report.” (Sample

copies of both of these forms can be found in Appendix B)

The eye report should include:



Near and distant acuity, with and without best possible correction.



Field of vision, including peripheral field.



The etiology, diagnosis and prognosis of the visual impairment.



The eye specialist’s recommendations for school personnel and parents,

including when the student should be reexamined.

16 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Functional Vision Assessment

For students with visual impairment who have vision, a low vision assessment is to be

conducted in accordance with the guidelines that are discussed in paragraphs that

follow. (See Appendix F for legal requirements.)

A functional vision assessment is conducted by the teacher of students with visual

impairment, in coordination with the orientation and mobility specialist and the student’s

family, to determine the student’s functional vision. (Appendix B, “Assessing Vision/Low

Vision,” contains more detailed information and sample report forms.) Medical

information including a low vision assessment from an eye specialist and the family’s

observations provide valuable information that will contribute to understanding how the

student uses his or her vision.

The following are some of the purposes of the functional vision assessment:



To provide information to the educational team about the nature and extent of the

need for specialized services related to the visual impairment.



To determine what the student with a visual impairment sees functionally in a

variety of educational situations and settings.



To evaluate how or when the visual impairment might adversely affect the

student educationally—that is, interfere with, limit, or prevent learning or

performance.



To evaluate the student’s ability to move efficiently, safely, and independently in

multiple environments (home, school, or community).



To provide information to assist in the determination of necessary and

appropriate learning media.



To identify and indicate vision-related needs. These needs include the type of

interventions or compensations which enable or enhance efficient visual

functioning and access to instruction, such as:

o Task modification; for example, adjusting time requirements

o Instructional methods or modifications; for example, the teacher verbalizing

while writing on the board

o Specialized materials and equipment; for example, braille, large print, low

vision aids, or assistive technology

o Environmental modifications; for example, preferential seating, lighting, and

physical arrangements.



To provide information to the educational team about the need for orientation and

mobility services.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 17



To inform the family and educational team of the benefit of further assessment by

an eye specialist, when necessary.



To provide necessary information for multidisciplinary exchange between

educators, eye specialists, and parents.

When the functional vision assessment is being conducted, other known or suspected

disabilities should be taken into account. It is necessary to discern visual functioning

and resulting learning requirements in conjunction with the impact of other disabilities

that may be interfering with learning and performance. The presence of the vision

impairment may or may not adequately explain educational difficulties which are

observed. A team approach, which includes information from staff and family, is

recommended to understand behaviors and performance observed. This information is

important to determine appropriate educational interventions.

Once the functional vision assessment has been finished, a written report of the results

is completed. Recommendations from the functional vision assessment report are made

to the educational team, including the possible need for further assessment by a low

vision specialist: an optometrist or ophthalmologist who has training and expertise in low

vision and who has available appropriate low vision devices and assessment

equipment.

(Appendix B, “Assessing Vision/Low Vision,” contains more detailed information.)

Learning Media Assessment

As required in the California Education Code, each student with a visual impairment

receives an assessment to determine the appropriate learning media, including the need

for braille and braille instruction. This is a separate assessment (as outlined in Appendix

C) and is completed after the functional vision assessment (as outlined in Appendix B.

See Appendix F for legal requirements). Conducting a learning media assessment is a

role of the TVI. It should be given in conjunction with the functional vision assessment,

and it is used to determine student’s primary means for accessing materials in order to

achieve academic and functional success in areas such as reading,

writing, mathematics and functional skills. It should be administered to a student initially,

as part of the battery used to determine eligibility for appropriate services, for each three

year evaluation, and should be updated regularly (at least annually) as needed.

The assessment of learning media for students with visually impairments begins by

interpreting information obtained from the Functional Vision Assessment and continues

with an objective observation and examination of:



the efficiency with which the student gathers and uses sensory information from

various sensory channels.



the types of general learning media the student uses, or will use, to accomplish

learning tasks.

18 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



the literacy media that the student will use for reading and writing. (Koenig &

Holbrook,1993)

The term learning media refers to the learning materials most efficiently and consistently

used by a student in conjunction with their strongest sensory channels. It may include

aural media (e.g., tape recording, reader, voiced software, or technology) as well as

visual (e.g., print or large print) or tactual (e.g., objects, braille or raised line) alternatives.

The selection of a learning medium that may be considered a primary,

secondary, or

sole access modality depends on a student’s preferences and the nature and extent of a

student’s cognitive and physical capabilities or limitations or both. A

primary, secondary,

or alternative learning medium may include one or more sensory modalities; and should

enable or enhance the student’s access and ability to efficiently learn information, skills,

and concepts.

Assessment of a student’s learning media should include observation of a student’s use

of sensory information in a variety of settings and environments such as at home, in

school (in classroom and recreational activities) and in the community. It should take

into consideration bio-behavioral effects (such as the student’s ability to attend to

sensory information due to health issues), as well as indicators of reading readiness

(such as an understanding of basic concepts, developmentally appropriate language

skills, and interest in books).

Determining the literacy medium or media is an important aspect of the learning media

assessment for students who will become readers and writers. The literacy medium

refers to the literacy modality (visual or tactual) that is used the most efficiently and

consistently and that enables the student to have direct access to print, including

spelling, syntax, grammar, format, and other information conveyed through written

language. It is the printed medium that provides a “hard copy” referent of the written

word. Braille and print are literacy media that enable the student to develop and acquire

reading and writing skills. Aural or audible input is a learning medium that enables or

supports the student’s access to written language and that may be a primary or

alternative learning modality.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 19

The Role of Teachers of students with Visual Impairments in Assessment of the

Common Core Curriculum

It is important that the TVIs collaborate during the assessment process with all members

of the student’s educational team, including the classroom teacher. Although

assessment and instruction in academic subject areas are the primary responsibilities of

the classroom teacher, students should also be assessed by the teacher of students

with visual impairments in coordination with the classroom teacher in academic areas,

such as mathematics, reading, and language arts. Such assessments will not only

provide valuable information about the level on which the student is performing

academically, but will also provide the teacher of students with visual impairments with

an opportunity to observe how the student functions visually or tactually in academic

tasks. When an assessment indicates that a student’s errors are the result of unique

educational needs related to the visual impairment, intervention by the teacher of

students with visual impairments is necessary.

Assessing areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum

The Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) and its importance in the education of students

with visual impairment have been described completely in Chapter 2. The nine areas of

the ECC need to be taken into consideration when assessing a student with visual

impairment. These areas should not be assessed in isolation but should be evaluated

over time and used in planning student IEP’s or individualized transition plan (ITPs).

The chart below describes some assessment modes and strategies. Resources for

assessment tools are included in Appendix G.

ECC Area Assessment Modes and Strategies

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills, including Communication Modes

Concept Development This area will be assessed by the TVI & orientation and

mobility (O&M) specialist beginning in pre-school and

continuing as appropriate. It can be assessed through

observation, using informal checklists and through

interviews with parents and care-givers. Collaboration

with a speech and language specialist who also

assesses this area may be helpful.

20 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Braille and

Communication Skills

The Learning Media Assessment (described previously)

is the assessment process that will ensure that

appropriate learning media and tools are used.

Ongoing assessment of learning and literacy modes will

occur using observation, informal checklists and

curriculum-based assessment.

Listening Skills

Listening skills can be assessed through observation

and by using checklists. Special attention should be

given to ensure that students comprehend what they

listen to during instruction and when listening to

recorded audible curricular materials through curriculum

based assessment.

Study and Organizational

Skills

Age-appropriate study and organizational skills can be

assessed informally through observation and by using

checklists.

Orientation and Mobility

The O & M specialist will assess this area, including

sensory/motor skills, concept development and

independent travel skills, during on-going observation

and using informal checklists. An assessment should

address how the visual impairment affects the

student’s:



Understanding of the physical environment and

space



Orientation to different school and community

environments



Ability to travel in school and community

environments



Opportunities for unrestricted independent

movement and play

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 21

Social Interaction Skills

Collaboration between students’ parents and care-

givers, teachers and the TVI is particularly important

when assessing social skills. Through observation and

using checklists, student progress and necessary

guidance and/or remediation can be determined. Tests

of emotional functioning are administered by a

credentialed school psychologist. The development of

positive social and emotional skills is essential for

students to function independently at home, at school,

and as adults and to be effective in employment and

interpersonal relationships.

Independent Living Skills

Assessment of independent living skills should begin in

preschool, through parent interview, student

observation and eventually, student interview.

Observation at home, as well as at school, is important

to ensure that students and their families receive

adequate support and guidance when teaching these

important skills. Assessment of daily living skills often

requires a careful task analysis of the skill being

evaluated since prerequisite learning may not have

occurred. In addition, a student’s level of ability in the

assessed skill should be precisely specified in terms of

the type and level of assistance the student needs to

complete the skill.

Recreation and Leisure

Skills

Although each individual student will value and enjoy

unique recreation and leisure activities, based upon

interests, skills and culture, it is important for TVI’s to

ensure that students are being explicitly introduced to a

variety of activities. Checklists and interviews can be

used to document a student’s growth in this area.

Career Education

Informal assessment checklists and interviews can be

used to guide the gradual progression in career

education. Since employment should be viewed as an

important goal for each student who is visually impaired

and the development of concepts in this area begins in

early childhood, assessment and training must begin

early and progress through four sequential stages:

awareness, exploration, preparation, and participation.

22 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Use of Assistive

Technology

As students begin to use assistive technology tools for

a variety of purposes, on-going assessment by a TVI

knowledgeable about appropriate technology for

individual student learning requirements is necessary.

Observation and checklists can be used to document

student growth and skill development. It may be

necessary to provide additional assessment by a

technology specialist who specializes in assistive

technology for students with visual impairments.

Sensory Efficiency Skills

On-going documentation of students’ sensory efficiency

skills begins when they begin school. It may include the

functional vision assessment if they have vision, and

must include information about the student’s use of

tactual, auditory, olfactory and gustatory input, as

appropriate. Careful observation, interview and use of

checklists can be used to document this information so

that students may learn to use sensory information to

the best of their ability.

Self-Determination

The inclusion of self-determination skill development

should be included in each student’s IEP. Curriculum-

based assessment found in self-determination curricula,

checklists and on-observation of student skill

development can be used for this purpose.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 23

Assessment Personnel

How does the program ensure that assessment personnel are knowledgeable about

visual impairment?

Assessments must be administered by qualified individuals so that the desired data and

educationally relevant information are obtained. (See Appendix G, “Resources for

Technical Assistance,” and Appendix F, “Legal Requirements.”)

A multidisciplinary team of credentialed persons conducting the assessment must

include a teacher of students with visual impairments who is knowledgeable about the

following:



Individual assessment and learning requirements of students with visual

impairment.



Assessments designed or adapted for individuals who are visually impaired.



Methods of appropriately adapting or modifying tests for individuals who are

visually impaired.



Providing assessment materials in students’ appropriate learning medium.

Collaboration with the teacher of students with visual impairments should precede

the assessment in order to establish the most effective method of nondiscriminatory

testing. Throughout the assessment process the teacher of students with visual

impairments needs to be involved in identifying areas that should be addressed,

including, but not limited to:



Use of nondiscriminatory assessment instruments, as required by state and

federal law



Need for additional testing time



Visual performance of the student



Low vision aids, if needed



Lighting requirements



Print and picture size appropriate for the student



Braille and tactile graphics



Best positioning of materials

24 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



Other assessment strategies



Motivation of students



Other special needs; for example, those of students who are English language

learners or non-oral.

Assessment Report

How does the program develop assessment reports that identify a student’s unique

educational needs related to the visual impairment, including needs for specialized

services, equipment, and materials?

The unique educational needs of each student with a visual impairment as identified in

the assessment, including needs for specialized services, materials, and equipment,

shall be a part of the assessment report along with the other requirements. (See

Appendix F for legal requirements.)

Assessment reports can assist in coordinating all of the assessment conducted by the

multidisciplinary team. The unique educational needs, as well as the strengths identified

in the reports, will provide valuable information that should be used to develop or review

a student’s educational program [individual family services plan (IFSP), IEP, or ITP].

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 25

Information for Families

Identifying and Assessing Unique Educational Needs

Eligibility for Special Education

A child has a visual impairment which, even with the best correction, adversely affects

his or her educational performance.

Students with Neurological Visual Impairment (CVI) who are functionally blind, or have

low vision even with the best correction, qualify for services from the teacher of the

visually impaired.

Early Identification

Early identification of student’s visual impairments is critical.

Students with impairments who have Additional Disabilities

Keep in mind that when assessing a student with visual impairment with additional

disabilities requires:



Observation



Understanding of implications



Keep in perspective the variables that will influence the interpretation of the

assessment results.

Infants and Preschool Children

Typical infants and preschool children learn through imitation and modeling; visually

impaired infants and preschool children need opportunities for experiential learning

using their other senses.

Five areas of potential delays due to limited experiential opportunities:



Sensory/motor development



Communication skills



Cognitive development



Daily living skills



Social/Emotional development

26 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Definitions

Resource rooms are classrooms where students with disabilities are given specialized

instruction and assistance as individuals or as a group.

Examples of accommodations and modifications could include additional time for

assignments or tests, large print and braille.

Reports on Vision



Diagnosis of a visual impairment will be made by an eye care professional,

pediatrician or neurologist.



Functional vision assessments are performed by the teacher of the visually

impaired in coordination with the orientation and mobility teacher and the

student’s family.



Functional vision assessments are used to investigate and gather information on

how the student uses his/her vision that will later help the teacher of the visually

impaired to make recommendations to help the student to learn using his/her

vision more effectively.

Learning Media Assessment

Every student with a visual impairment must receive a learning media assessment to

determine the appropriate learning media. Learning media refers to the learning

materials most efficiently and consistently used in conjunction with the child’s strongest

sensory channels:



Aural media (e.g. tape recording, reader, voiced software or technology)



Visual media (e.g. large print, tactual objects, braille, raised lined drawings)

Assessment Personnel

A teacher of the visually impaired must be included when conducting an assessment to

establish the most effective method of nondiscriminatory testing.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 27

Assessment Report

Keep in mind: Assessment reports shall include needs for specialized services,

materials and equipment.

Remember two components that will provide valuable information to be used when

developing or reviewing a child’s educational program (IFSP, IEP or ITP)



Unique educational needs



Identified strengths

28 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 29

Chapter Two

The Core Curriculum and the Expanded Core Curriculum for Students with Visual

Impairments

In order for students with visual impairments to achieve success in school, they need to

receive instruction in the CCC and the ECC. The CCC briefly described in the

introduction of these guidelines refers to subject matter that all students must

accomplish for academic competence. These subjects include: English language arts

and other languages, math, science, health, physical education, fine arts, social studies,

economics, and vocational education. The ECC refers to a specialized curriculum for

students who are blind or visually impaired. The nine areas of the ECC (as described in

the introduction) address the differentiated needs these students require to access the

CCC, function independently in life, and participate meaningfully in these activities.

Because students with visual impairments may develop differently from sighted peers,

the acquisition of skills that are taken for granted, such as social cues, independent

travel, and use of technology, require systematic instruction. Early concepts that sighted

peers learn incidentally must be directly taught so that the student understands the

world around him or her. One cannot assume that the student understands what is

being taught without careful interpretation of the effect of vision loss on learning. TVIs

play a significant role in ensuring that their students access the CCC and ECC. While

TVIs play a role in enhancing students’ acquisition of academic skills, it is not the role of

the TVI to provide direct instruction in areas of the CCC. For example, TVIs are

responsible for providing assistance in accessing math concepts by teaching the

Nemeth (math braille) Code and tactile graphics, but the classroom teacher is

responsible for teaching math skills according to the California Common Core

Standards. The TVI is part of a larger educational team that bridges the demands of the

classroom with the needs of the student. The information about unique educational

needs identified in this chapter will provide valuable assistance for the teams involved in

assessing students, and developing, implementing, or revising the IFSP, IEP, and ITP.

30 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

The Relationship Between the California Core Curriculum and

the Expanded Core Curriculum

The role of the TVI and O&M specialist in providing services to students with visual

impairments, as outlined above, clearly identifies that while these professionals should

have a solid understanding and knowledge of the CCC, they are not responsible for

implementing instruction in the common core. It is important to recognize that TVIs and

O&M specialists can integrate common core instruction into direct ECC instruction. The

following examples illustrate the integration process.

● Teaching braille while working on literacy skills.

● Teaching a student to use a magnification device while teaching reading.

● Teaching a student to copy material from the whiteboard while learning to use a

monocular device or a video magnification system.

● Teaching students to create a PowerPoint presentation with assistive technology.

● Teaching students about their visual impairment while teaching internet research

skills.

● Teaching students the route to school so that the student can travel with his or

her peers.

● Teaching sharing and conversation skills while working with a student on a group

project.

● Developing note-taking skills and enhancing listening skills by having a student

participate in a class lecture.

● Teaching students to use the abacus, talking calculator, or graphing calculator to

perform accurate math calculations

It is essential for the student’s educational team to determine and prioritize which areas

of the ECC will be included in the student’s IFSP/IEP/ITP. When time constraints do not

allow for instruction in the nine areas of the ECC it is important to explore alternative

ways of providing this instruction. Families and educators might want to explore

summer programs, after school and weekend programs, and short course programs

provided by the California School for the Blind or other agencies providing services to

students with visual impairments throughout the state.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 31

Areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum

As families, educators, and district administrators determine what needs to be taught

through the IFSP, IEP and ITP processes, educational teams need to consider each

area of the ECC when providing quality instruction to students with visual impairments

and additional disabilities.

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills, Including Communication Modes

Compensatory skills are needed by students with visual impairments in order to access

all areas of the CCC. These skills allow students access to learning in an equivalent

manner as sighted peers. For students with multiple disabilities, the development of

functional skills allows for meaningful and active participation in the areas of work, play,

and personal care.

Concept Development

Since a visual impairment will often impede the development of students’ visual

concepts and learning in academic subject areas, special concept development will

often be needed. Concept developments that should be addressed include:

● Developing a good sense of body image

○ Understanding the following concepts: laterality, time, position,

direction, size, shape, association, discrimination, sequence, quantity,

sensations, emotions, actions, colors (to the best visual ability),

matching, and classifying

○

● Understanding object permanence, difference, identification, defining

characteristics, and relation of part to whole.

● Developing good understandings about conceptual sensations such as feelings,

hearing, smell, touch, sight, and taste.

● Understanding the importance of nonverbal cues, social gestures, and facial

expressions.

● Being aware of environmental objects and understanding appropriate

applications in immediate, intermediate, and distant ranges.

● Understanding time concept such as (begin, end, before, after) and time distance

relation such as (present, past, future).

32 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Braille and communication skills

A student with a visual impairment will usually require alternative modes for instruction

in reading and writing. He or she will need special skills in using alternative strategies,

learning media, and specialized equipment and materials to communicate effectively.

Communication needs that should be addressed where appropriate include:

● Being skilled in reading, using appropriate modes (e.g., braille, print, or recorded

format) for such purposes as gaining academic information and pursuing

personal, career, and recreational interests.

● Developing skill in writing for personal needs, using appropriate modes (e.g.,

braille, print, typewriting, handwriting, word processing) for such purposes as

note taking, recording phone numbers and addresses, taking messages, and

writing travel directions and personal notes.

● Being proficient in typing and computer keyboarding skills.

● Being able to write one’s own signature legibly.

● Being able to operate primary technology devices, such as braille note taker,

audio book player, voice recorder, tablet computer such as iPad, and CD players.

● Being skilled in using a voice recorder for recording lectures or for recording

phone numbers and addresses.

Listening skills

A student with a visual impairment will use listening as an important mode of collecting

information. Instructions on listening skills will help students with visual impairments to

use their ability more efficiently. Listening skills are also equally critical for young

children and students with additional disabilities. Auditory discrimination, interpretation

of auditory cues, and sound association to events and people will serve as the

foundational skills for accessing information effectively. While many children may

demonstrate excellent hearing ability, TVIs should carefully evaluate their

comprehension level. Listening skills that should be addressed where appropriate

include:

● Developing listening skills appropriate to the level of the student’s functioning,

including the development of auditory reception, discrimination, memory,

sequencing, closure, and association skills.

● Developing auditory comprehension and analysis skills appropriate to the level of

the student’s functioning, such as the development of the ability to summarize;

classify; compare; recognize cause and effect; predict outcomes; visualize;

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 33

understand character; understand setting; recognize feelings; recognize climax,

foreshadowing, and purpose; and distinguish fact from opinion.

● Being cognizant of, and able to hear facts, figures, and details from listening.

● Being able to make meaningful connections between own experience and

acquired information through listening.

Study and organizational skills

Many note taking and organizational tasks associated with study skills assume

accessing study materials visually. Tasks such as highlighting, underlining, and

outlining, are difficult for students with visual impairments if appropriate accommodation

and modification have not been made on his/her primary learning media. Learning and

developing efficient study skills are crucial in successful participation in classroom and

community activities. Study skills that should be addressed where appropriate include:

● Effectively organizing binders, folders, notebooks, personal equipment, and

educational equipment.

● Developing note taking skill such as condensing information, picking out major

ideas, using assistive technology devices, and sorting information efficiently.

● Being cognizant of, and able to use format, style, paragraph, heading, table of

contents, index, and other formatting elements.

● Being cognizant of, and able to use labels, markers, organizers, and other

assistive technology devices to organize and to sort books, memos, notes, and

other documents.

● Developing skills for note taking during a lesson.

● Developing writing and recording skills for note taking from material originally

intended for print; e.g., use of material that has been recorded or is read aloud.

● Developing the ability to organize notes and other study materials.

● Developing the ability to organize one’s time

Accessing the general curriculum

●

Being cognizant of, and able to use, appropriate special devices for reading and

writing, such as slates and styli; optical aids; video magnification systems;

34 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

mobile applications; screen reading software; screen magnifying software; and

other voice, video, and data information technology

● Being cognizant of, and able to use, appropriate special devices for mathematics

and science; e.g., the abacus; talking calculators; electronic braille note-taking

devices; specialized measuring equipment; and computers adapted with speech,

enlarged type, or Braille

● Becoming familiar with the format of, and knowing how to use, reference

materials in the student’s primary reading medium or media

● Being able to interpret accurately maps, charts, graphs, models, and tables

● Developing the ability to select and use a reader

● Being able to acquire materials in various learning media; e.g., braille, large type,

aural media, or electronic format

Orientation and Mobility

A visual impairment usually affects how the student learns about and functions within

various environments. The student with a visual impairment, therefore, will need special

skills to understand and become oriented to these environments and to move, travel,

and play independently and safely within them. Included within the genre of Orientation

& Mobility is developing abilities in sensory motor functioning. This is particularly

important for students with visual impairment and additional disabilities, and for infants,

toddlers, and preschool children with visual impairments.

Sensory/Motor Needs

A visual impairment may affect one’s gross and fine motor skills; alternative sensory

discrimination and sensory integration skills; and abilities to develop appropriate

posture, balance, strength, and movement. The student with a visual impairment may

need to develop special skills in these areas. Sensory/motor needs that should be

addressed include:



Carry out tasks necessary for basic survival

● Being able to control the head, limbs, and body for purposeful exploration and

movement.

● Being able to sit, crawl, stand, and walk independently.

● Learning to control the head and body while sitting, crawling, standing, and

walking. While walking, the student should exhibit appropriate gait, stride, and

posture.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 35

● Developing the ability to balance while standing still and while in motion.

● Using gross motor skills, such as crawling, walking, exploring for objects,

negotiating stairs, negotiating depth changes, opening and closing doors, and

pushing and pulling objects.

● Developing fine motor skills, such as grasping and releasing objects of varying

sizes and shapes, turning door handles, grasping a cane, and dialing a phone.

● Developing sufficient muscle relaxation and flexibility to perform basic daily living

and mobility skills safely, efficiently, and gracefully.

● Developing sufficient muscle tone, postural stability, strength, stamina, and

endurance to complete routine mobility, physical fitness, and daily living skills

tasks.

● Learning to identify, discriminate, and use various textures and objects tactually

and underfoot.

● Learning to identify, discriminate, localize, track, and use continuous and

intermittent auditory sources indoors and outdoors.

● Learning to identify, discriminate, and use various tactile, kinesthetic,

proprioceptive, and haptic information indoors and outdoors, including such

things as body movements, changes in temperature, movement of air currents,

or height of slopes and depth changes.

● Learning to identify, discriminate, and use various olfactory sources indoors and

outdoors

36 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Orientation and mobility needs that should be addressed include the following:

● Enveloping a conceptual understanding of: Body image; e.g., planes, parts,

laterality, and directionality in relation to objects and environmental features.

● Developing an understanding of concrete environmental concepts; e.g., grass,

lawn, cement, wood, carpet, tile, tree, bush, and street.

● Developing spatial and positional concepts; e.g., far, near, close, high, low,

above, below, facing, in front of, behind, beside, away from, next to, forward,

backward, sideways, and 90°, 180°, and 360° turns.

● Learning compass direction concepts; e.g., north, south, east, and west

relationships, sides of streets, names of corners, and relationships among

changes in direction.

● Learning about traffic and traffic control concepts; e.g., fast, slow, parallel,

perpendicular, same direction, opposite direction, near side, and far side.

● Learning to travel independently at home and at various school settings

throughout one’s school career.

● Learning appropriate non-cane techniques including such things as trailing,

direction-taking, seating, and protective techniques and techniques for locating

objects to facilitate independent orientation and mobility at home and school.

● Learning to use appropriate human guide skills in all travel situations when

needed, such as traveling in normal situations; going through narrow passages;

ascending and descending stairways; using escalators and elevators; switching

sides; seating oneself in chairs, in sofas, and at tables; and establishing and

maintaining control of the human guide situation with familiar and unfamiliar

guides.

● Learning to use remaining vision and distance low vision aids, as appropriate, to

the maximum extent possible for independent, safe orientation and mobility.

● Learning to use the long cane appropriately to supplement or replace visual

travel skills (Skills to be acquired including touch technique; negotiating closed

doorways and stairs and in congested areas and in social situations; trailing

techniques; and modified touch technique for location of drop-offs such as curbs

or down staircases, cane storage).

● Developing an understanding of the importance, dangers, responsibilities, and

behavior appropriate for independent travel in increasingly complex settings.

● Learning to become oriented and travel independently in residential and rural

areas (Examples of skills are– traveling along a residential sidewalk; traveling

past driveways and walkways; locating curbs and wheelchair ramps; recovering

from veering; crossing residential streets; recognizing and recovering from a

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 37

change in direction on street crossings; using environmental tactile, auditory,

proprioceptive, kinesthetic, or olfactory cues, compass directions and other

orientation systems, maps, and spatial relationships for orientation and safe

mobility in familiar rural or residential areas; and becoming independently

oriented to an unfamiliar area.)

● Developing an understanding of the services various business establishments

provide; e.g., grocery stores, department stores, banks, post offices, and

shopping malls.

● Learning the skills necessary to become oriented and to travel independently in

light and major metropolitan business areas.

● Using traffic sounds to establish, maintain, or regain orientation and line of travel.

● Traveling safely and appropriately on increasingly busy business area sidewalk.

● Crossing independently intersections of four lanes or more controlled by traffic

light.

● Exhibiting appropriate verbal and physical public behaviors.

● Developing the ability to seek out and interact appropriately with the public for

assistance in orientation or mobility as needed.

● Learning to use address systems as an aid to orientation.

● Carrying identification and emergency funds when traveling.

● Knowing whom to contact in case of emergency or disorientation.

● Knowing how to locate and use a pay phone (dial or push-button).

● Learning to locate independently various destinations in business areas.

● Learning to travel safely in various retail and service establishments, including

independent travel on escalators and elevators.

● Learning to carry out increasingly complex personal business transactions

independently.

● Using transportation systems including: buses, subway, and light-rail (including

use of lifts, if necessary). Learning proper techniques for entering and exiting an

automobile.

● Learning to acquire information regarding products, services, or location of

various stores and businesses by using the telephone, including recording this

information for later referral.

38 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Being able to recognize and safely travel past areas of road construction.

● Being able to negotiate railroad track crossings independently.

● Being able to travel independently within light or major metropolitan business

areas at a level sufficient to a signal APS.

● If nonverbal, developing a feasible communication system for acquiring

information and communicating needs.

● Learning to use adaptive mobility skills as necessary for use with ambulatory

aids, such as wheelchairs, walkers, crutches, orthopedic canes and braces, and

prostheses to provide for maximum independent mobility.

● Using alternative mobility devices when appropriate.

● Being able to develop and travel specific routes in limited areas to care for basic

needs, as well as alternative routes if necessary.

● Being able to problem solve and reorient oneself if necessary.

● Being able to solicit assistance and to decline unwanted assistance using correct

procedures.

● Using technology including such things as environmental sensors, global

positioning systems, mapping and information gathering systems.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 39

Social Interaction Skills

The impact of a visual impairment often affects a student’s ability to acquire a repertoire

of social skills without the support of educators and families. The development of social

relationship with peers and adults, the ability to observe the behavior of others in social

situations and know how to interpret each encounter, developing a sense of identity as a

person with a visual impairment, and understanding one’s sexuality require direct

instruction by TVIs and O & M specialists. Because the skills required for socialization,

affective education, and human sexuality require vision to mediate a variety of concepts,

the following needs should be addressed:

Socialization needs that should be addressed include:

● Understanding and displaying acceptable social behavior appropriate to a variety

of group situations.

● Being able to discriminate between those behaviors that are socially

unacceptable in public yet acceptable in private.

● Understanding and exhibiting appropriate assertiveness techniques in a variety

of situations.

● Being aware of and using appropriate nonverbal communication techniques; e.g.,

gestures, eye contact, raised head, and facial expressions.

● Being aware of and being able to control body posture, movement, and physical

mannerisms in an acceptable, coordinated manner.

● Being aware of and using proper manners in eating and other social situations.

● Being able to make introductions properly and demonstrate appropriate

conversational skills.

● Being prepared to contribute constructively to group activities and social

situations.

● Being aware of appropriate social distances for various communication

situations.

● Being aware of dress codes for specific groups and occasions and dressing

appropriately for one’s age and situation.

● Being able to analyze social situations, and know what behaviors need to be

used to have a positive interaction.

40 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Affective education needs that should be addressed include:

● Recognizing that each person is unique and different from every other person.

● Understanding that persons who are visually impaired have the same emotions

as everyone else.

● Being able to identify feelings.

● Being able to express feelings to others directly and in a socially acceptable

manner.

● Having feelings of self-worth and well-being.

● Recognizing personal strengths and weaknesses in a realistic manner.

● Acknowledging both positive and negative feelings in self and in others and

understanding that both types of feelings are valid.

● Being able to identify and appropriately express likes and dislikes.

● Being able to understand and recognize teasing and developing appropriate

ways of handling it.

● Being aware of alternative ways to respond to the feelings and behavior of

others.

● Feeling of being a valuable, contributing member of society.

● Being able to identify and understand a wide range of feelings in oneself and in

others; e.g., happiness, guilt, frustration, boredom, confusion, anger,

embarrassment, and pride.

● Being aware that the way a person feels about himself or herself is reflected in

the way he or she treats others.

● Being aware that each person must establish his or her own set of values and

live by them.

● Being aware of the concept of peer pressure and determining the

appropriateness of conforming to peer pressure.

● Being able to identify and share feelings about his or her visual impairment in

relation to being accepted by one’s peers.

● Understanding the ways in which a person can become victimized by allowing

others to make choices in his or her life.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 41

● Understanding the long-range results of too much dependence on others.

● Being aware of the connection between being in control of one’s life and taking

responsibility for what happens in life.

● Being able to feel comfortable asking for help from others when it is appropriate.

● Understanding the difference between allowing others to help when it is not

needed and deciding to ask for help when it is needed.

● Being an effective self-advocate.

Human sexuality needs that should be addressed include:

● Being able to identify with his or her own gender.

● Being knowledgeable about appropriate grooming and personal hygiene

techniques.

● Being able verbally and tactually, with the use of models, to identify human male

and female body parts and organs of the reproductive system, using correct

terminology.

● Being knowledgeable about appropriate child care procedures and adaptations

that may be necessary for a parent who is visually impaired through contact with

real infants and children.

● Being aware of verbal and nonverbal communications that relay sexual

messages to others; e.g., the use of body language.

● Being knowledgeable about strategies for prevention of physical and sexual

abuse, including inappropriate touching and rape.

● Being knowledgeable about the genetic factors related to some visual impairment

that one should consider before having children and being aware of genetic

counseling.

● Being aware of the responsibilities associated with premarital sexual relations,

marriage, and parenthood.

● Being able to express and discuss any concerns related to one’s visual

impairment and relations with partners; e.g., dependency, not being able to drive,

financial concerns, and genetic factors.

● Understanding the differences in sexual roles & gender differences (e.g.,

understanding lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

42 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Psychological Implications

● How well a student understands and accepts his or her visual impairment can be

determined by addressing the needs in this area, including:

● Being able to recognize that one has a visual impairment

● Being knowledgeable about one’s own eye condition

● Being able to explain one’s eye condition and vision related needs to others

● Understanding the vision process

● Understanding and accepting any physical limitations caused by the visual

impairment

● Understanding how low vision aids can assist in improving visual abilities and

accepting the use of appropriate low vision aids

● Accepting the use of alternative techniques and apparatuses for obtaining

sensory information, where appropriate; e.g., use of braille, tapes, and the long

cane

● Being knowledgeable about personal eye care; e.g., medications, hygiene,

regular eye exams, and low vision assessments

● Having realistic knowledge of current treatment as it relates to one’s visual

impairment

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 43

Independent Living Skills

Since a visual impairment affects the student’s ability to incidentally acquire the skills

needed to live independently, the student with a visual impairment will often need

special instructional techniques to function as independently as possible. Assessment

and instruction to provide needed daily living skills should include the following areas:

Personal hygiene skills

● Performing basic personal hygiene tasks; e.g., toileting, care of teeth and hair,

and bathing needs

● Using personal service businesses to care for one’s own needs and to make

appointments; e.g., for barber or beauty shop services (These activities are for

students who are beyond the basic skill level.)

Dressing skills

● Dressing and undressing, including tying shoes and fastening buttons and

zippers

● Selecting appropriate clothing and planning clothing purchases

● Knowing clothing, under garment, and shoe sizes

Caring for one’s own clothing

● Using techniques for clothing storage and identification of colors and patterns,

sorting laundry, and using a washer and dryer

● Using services such as shoe repair, performing minor repairs on clothing, and

hemming and ironing clothing

● Knowing when clothes are dirty and need to be cleaned

Housekeeping skills

● Locating and using housekeeping areas in the home, such as the kitchen, dining

area, and bedroom; and assisting in basic upkeep, such as putting out trash and

setting the table

● Performing many basic housekeeping tasks, such as vacuuming and scheduling

regular maintenance

● Being able to make basic home repairs (e.g., changing a light bulb, using a

plunger)

44 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Preparing food

● Identifying kitchen appliances and performing basic pouring, stirring, measuring,

and spreading techniques

● Using kitchen equipment, such as a stove and oven; preparing and cooking

menus; following recipes; and preparing complete meals

● Using a microwave for preparation of snacks & simple meals

Eating skills

● Locating food on the plate

● Using utensils properly; being familiar with passing food, serving oneself at

buffets, and using cafeterias; ordering food from restaurant menus; and

understanding tipping

Money management

● Identifying coins and knowing coin equivalents

● Knowing how to fold bills for accurate identification

● Handling money in public, planning a budget, using checking and savings

accounts, using automatic teller machines (ATMs) and other electronic banking

and money management systems, and having one’s own system for money

management

Telecommunications skills

● Identifying one’s own telephone number and placing an emergency call

● Using directory assistance, using various types of telephones for personal and

business calls, arranging for one’s own telephone service, and displaying good

telephone etiquette

● Knowing how to use a cellular telephone and be able to send text messages

● Understanding fax and email communications

Written communication skills

● Understanding that written communication is used to convey information and

ideas

● Writing a signature on personal and business letters, using a system for

recording information, and using basic office supplies correctly

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 45

Understanding changes in time

● Responding to a daily schedule; knowing events that occur during the daytime

compared to nighttime

● Knowing how to tell time and use clocks and watches, knowing automatic time

(weeks or months), scheduling one’s own time, and keeping appointments

Organize systematically

● Being able to organize time, activities, and personal belongings at home, at

school, and in the community

46 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Recreation and Leisure Skills

Recreation and leisure skills differ from physical education, because development of

these skills are not typically addressed in physical education, and are a lifelong

investment in sources of personal enjoyment, satisfaction, and community membership.

Students who are visually impaired require explicit instruction in order to select and

learn activities typically adopted by visual immersion in a culture such as through

television or social events. The following activities are only a few examples, and may

change according to different cultural groups and trends relevant to a student’s age,

community, and environment.

● fine arts, such as pottery, painting, sculpture, photography, knitting

● multimedia arts, such as cinematography, television, fashion

● social media activities, such as exchange with online communities via forums,

networking sites, message boards

● winter activities, such as ice-skating, skiing, snowboarding, snowman building,

sledding

● water activities, such as wind surfing, sailing, kayaking

● computer activities, such as video gaming, visual programming and design (i.e.

mind storm, three dimensional design)

● velocity activities, such as skateboarding, rollerblading, cycling

● comic books and graphic novels

● social dancing

● yoga

● chess

The following skills need to be taught in order for students to gain access to

recreational activities.

● Realizing that there are many options in determining how one spends his or her

leisure time

● Learning to play indoor and outdoor games appropriately; e.g., ball, cards, and

roller skating

● Developing hobbies of individual interests; e.g., arts, crafts, music, or collections

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 47

● Being competent in several different recreational activities

● Learning about popular spectator activities in order to enjoy attending them and

to be able to discuss these topics appropriately

● Being aware of opportunities for participation in recreational activities in the

neighborhood and in the community in addition to those designed specifically for

persons who are visually impaired; e.g., YMCA (Young Men's Christian

Association) or YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association), neighborhood

parks and centers, Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts, and school and social clubs

● Being aware of current recreational trends and being able to participate where

appropriate; e.g., learning current dance steps or fad games

48 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Career Education

To be successfully employed, the student with a visual impairment will often need

guidance to prepare for the world of work. Assessment and instruction in career

awareness and vocational education, including adaptive skills, will often be needed for

an individual to succeed in the workplace. Some career/vocational needs that should be

addressed include:

● Understanding oneself in terms of the characteristics and attributes that make up

one’s individuality and recognizing one’s uniqueness as a person and building

one’s self-esteem

● Knowing the difference between work and play and when each is appropriate

● Understanding the importance of doing a job to the best of one’s ability

● Understanding work ethics, including getting to work on time

● Understanding the necessity of responsibility and commitment in the workplace

● Being able to fill out a job application or giving the necessary information to

another person

● Being familiar with the development and use of a résumé

● Knowing that money is a medium of exchange and related to work and

developing concepts of financial management

● Knowing and using personal information skills, including a legal signature

● Maximizing one’s capabilities in developing skills in technology and in using

adaptive devices, such as computers, note-taking devices, and calculators

● Being familiar with jobs held by one’s family members and the jobs available in

the school and the community, particularly jobs held by persons who are visually

impaired

● Experiencing hands-on work experiences through chores, paid jobs on or off

campus or after school (particularly in the private sector), or in simulated work

environments

● Having opportunities to volunteer and give back to the community

● Being able to interact appropriately with supervisors, coworkers, and the public

● Participating in skills training at a job-entry level in a variety of experiences to

assist in determining realistic occupational choices

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 49

● Determining postsecondary education needs: whether to attend college or

technical school or go to work

● Knowing how to make contact with the Department of Rehabilitation for referral,

training, and/or placement

● Being able to use and train readers

● Knowing sources for having materials transcribed and for obtaining specialized

books, materials, and equipment

● Being able to organize time and materials to maximize learning

● Obtaining and managing financial assets for postsecondary education

● Being self-reliant in managing postsecondary education

● Being able to serve as one’s own advocate in obtaining necessary services,

adaptations, and equipment needed for success on a job, during job training, or

in college

● Knowing and using laws prohibiting discrimination based on disability, including

“equal access” and “reasonable accommodation”

50 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Use of Assistive Technology

Visually mediated information such as books, web surfing, e-mail, magazines, note

taking, and classroom documents typically require transcription to an alternate media for

access by students with visual impairments. Technology is the ultimate tool in equalizing

access to visual information in a timely and independent manner, and enables

opportunities for information gathering, exchange, and storage. Technology skills

are absolutely necessary for postsecondary education and employment.

Instruction should be carried out treating any assistive technology as a tool for

accessing information, and embedded into a lesson as a means to complete a task

aligned with a student’s curriculum. Any of the following types of technology related

skills may be considered, based on careful evaluation of a student’s needs, abilities,

and assessment of appropriate devices:

● Being able to use refreshable braille displays, and how to pair with external

devices such as a computer or tablet

● Being able to use braille note takers, such as the BrailleNote, HIMS

● Accessing audiobook players, such as the Book Port, Victor Reader, National

Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS) player

● Being able to use screen reader software on computers and tablets, such as

JAWS, NonVisual Desktop Access (NVDA), VoiceOver

● Knowing how to use screen magnification software on computers and tablets,

such as ZoomText, MAGic, Zoom

● Accessing programs for text reading, editing, and annotation such as Kurzeil,

Read and Write, Co-Writer

● Experiencing non visual use of touch screen devices with audio output, such as

smartphones and tablets

● Knowing how to access accessibility options on mainstream technology, such as

using an iPad with VoiceOver

● Experiencing non visual use of mainstream applications such as e-mail and cloud

computing

● Learning to use accessible global positioning system (GPS) programs, and other

mobile applications

● Accessing the internet to use social media

● Learning to use smart phones and tablets to send text messages

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 51

Sensory Efficiency Skills

Students who are visually impaired have varying degrees of usable vision. While vision

attributes such as acuity may be reported by a finite measure, how a student uses his or

her vision, referred to as functional vision, may differ widely across people who have

similar measures of acuity. Instruction that targets the development of sensory

efficiency skills should be determined by how a student can leverage tactual, auditory,

olfactory, and gustatory input to counter the loss of visual information. Sensory

efficiency skills should be taught after careful assessment of what may benefit a

student, and may address any of the following:

● Use of optical devices, such as monoculars and telescopic lenses

● Use of hearing aids

● Use of communication systems, such as picture exchange communication

systems (PECS), tactile symbols, switch-mediated voice output devices

● Identify, discriminate, and use various textures and objects tactually and

underfoot

● Identify, discriminate, track, and use continuous and intermittent auditory sources

indoors and outdoors

● Identify, discriminate, and use various kinesthetic and proprioceptive sources

indoors and outdoors, such as changes in temperature, movement of air

currents, or height of slopes and depth changes

● Identify, discriminate, and use various olfactory sources indoors and outdoors

52 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Self-Determination

Self-determination for students with visual impairments is a set of skills aimed at

promoting strategies to set appropriate goals for themselves, monitor their

performances, identify solutions to present or future problems, verbally direct their own

behaviors, reinforce themselves, or evaluate their own performances. Students should

have many opportunities to practice these skills so that they can participate more

independently in school and community activities. Because the level of self-

determination is closely related to systematic instruction in school and home

environment, carefully designed activities that can facilitate acquisition of the set of skills

will positively influence the overall success of students with visual impairments. Self-

determination skills that should be addressed where appropriate include:

● Understanding the impact of his/her visual condition and requesting appropriate

accommodations.

● Being familiar with the terms to describe one's visual impairment.

● Developing the ability to make choices based on preferences, interests, needs,

and wants.

● Developing the ability to consider multiple options and to anticipate

consequences for decisions.

● Being cognizant of, and able to effectively communicate one’s needs and to

utilize appropriate problem solving skills as needed.

● Being skilled at setting up goals and monitoring progress.

● Being able to identify one’s own strengths and limitations.

● Understanding the concepts of dependence, independence, and

interdependence and applying necessary skills appropriately in school in social

environment.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 53

Special Considerations for Students with Additional Disabilities

Expectations for students with visual impairments and additional disabilities should

remain high, and include all areas of the expanded core curriculum. Skills in each area

of instruction may be modified to allow for a student’s meaningful and active

participation to the fullest extent possible. A task analysis should be carried out to

identify areas for student involvement and needs for external support. Lessons and

objectives should focus on a student’s strengths and abilities, and progress celebrated

according to the student’s own pace of development. Students with multiple disabilities

may not learn skills according to a traditional timeline or standards, and evaluation on

norm referenced scales should be avoided outside of purposes to determine service

provision. Although students may not learn skills in a linear manner, they should

nevertheless be exposed to a range of skills for potential adoption. Particular attention

and instruction should be provided to support and train staff in inclusive and respectful

practices. Parental involvement in learning objectives should be considered to maintain

consistency throughout the year, and minimize loss of skills gained during the school

year.

Information for Families

The Core Curriculum and Expanded Core Curriculum for Students with Visual

Impairments

Common Core State Standards

The Common Core State Standards were developed by national organizations to better

prepare students for success in the 21

century. They were adopted by the state of

California in 2010 and currently cover English/Language Arts and Mathematics.

Expanded Core Curriculum

The nine areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum:



Compensatory or functional academic skills, including communication modes



Orientation and mobility



Social interaction skills



Independent living skills



Recreation and leisure skills



Career education



Use of assistive technology

54 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



Sensory efficiency skills



Self-determination

Task analysis means all of the steps required to complete a task. Systematic instruction

refers to a step-by-step plan for how a specific skill will be taught, including motor

functions, cognition, and communication components.

An example of task analysis: All the steps that a person does to make a peanut butter

and jelly sandwich.

An example of systematic instruction: explaining how making a peanut butter and jelly

sandwich would be taught to someone else, including prompts that might start out with

direct verbal and physical assistance and eventually fade to indirect verbal prompts, and

finally independence.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 55

Chapter Three

Planning and Providing Instruction and Services

This chapter presents a discussion of the unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments, the roles and responsibilities of key individuals in meeting those

needs, and the planning and coordination of instruction and services.

Unique Educational Needs

How does the program use the assessed unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments to form the foundation for the following?

● Developing the IFSP for infants and toddler who have visual impairments,

including young children with visual impairments and additional disabilities. The

IFSP is family centered and includes present levels of development, family

resources, priorities and concerns, outcomes desired, early intervention services,

and transition steps to school-based programs, when appropriate.

(See Appendix H)

● Developing the IEP for school-aged students with visual impairments, including

students with additional disabilities to insure that their unique educational needs

are met to promote academic success and, when appropriate, specialized

services and materials and equipment. (See Appendix F for legal requirements)

● Developing transition language in the IEP, usually referred to as the

Individualized Transition Plan (ITP), which includes, when appropriate, the

following domains: training and education; employment; independent living; and

residential, recreational, financial and economic, and social relationships. (See

Appendix F for legal requirements)

● Providing appropriate instruction, services by qualified personnel, specialized

books, materials, and equipment to insure positive education outcomes for

students with visual impairments is based on an annual review of student

progress.

● Discussing a range of placement options that are based on students’ educational

needs must be considered, including placement at the California School for the

Blind. Please see Appendix E for further information.

56 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Developing curriculum and implementation strategies to meet these needs so

that students with visual impairments can be successful in the least restrictive

environment.

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills Including Modes of Communication

For most students with visual impairments, it is expected that information in the core

curriculum areas will be obtained as a part of instruction in the general education or

special education classroom. The classroom teacher should work closely with both the

student with a visual impairment and the teacher of students with visual impairments so

that concepts that may be unfamiliar (e.g., Braille contractions of words in reading,

braille mathematics, and use of assistive technology) or visual demonstrations (e.g.,

science experiments and examples on the whiteboard) do not slow the integrated

student’s progress and ability to keep up with the rest of the class. If the student with a

visual impairment also has a learning disability, the resources of a specialist in that area

should also be used so that the student may perform to the maximum extent of his or

her ability. For example a TVI may work closely with a reading specialist to determine

the best strategies for introducing Braille to a student who exhibits numerous reversals

of letters while reading and writing.

Students with visual impairments and intellectual challenges or other disabilities may

require support from a TVI along with his or her special education teacher to effectively

access functional academics and alternative curricula, in the form of:

● Providing information about modifying the physical classroom environment to

maximize the use of vision

● Providing information about the presentation of printed materials with respect to

font size, contrast and color, and level of crowding on a printed page

● Providing information about the presentation of pictures and photographs

● Modifying the classroom environment to maximize independence and integration

into the classroom environment

● Providing equipment and materials to enhance a student’s ability to access the

academic curriculum (e.g., reading stands, trays to organize materials, adaptive

digital players).

● Providing strategies for labeling and using communication devices effectively.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 57

● Suggesting opportunities for active participation using provided strategies.

● Providing information about a student’s learning style and how a visual

impairment impacts the way instruction is delivered.

● Providing opportunities for functional literacy (e.g., creating a shopping list,

learning to read a menu), including functional braille literacy if appropriate

Three areas in which a student with a visual impairment may require specialized

instruction are concept development, listening skills, and study skills. A discussion of

these three follows:

Concept development

The development of concepts in sighted children is based almost entirely on their visual

observations of the world (identification of objects, their relationship to objects in their

environment, and their concepts of the relationships among objects). Unless these

relationships are specifically taught, they cannot be totally understood by students

whose visual experiences are limited or non-existent. A comprehensive, sequential

program of concept development is necessary for most students with visual

impairments before they can be expected to develop abstract thinking skills.

Listening skills

Individuals who are functionally blind or have low vision do not automatically develop

better listening skills, which must be systematically taught and practiced. The

development of good listening skills does not stop with work in auditory perception skills

but extends to the development of auditory comprehension, analysis, and memory

skills. Good listening skills will be needed by the student to interpret the environment

when:



The student works in the general or special education classroom.



Materials are read to the student (by a reader or electronically).



An older student tries to retain the maximum amount of information from lectures.

58 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Organization & Study Skills

In order for students with visual impairments to succeed academically, they need to be

able to keep track of their personal belongings, have a way to keep track of classroom

and homework assignments, and develop a system for organizing books, materials, and

hard copy assignments and tests in the classroom. The study techniques used by

students with visual impairments are so different from those used by sighted students

that study skills should be taught by a specialized teacher of students with visual

impairments. The various formats used in reference works, such as dictionaries,

encyclopedias, and atlases, coupled with the difficulty of tracking and keeping one’s

place in these books, demand that special attention be given to the development of

these skills.

Reading and interpreting maps, charts, and graphs also require special techniques,

whether the material is in braille or large print, is being read using an optical device or

as an image description, or provided as a tactile representation. It is critical for students

who are Braille readers to develop strategies to interpret tactile graphics. These

students need to learn how to efficiently obtain tactile information in an organized and

systematic manner. Also, students with visual impairments need to develop methods of

taking notes while listening or reading; organizing notes and other materials in a

medium that they can use; and developing the skills needed to acquire and use a

reader.

Students with visual impairments need instruction in the use of specialized equipment

and technology, such as computers with screen readers, large-type screen access,

braille displays, note-taking devices, optical scanners, and reading machines. They also

need to acquire the skills necessary to use mainstream technology with appropriate

accessibility features such as smart phones and tablets, and electronic forms of

information, such as databases, electronic bulletin boards, social media, and the

internet. Students should be exposed to a variety of mainstream, assistive and adaptive

technologies and be involved in the selection of those most appropriate to their

individual needs. Chapter Two contains a more complete listing of unique concept

development and academic needs.

Communication Instruction

Without communication skills individuals cannot be fully independent and, therefore,

must rely on others to assist them at home, at school, and in the community. For the

individual with a visual impairment, dealing with information in a written form is

particularly difficult. Unique problems arise both in the reception of printed material

(reading) and in the written transmission of one’s thoughts and opinions (writing). Many

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 59

students with visual impairments will need special instruction in one or both of these

areas to develop proficiency in communication.

Depending on the visual functioning of the student, special instruction in braille, large

print or video magnification devices, closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs), and/or regular

print reading techniques may be necessary. (See Appendix C). It is important for

teachers of students with visual impairments to demonstrate skills in being able to teach

reading, and have knowledge about specific strategies for teaching reading to students

who are blind or visually impaired.

For written communication, depending on the student’s visual functioning, use of a

braillewriter, braille note taker, slate and stylus, pen and pencil, or electronic equipment

should be taught. Students with visual impairments need to be proficient at keyboarding.

Also, they should develop a signature that is legible and can be replicated. Chapter Two

contains a more complete listing of unique communication needs.

60 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Orientation & Mobility

Sensory/Motor Instruction

From an early age sighted children are able to use vision, imitation, and opportunities

for unrestricted exploration, movement, and play to develop necessary fundamental

skills in the following areas: gross and fine motor coordination, relaxation of muscles,

strength, endurance, flexibility, and balance. Sighted children also are better able to

develop their tactual, auditory, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic sense discrimination and

integration because they have natural opportunities to explore and engage in rough and

tumble play. The lack of visual, imitative, and normal play opportunities may hinder the

ability of students with visual impairments to develop these fundamental skills through

the natural process of development and maturation as a result of regular physical

education activities. Instruction in remediation of identified needs in this area should be

provided, as needed, by a team of instructional personnel that may include the

following: classroom teacher, special class teacher, teacher of students with visual

impairments, adapted physical education specialist, orientation and mobility specialist,

occupational therapist, and physical therapist. Sensory/motor development needs to

overlap with several other areas of need including body strength and endurance,

balance, gait and posture, and concepts of directionality. In some cases certain skills

and abilities are prerequisite to the development of more sophisticated skills in other

areas, particularly orientation and mobility, daily living skills, and career and vocational

education. Chapter Two contains a more complete listing of unique sensory/motor

needs.

Orientation and Mobility Instruction

The ability to understand, interact with, and move within one’s physical and spatial

environment is a fundamental skill. This ability is one of the developmental milestones

for students with and without visual impairments.

A visual impairment may affect an individual’s opportunities for unrestricted,

independent exploration, movement, and play; understanding of the physical

environment and space; ability to become oriented to and travel in various community

environments; and ability to acquire basic daily living and social skills necessary for

interaction with sighted peers and for travel within the school and community. A visual

impairment may also result in voluntary or imposed restrictions on a person’s activity

simply because of the presence of visual impairment and associated misconceptions

concerning the ability of students to develop safe and independent travel.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 61

Students with visual impairments and additional disabilities may receive instruction in

orientation & mobility. Depending on the age, ability, and assessed needs of the

student, instruction may be provided to enhance motor development, orientation to the

community and school environments, introduction to transportation modes, and use of

the long cane for travel within and to/from destinations. In many cases, initial instruction

is provided by a credentialed O&M specialist, and implemented by the classroom

teacher or Paraeducators under supervision from the O&M specialist.

Specific instruction and services will be necessary to meet assessed needs in:

● Environmental and spatial concept development, body image, control, and

purposeful movement

● Orientation techniques, including but not limited to: use of cardinal directions,

(tactile) maps, way finding technology

● Self-protection skills

● Adaptive visual or nonvisual mobility techniques

● Use of sensory input and residual vision for travel or orientation

● Daily living skills related to community travel and independence

● Identifying when and how to ask for public assistance during school and

community travel

● Route planning, orientation, and safe travel in both school campus and

community areas off campus

For reasons of safety and liability, persons providing instruction in orientation and

mobility must be qualified. For example, instruction in the use of the long cane and off-

campus instruction should be provided only by a credentialed orientation and mobility

specialist. Chapter Two contains a more complete listing of unique orientation and

mobility needs.

62 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Social Interaction Skills

The needs of students with visual impairments in social/ emotional instruction are

unique because of the effects loss of vision may have on the formation of one’s self-

concept, opportunities for appropriate modeling in social situations, development of

social relationships, development of concepts about human sexuality and personal

safety, and understanding and awareness of one’s visual impairment. The acquisition of

these skills is essential for insuring that students with visual impairments are able to

have positive experiences in school and community settings.

Socialization

Students with visual impairments often need assistance in demonstrating appropriate

social skills. The majority of a sighted person’s social skills are learned from visual

modeling. An appropriate behavior or mannerism is observed and then copied in a

similar situation. Many acceptable social behaviors go unnoticed by students with visual

impairments unless they are taught to them with an appropriate demonstration of how

and an explanation of when and why one would use such a behavior.

The area of nonverbal communication is often inaccessible to the student with a visual

impairment. Nonverbal methods of communication are often critical avenues of social

interaction for the sighted and must be directly addressed if the students with visual

impairments are to incorporate them into their repertoire of social skills.

Perspective-taking is another area in which students with visual impairments may have

difficulty. Understanding all the nuisances of a social situation or exchange may require

interpretation from a trusted adult or peer to learn effective ways to “figure out” what is

taking place. Often, students may misinterpret or not know how to respond to a specific

social encounter. For example, students may confuse teasing or sarcasm for bullying

behaviors by others. Helping students to learn these discrete differences is the role of

the teacher of students with visual impairments.

Affective education

The emotional needs of students with visual impairments must be addressed through

affective education so that these needs do not interfere with these students’ academic

social, and vocational growth. One of the most crucial emotional developmental tasks

for students with visual impairments is the formation of self-concept. Research has

shown that children and adolescents who are visually impaired have a lower self-

concept than do their sighted peers.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 63

Infants and young children with visual impairments often have difficulties in recognizing

themselves as individuals apart from other individuals and objects in the environment

because vision plays such a crucial role in this process. The lack of feedback from a

mirror, which assists sighted students in learning how they appear to others, further

hinders the development of a healthy self-concept in students with visual impairments.

As students with visual impairments become older, they may perceive themselves as

devalued or incapable persons because of their inability to perform many of the

common tasks required in school or on the playground. Another common occurrence is

the over-emphasis of certain strengths, resulting in an unrealistic self-concept, which

may later be deflated in adolescence or adulthood. For example, many students who

are blind, who perform well in school academically, may be told by adults, that they are

amazing or exemplary because they are able to achieve at the same rate as their

sighted peers. Because of this feedback, the student may perceive himself or herself as

academically more capable than is true.

Students who are visually impaired often encounter teasing by peers and must learn to

handle those situations constructively while maintaining a good self-concept. Providing

them with specific instructional strategies that focus on teaching assertion skills and

using I messages may combat negative encounters.

As students with visual impairments reach adolescence, many emotional issues arise,

such as dealing with learned helplessness, dependency, obtaining a driver’s license,

overprotective families, and sexuality. The emotional needs of students who are visually

impaired must be addressed so that these needs do not interfere with these students’

academic, social, and vocational growth.

Sex education

Students with visual impairments need a much more intensive and conceptually

oriented education program than their sighted peers do because of the lack of

conceptual understanding and accurate information that cannot be gained through

visual media sources available to sighted students. Many times students who are

visually impaired can verbalize sexual concepts and information accurately, but further

inquiry reveals that these students have many misconceptions.

One of the most basic elements of sex education for students with visual impairments is

knowledge of personal safety. It is important for students to know the difference

between public and private behavior. If for example, students with visual impairments

dress without window shades or drapes drawn, they may not realize that sighted people

can see them undressed without clothing.

64 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

The use of tactual models is an important part of the sex education program for

students with visual impairments because visual media are often not useful in the

learning process. Dealing with the attitudes and emotions surrounding these students’

sexuality at various stages of growth is important. The confusion that often exists

regarding the stigmas attached to the disability and sexuality of individuals who are

visually impaired can seriously affect these students’ self-concepts.

The local sex education program must be adapted for students who are visually

impaired to deal with gender identity, reproduction processes, sexual and social issues,

and health and safety precautions—all in relation to each student’s visual impairment

and moral code. Before providing sex education, one should follow both the IEP and

local policies and procedures. In addition, parent permission is needed before students

can engage in a sex education program.

Psychological implications

Many of the psychological problems faced by students who are visually impaired stem

from the lack of understanding and acceptance of their individual eye condition. Many

students cannot discuss their eye condition when others inquire about it. Students with

visual impairments are often uncomfortable discussing their visual condition, since such

a discussion forces them to acknowledge that they do, in fact, have a visual impairment.

These students need to understand and embrace fully their visual impairment as part of

their identity so that a healthy adjustment results and so that they are able to deal with

the stereotypes and prejudice often encountered in society. If the students are

knowledgeable, comfortable, and accepting of their visual impairment, then the chances

of creating a similar comfortable and accepting attitude in others will be increased.

Chapter Two contains a more complete listing of social/emotional needs.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 65

Independent Living Skills

Specific instruction in independent living skills will often be necessary if students are to

function independently at home, at school, and later as adults. Sighted children learn

these daily living skills from their parents beginning at a very early age. Parents of

students with visual impairments are often unaware of the students’ ability to acquire

these skills or are reluctant to teach them because they usually have not had any

training in the use of adaptive techniques.

For sighted children the acquisition of independent living skills is seen as a milestone in

their development; e.g., eating and dressing independently or doing household chores.

Often, students with visual impairments are not expected to be independent in this area,

resulting in the performance of daily living skills that is far below the level of skills

expected from sighted students. Working closely with parents and other caretakers as

early as possible is important so that they can assist in teaching these skills and

following through at home. One of the most effective ways of teaching daily living skills

is through the involvement of the parents by providing instruction, as appropriate, in the

student’s home.

For sighted children many of these skills are learned incidentally or are reinforced

through visual modeling. Depending on the level of visual functioning of a student with a

visual impairment, he or she should be taught these skills, using specialized or adapted

methods, materials, and equipment. Teaching students to make simple adaptations is

important so that they will be able to function independently in a variety of settings and

situations.

Planning, instruction, and curriculum should focus on self-help needs of increasing

complexity within each of the following independent living skill areas: personal hygiene

dressing, clothing care, housekeeping, food preparation, eating, money management,

social communication, telephone use, written communication, time, and organization.

Chapter Two contains a more complete listing of unique daily living skills needs.

When teaching independent living skills to students with visual impairments and

additional disabilities it is important to work closely with speech and language

therapists, occupational therapists, and physical therapists who can provide valuable

information about adaptive equipment, adaptive methods for teaching specific skills, and

information about proper positioning for maximizing instruction. For example, many

students with visual impairments and additional disabilities have oral motor issues. They

may have difficulty tolerating various textures, or exhibit difficulty with chewing and

swallowing. Some students may need support with using utensils because of physical or

motor disabilities.

66 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Recreation & Leisure Skills

Students with visual impairments are often limited in the range of recreational and

leisure-time activities available to them, including extracurricular activities. A need exists

to expose these students to a variety of available options, which they either may not be

aware of or in which they may not feel sufficiently competent to participate.

The sighted person becomes aware of many recreational activities through visual media

sources. Many specific leisure skills are learned from visual modeling. In addition,

students may be limited because of a lack of mobility skills, and they cannot always

independently explore neighborhood options. Both individual and group recreational

activities must be included in the development of recreational and leisure skills,

including art, music, drama, and dance. Students need to be given opportunities to be

exposed to activities that foster hobbies like playing chess or board games, or knitting or

crocheting.

With an emphasis on health and wellness, it is important for students with visual

impairments to actively participate in sports and fitness activities. Whenever possible,

providing students with the opportunity to have exposure to a variety of sports activities

such as swimming, hiking, roller skating, ice skating, biking, and skiing. Some sports

activities can be adapted with audible devices and special equipment like adapted

tennis, basketball, beeper baseball, and goalball.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 67

Career Education

Career and vocational education are essential components in a program for students

with visual impairments. Even though new technology and legislation, including the

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) that prohibits discrimination have provided more

opportunities for employment, individuals with visual impairments will continue to

encounter many barriers in realizing their employment potential. Career and vocational

education should therefore begin in preschool and continue through four phases:

awareness, exploration, preparation, and participation.

Awareness

Awareness begins during early childhood and includes the development of an

individual’s self-esteem and self-concept and the beginning of an understanding of how

people live, work, and play. Activities at this level should begin to assist students in

developing a realistic self-appraisal of their skills, abilities, attitudes, strengths, and

responsibilities, as well as of their limiting factors. Instruction should also help students

gain the skills, abilities, and attitudes they need to become successfully employed.

Awareness also includes an introduction to the world of work and occupations,

emphasizing those positions that are held, or could be held, by individuals who are

visually impaired. These areas should be addressed both at home and in the

educational setting during the early childhood and elementary school years.

Exploration

Exploration should include a broad range of career and vocational choices based on

ability and interests. Required skills for specific career choices must be addressed.

Students should be encouraged to explore ways in which occupational tasks could be

adapted for a person with a visual impairment, including the use of assistive technology.

The rehabilitation counselors for the blind in the California State Department of

Rehabilitation or other individuals knowledgeable about employment opportunities and

adaptations for the visually impaired need to become involved. ITPs should be

developed and implemented.

Preparation

Preparation should include vocational and educational training in the specific skills,

abilities, and attitudes necessary for the individual’s achievement in his or her career

interest or choice. Training in technological and adapted devices used in the workplace

should be explored. A student should be referred for services to the Department of

Rehabilitation no later than the eleventh grade or after reaching a comparable

68 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

chronological age. During this phase students need to be given opportunities to

participate in a variety of volunteer experiences. Research clearly documents a strong

correlation between volunteer experiences and successful paid employment as an

adult.

Participation

Participation could include either paid or volunteer on-the-job training for a specific

career or work experience. These experiences may provide opportunities for individuals

to develop the skills, abilities, and attitudes that will be valuable in any career choice.

Cooperation with local vocational education programs and local businesses is essential.

(See Appendix G, “Resources for Technical Assistance.”)

Knowledge of individual rights and affirmative action policies, current law—including the

Americans with Disabilities Act—and the skills of self-advocacy should also be included

in the career and vocational education programs.

All of these areas of learning and achievement are lifelong for everyone. Because

students with visual impairments are unable to learn about these areas through visual

observation, as sighted students do, training of students with visual impairments in

meeting their career and vocational needs should begin in early childhood. Chapter Two

contains a more complete listing of unique career/vocational needs.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 69

Use of Technology and Assistive Technology

Students with visual impairments require explicit and specific instruction in order to use

mainstream, as well as specialized, technology. Technology skills are linked to

improved postsecondary and employment outcomes, and mediate visual media by

providing students with independent and timely access to information. TVIs must teach

these skills regardless of their personal tendencies or preferences for technology, and

may do so in collaboration with other colleagues. Components of technology instruction

include: Evaluation and assessment, procurement of the technology, teaching how to

use the technology, and implementing the technology into instructional activities.

Evaluation and assessment

Evaluation and assessment should be equally mindful of available specialized devices

and software programs, accessibility features of mainstream technology, and student

capabilities. Given the constantly evolving array of technology options, the TVI may

benefit from consulting other colleagues. If the TVI does not feel comfortable carrying

out the technology evaluation and assessment, a colleague who is qualified and familiar

with both educating students with visual impairments and currently available

technologies should be invited to join the educational team. Although mainstream

technology may have accessibility features, the capabilities of these features across

devices and programs vary. Likewise, various devices and programs that are

specialized for users with visual impairment may share similar features, but have

varying benefits depending on a student’s repertoire of skill and technology needs. For

example, several devices exist that use text to speech to provide access to digital

textbooks, but device selection would depend on the student’s ability to leverage

available features, understanding of virtual folder organization, and preferences.

Thoughtful evaluation and assessment should consider both the accessibility and

usability of any technology or assistive technology, and recommendations based on

these factors will result in more successful implementation in the classroom.

Procurement of technology

According to Ed Code 56341.1 When developing each pupil's individualized education

program, the individualized education program team shall consider the following: (b)(5)

Consider whether the pupil requires assistive technology devices and services as

defined in Section 1401(1) and (2) of Title 20 of the United States Code and (c) If, in

considering the special factors described in subdivisions (a) and (b), the individualized

education program team determines that a pupil needs a particular device or service,

including an intervention, accommodation, or other program modification, in order for

the pupil to receive a free appropriate public education, the individualized education

program team shall include a statement to that effect in the pupil's individualized

education program.

70 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Therefore, the IEP team must consider the recommendations for assistive technology

and services as outlined in an evaluation carried out by a qualified professional, in order

for a student to have the same access and opportunities to education as sighted peers.

This technology may include specialized devices specifically for individuals with visual

impairment, or mainstream devices with appropriate accessibility features.

Device-specific instruction

The TVI must impart a general set of instructions so the student can begin using any

recommended technology. These instructions should include: understanding the

function of the technology, why it is integral to learning in the classroom, and how to

care for a device or manage updates to software programs. Unless the TVI is also

visually impaired and personally uses the recommended technology, it is not expected

for the TVI to be an expert on using a device or program. Rather, the TVI should teach

the basic skills and functions of a device with the understanding that the student will

become more skilled with ongoing technology use. It is more important that the TVI

have resources available so that when troubleshooting needs arise, the TVI can

leverage the expertise of colleagues to continue supporting the student. As the student

matures, instruction should also include teaching the student how to find resources and

assistance as needed.

Technology implementation

No device or software program should be taught in isolation from the task it aims to

serve. Technology should be viewed as another tool in a student’s set of adaptive skills,

and should be supplemented by other skills in case the technology is unavailable due to

breakage, theft, or loss. For example, although a program may provide text to speech

support for a totally blind student, the student should still receive braille literacy

instruction to complement the technology, and also be able to read embossed braille in

the event that the text to speech program malfunctions. Students’ use of any technology

should be carried out by classroom staff including teachers and paraprofessionals

according to specific instruction and direction from a qualified TVI. TVIs must therefore

embed any technology-specific instruction within a classroom activity to provide the

context for technology use and improved implementation.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 71

Sensory Efficiency Skills

Instruction to develop and refine sensory efficiency skills should be carried out after

careful assessment of the student, and determination of which skills may be most

relevant. A student with usable residual vision should receive a functional vision

assessment at least every three years, and may benefit from a low vision evaluation.

Recommendations from a qualified low vision specialist may differ from a medical

professional such as a pediatrician or ophthalmologist because functional vision cannot

be gauged by traditional measures of acuity, or determined based on a diagnosis alone.

Other sensory efficiency skills counter the loss of information through the visual system

by leveraging input via tactual, auditory, olfactory, proprioceptive, and vestibular

systems.

Use of optical devices

Based on evaluation from a TVI or low vision specialist, a student with usable vision

may be prescribed optical devices such as a monocular or telescopic lens. Use of these

devices depends on instruction in the appropriate context for its use, and care of the

device itself. School staff should also be advised of the student’s use of any optical

device to support its implementation into the classroom and community outings, and

should carry out implementation activities under the direction and supervision of a TVI.

Tactile input

Students with visual impairments should be taught to identify, discriminate, and use

various textures and objects tactually and underfoot. Any visual image that requires

more extensive information than what could be conveyed through a verbal description

should be rendered as a tactile graphic. Students who require tactile graphics in order to

access images must be provided with specific instruction and consistent exposure

throughout the learning process before encountering this adapted material in an

assessment situation such as for standardized testing purposes. Tactile graphics may

be used in the classroom to convey academic material, or as an accessible map to

support with orientation and mobility instruction. Students with nonverbal communication

in addition to visual impairment should be introduced to tactile symbols

for labeling and communication exchange. These symbols should be labeled with braille

to provide exposure to functional literacy objectives if the student has no functional

vision.

72 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Auditory input

For students with a hearing impairment in addition to a visual impairment, instruction

should be carried out in conjunction with a colleague qualified to work with students wh

are deaf or hard of hearing. The student and TVI should both understand how to

manage and care for any hearing aids or cochlear implants, and the effects of different

types of auditory input on the student. Students should be able to Identify, discriminate

track, and use continuous and intermittent auditory sources indoors and outdoors to

help with orientation and mobility, and leverage these sources as environmental

supports.

Olfactory input

Similar to auditory input, students with visual impairments should be instructed to

identify and discriminate olfactory information indoors and outdoors to help with

orientation and mobility. In some cases such as a fire, olfactory input may provide

information crucial to the safety of the student.

Proprioceptive and vestibular input

Information through proprioceptive and vestibular channels helps a student who is

visually impaired by understanding where his or her body parts are in space, and helps

process information regarding the size and shape of objects, as well as navigating

elevation changes during travel. Instruction in this area affects how the student

maintains posture and natural gait patterns, and how the student translates

environmental information such as changes in temperature or air currents to inform

orientation and mobility.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 73

Self-Determination

The importance of self-determination skills for students with visual impairments cannot

be overemphasized. Research clearly demonstrates that self-determination skills should

be explicitly taught and students with visual impairments must be given sufficient

opportunities to practice such skills. Self-determination skills such as self-awareness,

choice making, self-advocacy, problem solving, and goal setting must be addressed for

all students with visual impairments regardless of their functional level so that they can

enjoy self-directed, high quality life as an individual.

Instructions in self-determination skills should be provided continually throughout the

educational settings. They can be taught and practiced in various settings, where

appropriate, and can be integrated into other areas of expanded core curriculum

instructions.

Self-awareness

It is important that children and youth with visual impairments understand concept of

likes and dislikes and develop preferences. When children with visual impairments

understand that they are separate from the environment and that their decisions make

differences in the surroundings, they are ready to exercise personal control and to

appreciate the value of self-determination.

Choice making

It has been reported that children and youth with disabilities are not given with

opportunities for making choices in their daily lives. Therefore, it is important that

structured decision making activities would be created and students with visual

impairments understand the procedure of reviewing available options and considering

consequences for making choices.

Self-advocacy

Assertive communication and advocate one's needs, as appropriate, can be taught

through simulated experience and practices. Students with visual impairments must

know their visual conditions and be familiar with proper adaptations and environmental

modifications necessary to maximize their visual functioning. They should be able to

effectively communicate such needs. It is also important that, when making request,

children should be able to specifically describe their needs in assertive and polite

manner.

74 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Problem solving and goal setting

Setting up short and long term goals and guiding children with visual impairments in

monitoring progress and achieving those goals can positively reinforce self-

determination skills. It is important for students with visual impairments to review

strengths and weaknesses of oneself and to consider diverse options in solving

problems. It is also critical for children and youth to practice these skills in infused

settings.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 75

Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment

What is UDL?

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a set of principles that assists teachers in

creating and using educational materials and equipment. The main premise behind UDL

is that all educational materials, including assessment, curriculum, and instructional

materials, should be designed so that all learners can access and use the materials with

as much independence as possible in a manner that meets the learner’s unique

individualized needs. UDL is based on the idea that materials and equipment should be

designed to “work for everyone--not a single, one-size-fits-all solution but rather flexible

approaches that can be customized and adjusted for individual needs.

(http://www.cast.org/udl/; http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/whatisudl)”

How does UDL relate to students with visual impairments?

Students who are visually impaired often have unique learning needs and require

individualized adaptations to materials. UDL helps to ensure that materials are created

to minimize the adaptations necessary, by addressing individual differences in

curriculum planning, assessment, and educational programming.

How does the program provide the educational materials, assistive technology, and

technology equipment necessary to meet the unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments as specified in the IFSP/IEP/ITP?

Educational materials, assistive technology, and technology equipment are provided as

indicated in the IFSP, IEP, or ITP to meet the unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments. (See Appendix F for legal requirements.) As much as possible

materials and equipment provided should be based on the principles of universal design

for learning. IDEA requires that if materials or equipment are mandated in an IEP that

the LEA is responsible for providing it.

Sufficient time must also be allocated for the transcriber or teacher of students with

visual impairments to locate, prepare, and disseminate materials and equipment for

each student. Indirect services can be appropriated in the IEP, as necessary to meet

this requirement.

Funds at the local level must be budgeted to ensure that necessary books, materials,

and equipment are provided, coordinated, and maintained. The intent of the Legislature

is that, to the extent to which funding is available, school districts and county offices

give first priority to expenditures to provide specialized books, materials, technology,

76 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

assistive technology, and equipment that are necessary and appropriate for the

IFSP/IEP/ITP of pupils with low incidence disabilities.

Materials, technology, assistive technology, and equipment purchased with federal or

state funds by local educational agencies remain the property of the state and may be

reassigned by the Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Technology (CSMT) when

they are no longer being used locally. It is important that a process for tracking materials

and equipment purchased to implement the IFSP/IEP/ITP of students with visual

impairments be maintained so that this information may be reported to CSMT. (See

Appendix E for sources of funding and Appendix F for legal requirements.)

An organized, cost-effective, and coordinated system for acquiring, coordinating,

disseminating, and maintaining these special materials and equipment should be

operated from a central location, with one individual assigned this responsibility. CSMT

has developed and tracks materials, technology, assistive technology, and equipment

that has been distributed to LEAs.

CSMT also is the statewide contact for NIMAC and NIMAS, described as follows:

“The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004

established the National Instructional Materials Access Center (NIMAC) to serve as a

national repository of National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS)

source files for accessible media production of textbooks and related printed core

materials that are written and published primarily for use in elementary school and

secondary school instruction. The NIMAC is funded by a grant from the U.S.

Department of Education and is based at the American Printing House for the Blind in

Louisville, Kentucky. We began operations on December 3, 2006. The NIMAC receives

NIMAS file sets from publishers,

catalogs these files, and makes them available for

download by Authorized Users, who are identified and registered with the NIMAC by a

representative of

the state department of education. Once downloaded, the file sets

are then converted into a student-ready specialized format. These formats are braille,

audio, or digital text which is exclusively for use by blind or other persons with

disabilities, and includes large print formats when distributed exclusively for use by

blind or other persons with disabilities. (NIMAC, n.d.;

http://www.nimac.us/faq_teachers.html#what)”

All efforts should be made to coordinate the sharing of books and materials with other

programs for students with visual impairments in the state as well as nationally. A

statewide email list-serve, Braille-n-Teach, has been established for the purpose of

coordinating and sharing of materials. Individuals may sign up for an account through

CSMT http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/sm/.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 77

How does the program provide instruction on the use of educational materials, assistive

technology, and technology equipment necessary to meet the unique educational needs

of students with visual impairments as specified in the IFSP/IEP/ITP?

Selection of educational materials, assistive technology, and technology equipment

should be based on assessment data (see chapter 1). Recommendations for

technology and assistive technology devices should be included in a specialized

technology assessment. Instructional goals should include the use of such materials

and equipment and be carefully monitored through ongoing assessment practices.

Prescription of educational materials also should take into consideration instruction and

training time for teachers, students and families, in addition to resources for students, as

deemed in the IFSP/IEP/ITP. Similarly, teachers providing instruction on the use of

specialized equipment, including technology and assistive technology, should be

considered as necessary professional development and a budget for such training

should be planned by the LEA as needed.

The State Legislature has provided special funds for students with low incidence

disabilities: visual impairments, hearing impairments, severe orthopedic impairments,

and deaf-blindness. These funds are allocated to the SELPA on the basis of the total

annual count of students with a low incidence disability in the SELPA.

Students who are considered visually impaired (i.e., who meet requirements for legal

eligibility for special education and related services as a pupil with a low incidence

disability) are eligible to access low incidence disability funds. The eligibility is based on

several criteria, which include:

● A student is identified as having a low incidence disability.

● A student has assessed needs, which result from the low incidence disability, for

specialized books, materials, and/or equipment.

● The specialized books, materials, and/or equipment are required under the

student’s IEP.

● The item requested is specialized in some way to address the student’s unique

educational needs that result from the low incidence disability.

● The item is not medically prescribed, and it does not supplant items typically

provided by the general or special education program or by other agencies.

78 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

To provide instruction and services to meet these assessed needs, a program must

provide, as indicated by the student’s IEP, specialized books, materials, and equipment,

including braille, large type, recordings, tactual diagrams, and technological aids and

devices. If the student’s IEP so indicates, these specialized books, materials, and

equipment must be provided.

Those responsible for providing materials and equipment for students who are visually

impaired should follow these guidelines:

● Students who are functionally blind will need tactile or auditory adaptations or

both in the form of braille, recorded materials, and technological devices to

function optimally within a classroom. (See Appendix C)

● Many students with low vision will often be able to use regular print, large type, or

optical devices (magnifiers or video magnification systems) as their primary

reading medium. Recorded materials, technological devices, and braille may also

be needed. (See Appendix C)

● Students, who have visual impairments and additional disabilities, will need to

use a wide variety of adaptive materials and equipment, depending on the

combination and severity of the impairments. For students with multiple

impairments who need a specialized curriculum, the standard adaptations

(braille, access to assistive technology, use of large print and magnifiers, and so

forth) may be used as modes for learning. Students may need additional time to

master the operation of equipment and the use of materials.

● Students who are receiving a functional curriculum, and infants, toddlers, and

preschool children will need to use real objects, picture representations, auditory,

and tactual materials that may be more appropriate to enhance sensory

stimulation, concept development, and readiness skills. (See Appendix E,

“Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment.”)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 79

Roles and Responsibilities of Key Individuals

What do the key individuals who are involved in the assessment or provision of

instruction, services, or consultation to students with visual impairments need to know

about these students’ unique educational needs?

The skills, abilities, and knowledge these individuals possess in carrying out their roles

and responsibilities should be understood and used.

Each educational plan (IFSP/IEP/ITP) identifies the special education instruction and

services, including the specialized services, materials, and equipment, needed by a

student with a visual impairment. (See Appendix F for legal requirements.) The degree

of coordination that can be achieved among all individuals involved in implementing the

educational plan, and the knowledge and skills of these individuals, will play a vital role

in the success of the total program in meeting all of the needs of students with visual

impairments.

Therefore, each of the following individuals who provide instruction and services to

visually impaired students must understand his or her roles and responsibilities:

Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments

The teacher of students with visual impairments has the following roles and

responsibilities:

● Has primary responsibility for specialized instruction and services required to

meet the unique educational needs of students with visual impairments including

all areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum.

● Possesses the skills and abilities necessary to provide and coordinate this

instruction.

● Assists the student, family, special and general education personnel, and sighted

peers in:

○ Understanding the unique educational needs and learning characteristics

of visually impaired students.

○ Becoming aware of services and support available from local, regional,

and statewide programs for visually impaired students.

80 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

○ Acquiring information regarding local, state, and national resources in the

education of students with visual impairments.

○ Interpreting the student’s specific eye condition, the educational

implications of the visual impairment, and the results of functional vision

assessments to all staff and the student’s family.

○ Acts as a liaison between the school and medical community to interpret

eye reports and other medical information.

○ Identifying and interpreting the findings from the student’s learning media

assessment to determine specific media for instruction.

● Confers regularly with the classroom teacher, other general and special

education personnel, families, and others to coordinate programs and services

for the student with a visual impairment.

● Assists the site administrator and teachers in making environmental adjustments

for the student in the school situation and in the improvement of practices and

procedures.

● Shares responsibility with classroom teachers in the identification of instructional

areas in which the student requires assistance.

● Has responsibility for selecting and obtaining large print, recorded, or braille

textbooks, supplementary materials, educational aids, and equipment needed by

the student with a visual impairment and the classroom teacher to ensure the

student’s maximum participation in all classroom activities (Appropriate

educational materials may be obtained from educational, clerical, or transcriber

services; or they may be prepared or adapted by the teacher of students with

visual impairments).

● Provides specialized instruction to the student with a visual impairment, school

personnel, and families in the use of necessary educational aids and equipment

including the use of mainstream and assistive technology, and low vision

devices.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 81

● Provides instruction to the student with a visual impairment in the development

and maintenance of skills related to the visual impairment designed to meet

students’ unique educational needs in the following areas, as indicated in the

IFSP, IEP, or the ITP:

○ Low vision and visual efficiency skills in coordination with the eye

specialist.

○ Concept development and academic skills in coordination with the

classroom teacher and other staff.

○ Sensory/motor skills in coordination with the physical education instructor,

occupational and physical therapist, and the orientation and mobility

specialist.

● Communication skills in coordination with the general education teacher and the

language, speech, and hearing specialist. These skills include:

○ Teach reading and writing in Braille, use of the slate and stylus, and use of

the abacus to complete mathematical calculations.

○ Develop skills in the use of appropriate assistive technology including

screen readers, scanners, Braille displays, magnification software, and

use of Smart Phone and tablets.

○ Develop skills in teaching students to design powerpoint presentations

and provide oral class presentations.

○ Design instruction in listening skills.

○ Develop skills in teaching organization of materials and personal

belongings.

● Career/vocational education skills in coordination with career/vocational

education staff and rehabilitation counselors.

● Social/emotional skills and abilities in coordination with the counselors,

psychologists, and classroom teachers.

● Independent living skills in coordination with the orientation and mobility

specialist, classroom teacher, and family.

82 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Collaborates with physical education and adaptive physical education teachers to

provide meaningful sports and recreational programs for students in school and

in the community.

● Provides information and creates instruction to maximize a student’s use of

vision in the classroom and in the community through the use of low vision

devices, video magnification devices, and assistive technology.

● Provides information to classroom teachers, paraeducators, and other specialists

on the best ways to maximize visual functioning for students with visual

impairments and additional disabilities with respect to positioning, classroom

organization, presentation of materials, and environmental modifications (e.g.,

lighting, visual clutter).

● Provides assistance to the classroom teacher in academic subjects and activities

of the classroom that, as a direct result of the visual impairment, require

adaptation or reinforcement.

● Provide information to the classroom teacher about the physical organization of

the classroom to maximize the student’s efficient use of vision and independence

within the classroom environment.

● Provides assistance for any assessment.

● Conducts the functional low vision assessment in coordination with the

orientation and mobility specialist.

● Conduct the Learning Media Assessment with the support of the classroom

teacher, school psychologist, and family.

● Participates in IFSP/IEP/ITP meetings for students with visual impairments.

● Serves as a case manager or service coordinator for students with no additional

impairments.

● Shares responsibility for initial and ongoing assessments, program planning, and

scheduling with parents; the student, when appropriate; the classroom teacher;

principal; counselor; and other school personnel.

● Schedules adequate time for assessment, instruction, planning, preparation of

materials, travel, and conferences with relevant school and other key individuals

(Scheduling should be flexible to meet the varying needs of each student.)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 83

● Maintains ongoing contact with families to assist them in the development of a

realistic understanding of the child’s abilities, progress, and future goals.

● Provides in-service training programs for all school personnel, students, and

community groups and education for parents regarding the needs, adaptations,

programs, and services for visually impaired students.

● Provides on-going training and support to Paraeducators who provide services to

students with visual impairments including students with visual impairments and

additional disabilities.

● Manages and oversees the instructional needs of students with visual

impairments that are carried out by Paraeducators.

● Is aware of pamphlets, videos, and other public relations materials that may be

useful in developing realistic and unprejudiced attitudes toward students with

visual impairments.

● Is aware of pertinent resource materials to assist families and school personnel.

● Assists in the coordination of other personnel, such as transcribers, readers,

counselors, orientation and mobility specialists, career/vocational education staff,

and rehabilitation counselors.

● Maintains a reference library of current professional materials.

● Acquires information about current research, development, and technology and

local, regional, statewide, and national resources.

The teacher of students with visual impairments in a self-contained classroom or

school for students with visual impairments may be responsible for instruction in all

subjects in addition to undertaking most of the previously listed responsibilities. In

addition, the TVI in a special day classroom or a specialized school for the blind in

responsible for implementing all areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum.

84 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Classroom Teacher

The classroom teacher (general education, special class, or resource specialist) has the

following roles and responsibilities:

● Provides classroom instruction to the student with a visual impairment.

● Works cooperatively with the teacher of students with visual impairments to:

○ Identify the educational needs and strengths, including unique educational

needs of students with visual impairments.

○ Coordinate instruction and services to meet these needs and strengths.

○ Provide the teacher of students with visual impairments with classroom

materials that need to be reproduced in another medium in a timely

manner.

○ Determine mutually convenient times during the school day for scheduling

the teacher of students with visual impairments to work with the student.

○ Provides worksheets, tests, and other materials for transcription into

braille or large print in a timely manner.

○ Modify classroom procedures and environment to meet the specific needs

of the visually impaired student for participation in classroom activities.

○ Exchange information concerning the student with families and other

individuals on a regular basis.

○ Participate in the development and implementation of the student’s

IFSP/IEP/ITP.

○ Participate in team meetings to assist the student’s continuous progress.

○ Participate in student’s IFSP/IEP/ITP meetings.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 85

Orientation and Mobility Specialist

The orientation and mobility specialist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Instructs students with visual impairments in the development of skills and

knowledge that enable them to travel independently, to the highest degree

possible, in accord with the students’ assessed needs and the students’

IFSP/IEP/ITP.

● Teaches students to travel with proficiency, safety, and confidence in familiar and

unfamiliar environments.

● Possesses the skills and abilities necessary to provide and coordinate this

instruction.

● Provides consultation and support services to families, general and special

education teachers, other school personnel, and sighted peers human guide and

appropriate travel techniques.

● Confers regularly with families, classroom teachers, physical education teachers,

and/or other special education personnel to assist in home and classroom

environmental modifications, adaptations, and considerations and to ensure

reinforcement of appropriate orientation and mobility skills that will encourage the

student with a visual impairment to travel independently in these settings.

● Works with the teacher of students with visual impairments to conduct the

functional vision assessment as it relates to independent travel.

● Develop and implement comprehensive O & M assessment that includes:

○ Spatial concepts

○ Awareness of body parts

○ Directionality

○ Use of human guide

○ Protective techniques for dropped objects and movement through space

○ Knowledge of cardinal directions

○ Use of the long cane (e.g., constant contact, two point touch)

86 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

○ Knowledge of campus locations

○ Knowledge of organization of neighborhoods, including street address

systems

○ Knowledge of community travel

○ Knowledge of various intersections

○ Use of public transportation systems including bus, paratransit, taxi

services, trains

○ Ability to travel safely in neighborhoods

○ Ability to travel in small business areas

○ Ability to travel in busy and complex shopping areas

○ Ability to travel in a shopping mall

○ Demonstrates an understanding of time

○ Has a time management system

○ Keeps a schedule

○ Makes purchases in the community

● Includes in the assessment report the needs and strengths of the student and an

estimate of the length and frequency of service necessary to meet identified

needs

● Prepares sequential and meaningful instruction geared to the student’s assessed

needs, IEP goals and objectives, functioning level, and motivational leve

● Prepares and uses equipment and materials for the development of orientation

and mobility skills; e.g., tactile maps, models, distance low vision devices, and

long canes (including adaptive canes and tips)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 87

● Transports students to various community locations as necessary to provide

meaningful instruction in realistic learning environments

● Is responsible for teaching safe techniques to use at all times and in all

environments while fostering maximum independence. Provides orientation and

mobility instruction, where appropriate, in the following areas:

○ Body image

○ Laterality

○ Directionality

○ Environmental concepts

○ Gross and fine motor skills related to independent travel

○ Sensory awareness, stimulation, and training

○ Spatial concepts

○ Compass direction concepts

○ Human guide procedures

○ Basic protective and information gathering technique

○ Orientation skills

○ Map skill

○ Cane skills

○ Use of residual vision for travel

○ Low vision devices related to travel skills

○ Residential travel

○ Travel in business districts and mall

○ Procedures for crossing streets, including traffic control signal

88 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

○ Use of public transportation system

○ Procedures for use of the telephone for information gathering and for

emergencies

○ Procedures for making purchases in the community

○ Time management systems and keeping track of a schedule

○ Procedures for interacting with the public

○ Knowledge and application of community address system

○ Procedures for travel and independent functioning in places of public

accommodation

○ Skills of daily living

● Sensory/motor skills in coordination with the physical or occupational therapist

and teacher of students with visual impairments

● Evaluates students’ progress on an ongoing basis

● Keeps progress notes on each student

● Participates in necessary parents’ conferences and meetings

● Provides in-service training to general and special education personnel, sighted

peers, and family members concerning the orientation and mobility needs of the

student with a visual impairment and appropriate methods and procedures for

interacting with the individual who is visually impaired that will foster maximum

independence and safety

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 89

Aide/Paraprofessional/Instructional Assistant

The aide/paraprofessional/instructional assistant has the following roles and

responsibilities:

● Assists, as directed by the teacher of students with visual impairments or other

credentialed staff, in the following areas

○ Facilitating the classroom organization and environment

○ Reinforcing the individualized instruction provided by the teacher to

achieve IFSP/IEP/ITP goals and objectives

○ Planning and preparation of materials demonstrating understanding of

specific techniques and skills used to adapt educational materials for use

by individual students under the supervision of the teacher of students

with visual impairments

○ Is familiar with the Expanded Core Curriculum needs of students with

visual impairments in the classroom and in the community

○ Is knowledgeable of the literary braille code

○ Supports students with visual impairments in the classroom, but promotes

independence by facilitating decision-making and problem-solving by

“stepping back” and allowing the student to performs activities with indirect

supervision

Parent, Guardian, or Conservator

The parent, guardian, or conservator has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Is fully informed as to why an assessment is being conducted and how it is to be

conducted

● Provides information relating to the assessment, including medical information

● Gives written informed consent before an individual assessment is conducted

and may receive a copy of the assessment report when requested

● Is knowledgeable about the assessment results prior to the IFSP/IEP/ITP

meeting, enabling him or her to participate more effectively in the meeting

90 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Participates as a member of the IFSP/IEP/ITP team by

○ Stating the observation of needs, expectations, interests, and goals for the

student

○ Cooperating with school and other personnel to determine goals and

objectives for the child

○ Accepting responsibility for assisting in the implementation of goals and

objectives

○ Participates in ensuring that an appropriate educational program is

planned and implemented to meet the individual needs of the student

○ Maintains communication with school personnel to accomplish this goal,

including providing feedback and suggestions about the instruction and

services being provided

○ Provides, in cooperation with school personnel, appropriate support in the

home and community to improve the students’ daily living skills, career

and vocational skills, orientation and mobility skills, and other

developmental skills as a supplement to special instruction and services to

meet the student’s unique educational needs

● Participates in and provides ideas for formal and informal family education

programs that are designed to assist families in understanding and meeting the

needs of their students with visual impairments

● Has information and assistance from school personnel and other sources to

acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to participate in meeting the unique

educational needs of these students (See Appendix G, “Resources for Technical

Assistance.”)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 91

The Student with a Visual Impairment

The student with a visual impairment has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Is involved, unless it is clearly not appropriate, in all decisions about his or her

education

● Is encouraged to provide information about his or her unique educational needs,

strengths, and expectations as a part of the assessment

● Participates, when appropriate, in the development of the IEP/ITP

● Chooses a career or a postsecondary educational program as a personal goal to

be the basis for transition planning in a secondary student’s IEP/ITP

● Gives feedback and suggestions about the instruction and services being

provided

● Has high expectations and works toward achieving them to become as

independent as possible

● Takes responsibility for keeping a daily schedule, organizing books and

materials, and keeping track of assignments

● Takes responsibility for the appropriate use and care of low vision devices and

assistive technology devices including laptop computers, note-taking devices,

tablets, and scanners

Eye Specialist

The eye specialist, a licensed ophthalmologist or optometrist, makes vision-related

recommendations to the classroom teacher, teacher of students with visual

impairments, orientation and mobility specialist, other professional staff, and families.

Some optometrists and ophthalmologists specialize in low vision and have the

necessary equipment and expertise to assess low vision and prescribe low vision

devices.

92 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Physical Education or Adapted Physical Education Specialist

The physical education or adapted physical education specialist has the following roles

and responsibilities:

● Is knowledgeable about unique educational needs in the area of sensory/motor

skills

● Works closely with the teacher of students with visual impairments, the

orientation and mobility specialist, and the occupational or physical therapist to

share needed information and coordinate services that may be provided by these

individuals

● Is familiar with specialized or adapted equipment in the area of physical

education for students who are visually impaired

Occupational or Physical Therapist

The occupational or physical therapist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Is aware of unique educational needs of individuals who are visually impaired,

particularly in the areas of sensory/motor skills

● Works closely with the teacher of students with visual impairments, orientation

and mobility specialist, and physical education staff to coordinate services

● Assesses and provides direct or consultative therapy services

Speech/Language Pathologist

The speech/language pathologist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Understands the differences in language development among students with

visual impairments

● Adapts and modifies therapy to meet the unique educational needs of students

with visual impairments

● Collaborates with the TVI to adapt augmentative communication devices with

braille, tactile markers, or simple and high contrast pictures

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 93

● Assists students with visual impairments with social pragmatics

● Works with students with visual impairments to improve their oral motor

functioning

School Nurse

The school nurse has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Acts as a liaison with health professionals, special educators, other school

personnel, and families

● Coordinates vision and hearing screening, including making referrals and

providing hearing screening to students with visual impairments

● Provides assistance in determining the need for additional health assessment;

e.g., physical examinations and referrals to other agencies, including California

Children Services and Regional Centers

● Coordinates health care plans for students who have visual impairments and

additional disabilities who may need special protocols for feeding, suctioning,

injections, or seizures

School Psychologist or Counselor/Social Worker

The school psychologist has the following roles and responsibilities for serving students

with visual impairments:

● Collaborate with the teacher of students with visual impairments to insure that

assessment materials are provided in an appropriate medium to support the

unique educational needs of students with visual impairments.

● Provide psychoeducational testing for initial and triennial evaluations.

● Have knowledge of the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments, and know how to adapt testing, and interpret results with respect to

the student’s unique educational needs.

● Assess student’s behavioral needs and provide information to the classroom

teacher, the teacher of students with visual impairments, the O&M specialist,

other professionals, and family to support success in the classroom.

94 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Develop and design behavior support plans that take into account the impact of a

student’s visual impairment.

● Work with students in small groups to provide social skills training and counseling

support.

● Understand the unique psycho-social needs of students with visual impairments.

● Have knowledge about accommodations and modifications for testing.

Program Specialist

The program specialist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Have in-depth knowledge of the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments, and have experience in providing education for these students.

● Provide technical assistance and in-service training to all personnel serving

students with visual impairments and their families.

● Have knowledge about local, state, and national resources for individuals who

are visually impaired.

● Have knowledge about legal requirements regarding students with visual

impairments and other students with low incidence disabilities (See Appendix F.)

● Is especially knowledgeable about program options and services available within

the SELPA, county, or school district.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 95

Early Childhood Specialist

The early childhood specialist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Work with the infant or preschooler with a visual impairment and his or her family

in a home-based or center-based program.

● Work collaboratively with the family, the teacher of students with visual

impairments, and other members of the transdiciplinary team, including members

of other agencies, when appropriate, to:

○ Identify each child’s areas of unique needs related to his or her visual

impairment and other needs, including those of the family.

○ Coordinate services to meet these needs.

○ Identify each child’s need to receive services/

consultation/evaluation/assessment from the teacher of students with

visual impairments.

○ Work with the teacher of students with visual impairments to provide toys

and other materials and equipment which are appropriate to the needs of

the child.

○ Include the teacher of students with visual impairments in all IFSP

meetings, including planning for transition.

○ Determine a mutually convenient time for the teacher of students with

visual impairments to work with the child and to coordinate services.

○ Modify the environment and activities with the assessment of the teacher

of the visually impaired to meet the specific needs of the child.

○ Exchange information on progress with the family, the teacher of the

visually impaired and other members of the transdiciplinary team on a

regular basis.

○ Coordinate services from therapists and agencies including regional

centers and California Children Services.

96 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Transition Specialist

The specialist in career/vocational education has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Participate as a contributing member of the ITP team.

● Facilitate participation of outside services or agencies or both in ITP meetings.

● Coordinate with other programs or agencies, such as Workability; Job Training

Partnership Act (JTPA); Regional Occupational Centers/ Programs (ROC/Ps);

and regional centers.

● Coordinate services with the Department of Rehabilitation (student must be 16

years old to become a rehab client).

● Be aware of unique educational needs in career/ vocational education and in

other related areas, including appropriate career and vocational assessment

tools.

● Consult and work with the student, teacher of students with visual impairments,

orientation and mobility specialist, and families to determine realistic goals and

instruction in this and related areas.

● Be knowledgeable about the expanding career/ vocational education

opportunities currently available to individuals who are visually impaired,

including the use of technological aids and adapted and assistive devices.

● Collaborate with the rehabilitation counselor for the blind in the local office of the

California Department of Rehabilitation and with other related staff as

appropriate.

● Act as a liaison to the ITP team regarding local and regional vocational

programs.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 97

Assistive Technology Specialist

The technology specialist has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Have detailed knowledge of current trends in educational curricula, media,

technology, and strategies to make these learning tools accessible to students

with disabilities, including those with visual impairments.

● Have access to databases and other information concerning current specialized

or adaptive technology, media, and materials.

● Work with other educators and specialists and make recommendations to assess

the need for and the provision of needed assistive technology, including training.

● Facilitate the modification of educational technologies used by schools so that

they may be used by students with visual impairments.

● Work collaboratively with the Assistive Technology staff at the California School

for the Blind to insure that appropriate technology equipment and services are

provided to students with visual impairments

Certified Braille Specialist (Transcriber)

The certified braille specialist (transcriber) has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Hold Library of Congress Certification in Literary Braille for preparing materials in

braille

● Adhere to standards of the Braille Authority of North America when preparing

braille materials in mathematics, music, foreign language, or computer notation

and demonstrates knowledge of specific braille codes

● Have knowledge of embossing tools and software, techniques, and media and

understand the concepts to be presented when preparing tactual materials

● Adhere to the transcribing standards and procedures for large print of the

National Braille Association and qualify as a typist according to the standards of

the local educational agency when preparing materials in large type

98 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Have knowledge about techniques used to prepare large-type materials

appropriately with enlarging photocopiers and scanners with computer softwar

● Have the necessary competencies to prepare aural media, including knowled

of recording equipment, and the ability to comprehend and present materials

an appropriate pace and in a well-modulated voice

● Work closely with the teacher of students with visual impairments to ensure th

materials are transcribed appropriately to meet the needs of the students in t

classroom

● Have knowledge about resources and agencies that provide materials and

services to students with visual impairments, identifies needs, and locates and

procures required specialized books and materials

● Demonstrate knowledge of and ability to operate a variety of specialized

equipment and software used in the production of braille and large-print

materials, including braillewriters, computers, specialized software, and

peripheral equipment such as embossers and scanners

● Receive, record, distribute, and maintain inventories of specialized books,

materials, and equipment needed by students who are visually impaired

Reader

The reader has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Possess the skills necessary to read print materials to students with visual

impairments, including

○ Knowledge in the use of recording equipment

○ Good articulation and pronunciation and a pleasant voice

○ Ability to follow the directions of the teacher and student

○ Ability to meet deadlines

○ Work under the supervision of the teacher of students with visual

impairments when the reader is a sighted student or volunteer

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 99

Ancillary Staff in Residential Programs

The roles and responsibilities of staff members will vary, depending on the agency in

which they work.

Dormitory personnel

Dormitory personnel have the following roles and responsibilities:



They are responsible for the health, safety, and well-being of students when the

students are not in school. Since these staff members engage in activities with

students similar to those normally provided by parents, these personnel should

be aware of the unique needs of students and coordinate with instructional staff,

particularly in the area of daily living skills, recreation and leisure skills, and social

skills so that consistency in expected behavior occurs.

Food services staff

Food service staff members have the following roles and responsibilities:



They are responsible for planning, preparing, and serving meals to students.

Diets should be monitored so that they meet the special needs of students. Food

services staff should coordinate with instructional staff, when appropriate, in

reinforcing students’ eating skills, placement of food on a plate, and assisting

students when moving through a cafeteria-style food line.

Health services staff:

Health services staff members have the following roles and responsibilities:



They are responsible for the health and medical needs of students and should

communicate with appropriate personnel regarding the changing health and

medical needs of students, particularly concerning medications and special

health care needs.

100 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Coordination of Instruction and Services

How does the program coordinate instruction and services to students with visual

impairments?

To be effective, all instruction and services should be coordinated to focus on the

student who is visually impaired. Meetings concerning the individualized education plan

and the program itself should form the foundation for the coordination of instruction and

services.

It is important, however, that all key individuals involved develop formal and informal

ways to communicate with one another on an ongoing basis to ensure that the

individualized education program is implemented in a coordinated manner. Since many

key individuals are often involved in the education of students with visual impairments,

one staff member should be assigned to facilitate this coordination among all key

individuals, including the family. In most cases, the teacher of students with visual

impairments will have this responsibility when the visual impairment is the student’s

primary disability.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 101

Information for Families

Planning and Providing Instruction and Services

Unique Educational Needs—Remember:



The unique needs of the student with visual impairments guide the educational

program.



The emphasis and priorities of the educational program will vary depending on

the age of the student.



The annual review of the educational program will define the type of instruction,

the services, materials and equipment needed.



The educational placement is based on the student’s needs, and a least

restrictive environment is considered. This could include California School for the

Blind.

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills Including Modes of Communication

Critical considerations when implementing the educational program:



The classroom teacher, the student with visual impairments and the teacher for

the visually impaired need to work closely so the student have access to the

information and can learn new concepts.



Other specialists may be involved when the student has additional disabilities.

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills Including Modes of Communication

Does your child with visual impairment have additional disabilities? What kinds

of adaptations are included in your child’s education?



Modify the physical environment so the student can use his or her vision better

and be more independent.



Adapt printed material so it is easier to read.



Provide additional information when presenting pictures or photos.



Provide special equipment so the student can access the curriculum.



Encourage the student’s active participation in the classroom.



Work on functional literacy and communication through the program.

102 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills Including Modes of Communication

Three areas in which students with visual impairments need specialized

instruction:



Concept development: Vision plays a big role in learning concepts. Children with

visual impairment may have limited or no access to visual information. They will

need to learn concepts in a sequential manner so they can develop abstract

thinking.



Listening skills: Learning to listen, comprehend, analyze and memorize

information is critical for students with visual impairments. Those students who

are functionally blind may need systematic instruction and practice to learn these

skills.



Organization and study skills: In order to success academically, students with

visual impairments need to keep their educational materials organized, keep

track of their assignments and tests, and need to learn how to access in a

systematic way the different formats information is provided.

Sensory/Motor Instruction

Visual impairments may hinder the natural process of physical development. Team

members such as general and special education teachers, teachers of students with

visual impairments, adapted physical education specialists, orientation and mobility

specialists, and occupational and physical therapist may all provide instruction in this

area.

Orientation and Mobility Instruction

Orientation and Mobility instruction instructs the student with visual impairments on

understanding, interacting and moving in the physical environment. It encourages:



Independent traveling



Exploration



Safety



Independent living skills for the community and independence



Appropriate social interaction with the people in the environment



The use of specialized equipment.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 103

Social Interaction Skills

Many acceptable social behaviors go unnoticed by students with visual impairments

unless they are taught to them with an appropriate demonstration of how and an

explanation of when and why one would use such a behavior.

Social Interaction Skills

Affective education is critical for the self-concept and self-esteem of students with visual

impairments.

Social Interaction Skills

Students with visual impairments need a much more intensive and conceptually

oriented social/sexual education program than their sighted peers.

Psychological Implications

Some of the psychological problems a student with visual impairments may have are

caused by a lack of understanding and acceptance of their visual condition.

Independent Living Skills

One of the most effective that families can teach daily living skills is through the

involvement of family members who provide instruction, as appropriate, in the child’s

home.

Recreation and Leisure Activities

Students with visual impairments need direct exposure to a variety of leisure activities

such as art, music, dance and drama; to different hobbies like playing chess or board

games, or knitting or crocheting; and to different sports (adapted and non-adapted) such

as swimming, hiking, roller skating, ice skating, biking, skiing, adapted tennis, adapted

basketball, beeper baseball, and goal ball.

Career Education

Career and vocational education should begin in preschool and continue through four

phases: awareness, exploration, preparation, and participation.

Use of Technology and Assistive Technology

Students with visual impairments require explicit and specific instruction in order to use

mainstream and specialized technology.

104 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Use of Technology and Assistive Technology

By law states need to provide the technology that individuals with disabilities need.

Sensory Efficiency Skills

A student with usable residual vision should receive a functional vision assessment at

least every three years, and may benefit from a low vision evaluation.

Sensory Efficiency Skills

Students with visual impairments need instruction on how to more efficiently use the

other senses—touch, hearing, smell, proprioception, and vestibular—to compensate for

the loss of information through the sense of vision.

Self-Determination

Self-determination skills are critical in the education of students with visual impairments.

They need to learn that they are separate from their environment, and that they can

control it by making choices, by advocating for their visual needs, and by setting up

goals.

Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment



The individualized educational program of your child with visual impairments

needs to state the educational materials and assistive technology that the child

requires to meet their unique educational needs.



A specialized technology assessment defines the educational materials, assistive

technology equipment the student needs to use.



The State Legislature has provided special funds for students with low incidence

disabilities: visual impairments, hearing impairments, severe orthopedic

impairments, and deaf-blindness. These funds are allocated to the Special

Education Local Plan Area (SELPA) on the basis of the total annual count of

students with low incidence disabilities in the SELPA.

Roles and Responsibilities of Key Individuals

The degree of coordination that can be achieved among all individuals involved in

implementing the educational plan, and the knowledge and skills of these individuals,

will play a vital role in the success of the total program.

It is important that all key individuals involved develop formal and informal ways to

communicate with one another on an ongoing basis to ensure that the IEP is

implemented in a coordinated manner.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 105

Roles and Responsibilities of Key Individuals

Depending on the unique needs of the student with visual impairments, the key

individuals of the educational program may comprise:



Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments



Classroom Teacher



Orientation and Mobility Specialist



Aide/Paraprofessional/Instructional Assistant



Parent, Guardian, or Conservator



The Student with a Visual Impairment



Eye Specialist



Physical Education or Adapted Physical Education Specialist



Occupational or Physical Therapist



Speech/Language Pathologist



School Nurse



School Psychologist or Counselor/Social Worker



Program Specialist



Early Childhood Specialist



Transition Specialist



Assistive Technology Specialist



Certified Braille Specialist (Transcriber)



Reader



Ancillary Staff in Residential Programs

106 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 107

Chapter Four

Organizing and Supporting Instruction and Services

This chapter presents a discussion of the provision of services for students with visual

impairments, including students who have visual impairments and additional disabilities

Also discussed are administrative roles and responsibilities, placement in the least

restrictive environment, class sizes and caseloads, qualified personnel, staff

development and parent education, guidelines for facilities, emergency procedures,

materials and equipment, transportation, and program improvement.

The Importance of Collaboration

How does the program ensure that appropriate instruction and services are provided

through a full range of program options and support services?

Because of the unique educational needs and low incidence disabilities of students with

visual impairments, collaboration is often necessary when the site, district, county, or

SELPA is unable to meet the students’ unique needs.

Sharing service among LEAs and collaborating among professionals is an approach

that involves SELPAs and other agencies within a geographic region in working

together more effectively and efficiently to improve the coordination, provision, and

quality of specialized program options and services to students with low incidence

disabilities, families, personnel who serve them, and administrators responsible for their

programs. Three common models of team approaches have been widely adopted when

providing services to students with visual impairments. These include multidisciplinary,

interdisciplinary, transdiciplinary models.



In a multidisciplinary model, each individual involved in the services is only

responsible for the areas of his/her specialty.



In an interdisciplinary model, team members work together to create programs

and services, but services may be provided by individual professionals. This

model requires effective communication among team members.



In a transdiciplinary team model, while one or two key team members are

responsible for providing direct services, the other members provide consultation

and support to the key members for achieving common goals that the team

would like to implement.

108 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

For students with visual impairments, this support is planned and designed to address

local needs in the following broad areas:

● Providing assistance in specialized assessment, instruction, curriculum, and

support to identify and address the unique educational needs of students with

low incidence disabilities, as outlined in Chapter One and Chapter Three of these

guidelines. For example, in order to provide staff that is knowledgeable about

assessing the unique educational needs of students with visual impairments, it is

often effective to provide for regional assessment teams of appropriately trained

individuals or other ways of sharing assessment expertise regionally.

● Providing a full range of specialized program options and support services,

including technology, to meet the identified unique educational needs of these

students, as outlined later in this chapter. For example, in order to provide the

needed specialized instruction and services by appropriately credentialed staff in

an efficient and cost-effective manner, a SELPA may find it necessary to

cooperate with adjacent SELPAs, particularly in rural areas. Other options

include contracting with private agencies for services, using telecommunication,

and using staff members who are dually credentialed as teachers of students

with visual impairments and as orientation and mobility specialists.

● Providing specialized personnel development for all staff serving these students

and for their families to assist them in meeting the unique educational needs of

their children For example, local, regional, and statewide needs assessments for

staff development and parent education often do not reflect the specialized

needs of staff and families of students with low incidence disabilities. In order to

provide this specialized in-service training or family education, it is often

necessary to use a regional or statewide approach. The outreach services

provided by the California School for the Blind, for example, allow LEAs and

SELPAs with valuable resources like comprehensive educational assessment,

assistive technology assessment and training, and low vision services.

New programs for students with visual impairments should be planned and existing

programs modified so that the assessment, instruction, and services necessary to meet

these students’ varied unique educational needs, including needed specialized

materials and equipment, can be provided through coordinated administrative services.

The Special Education Division of the California Department of Education can assist

local agencies in developing quality programs to address local needs in providing

appropriate support services to students with visual impairments, their families, and staff

responsible for their programs.

(See Appendix G “Resources for Technical Assistance” and Appendix F “Legal

Requirements.”)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 109

Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

In this section the roles and responsibilities are examined for staff from the special

education local plan area, the supervisor of personnel serving students with visual

impairments, and the site administrator or designee.

Special Education Local Plan Area

Each SELPA submits a local plan to the State Superintendent of Public Instructio

which includes the following:

● A description of services to be provided by each district and county office,

demonstrating that the SELPA is of sufficient size and scope to ensure that all

individuals with exceptional needs, including students with visual impairments,

have access to services and instruction appropriate to meet their needs, as

specified in their education plans (IFSP/ IEP/ITP) Responsibility for provision of

and consultation to special education programs and support services for students

with visual impairments must be clearly defined, including, when necessary,

provisions for coordinating with adjacent SELPAs, other public agencies, and

other states and contracting with private agencies.)

● A description of the governance and administration of the plan (The roles and

responsibilities of SELPA administrators, district and county, are unique to each

SELPA. See Appendix F for legal requirements.)

Supervisor of Personnel

The supervisor of personnel serving students with visual impairments has the following

roles and responsibilities:

● Is knowledgeable about the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments, including students with visual impairments and additional

disabilities and the roles and responsibilities of the personnel being supervised

so that he or she may assist in improving the instruction and services being

provided to meet these needs

● Is knowledgeable about the other areas outlined in this chapter, as well as

funding sources (see Appendix E) and legal requirements (see Appendix F), so

that he or she can be responsive and supportive of improving instruction and

services based on the changing needs of students, staff, and families

110 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Site Administrator or Designee

The site administrator or designee has the following roles and responsibilities:

● Is knowledgeable about the needs of students with visual impairments, including

students with visual impairments and additional disabilities and the roles and

responsibilities of the general education teacher, the teacher of students with

visual impairments, and other professionals working with these students

● Assists in the coordination of all instruction and services in the school, including

regular course of study, instruction, and special services, such as specialized

services for English Language Learners and special education support services,

including alternative instructional strategies and common core standards

● Assists in promoting and supporting the least restrictive environment for students

by helping the school in accepting the student, special education staff, families of

students with visual impairments as a part of the school (This acceptance can be

supported through coordinated staff in-service training and parent education and

by providing information to all students in the school about visual impairments

through classroom activities, cross-age tutoring, and student assemblies.)

● Provides facilities that are appropriate to meeting the unique needs of students

who are visually impaired, as outlined later in this chapter

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 111

Placement in the Least Restrictive Environment

How does the program ensure that students with visual impairments are appropriately

placed in the least restrictive environment on the basis of their educational needs?

When making placement decisions, the IEP team should:

● Focus on the assessed educational needs and strengths of each student with a

visual impairment.

● Consider each student’s need for supplementary aids and services.

● Assess the feasibility of implementing the student’s IEP in a general education

setting.

● Determine a placement in the least restrictive environment that appropriately

addresses the student’s needs and strengths.

● Consider placement options that are nearest to the student’s home.

● Review each student’s placement on at least an annual basis.

● Change the placement as the needs of the student change.

● In IEP meetings discuss an array of placement options for students with visual

impairments and for students with visual impairments and additional disabilities,

including the California School for the Blind.

Goal 5 of The National Agenda for the Education of Children and Youths with Visual

Impairments, Including those with Multiple Disabilities, Revised specifies that LEAs

provide access to a full array of service delivery options for all students. Accordingly, th

least restrictive environment for each student may vary according to the intensity of the

student’s needs. The least restrictive environment is determined on an individual basis,

according to the student’s IFSP/IEP/ITP. Additional considerations for appropriate

placements in the least restrictive environment include the following:

● Students may be grouped with peers who do not have disabilities to provide

appropriate academic and behavioral models, and to encourage high

expectations for achievement.

● Placement in a general education setting does not guarantee that the student’s

needs are automatically met. Appropriate services, supports, and supplementary

aids are necessary to provide an individualized, appropriate education in

accordance with the student’s IFSP/IEP/ITP.

112 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Students with visual impairments who have the necessary skills and services

should be placed, to the maximum extent appropriate, with students who do not

have disabilities.

● Students who require intensive specialized services should be placed where

these services can be provided. Placing a student in an inclusive setting without

adequate services can actually be more restrictive.

● Placement decisions must not be based on the needs of the school district,

budget restrictions, or the inability to hire qualified personnel. Rather, these

decisions are based on each student’s needs as specified in the IFSP/IEP/ITP.

● The team needs to consider if the visual impairment is the primary disability, and

if services from a teacher of students with visual impairments or an orientation

and mobility specialist will enhance a student’s skill development.

● When determining the placement and services for students who have a visual

impairment and additional disabilities, the team should consider how the

student’s visual impairment impacts learning.

● Staff members and peers without disabilities should be prepared with the

knowledge and skills necessary to promote acceptance and social interaction.

The IFSP/IEP/ITP team should be creative when deciding on options that will best meet

the needs of each individual student. The use of innovation in making these important

placement decisions may be especially relevant in rural areas, where placement options

may include: exploring programs in neighboring SELPAs, adapting existing programs

and services, examining a placement at the California School for the Blind, and

exploring services provided by public and private agencies.

A single, ideal placement may not exist where a student’s needs, can be met throughout

the student’s entire educational career. Thus, the most appropriate placement and least

restrictive environment must be re-evaluated by the team on a regular basis. Various

program options should be considered based on the student’s current and future

academic, social, emotional, behavioral, and vocational needs. Access to the core

curriculum, Expanded Core Curriculum, and social environment must also be provided.

A policy on least restrictive environment has been adopted by the State Board of

Education. This policy paper and technical assistance in this area are available from the

California Department of Education (see Appendix G).

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 113

Program Options

The following section describes the recommended minimum options in a range of

placement options and service delivery models available to students with visual

impairments, including students with visual impairments and additional disabilities. From

these options, the IFSP/IEP/ITP team selects the most appropriate placement in the

least restrictive environment for each student. Options are listed according to the

intensity of specialized instruction and services provided by the teacher of students with

visual impairments, from the least intensive to the most intensive; other specialized

services, including orientation and mobility, assistive technology, transcriber services,

and readers, are provided to students in any of these settings in accordance with the

IFSP/IEP/ITP.

Continuum of Alternative Placements

According to IDEA, schools must ensure the availability of a continuum of alternativ

placements to provide options for educating students with disabilities in the least

restrictive environment. This continuum of placements may consist of the following

options:

General Education Class without Specialized Services

Students are enrolled in a general education classroom in the school they would attend

if they did not have a visual impairment. Direct services are not provided by a teacher of

students with visual impairments; however, students may be eligible to receive

modifications and accommodations through a 504 Plan. A 504 Plan may be an option

for students who do not meet eligibility for an IEP, but who would still benefit from

support.

General Education Class with Specialized Services

Students are enrolled in a general education classroom. Assistance, instruction, and

consultation are provided by the teacher of students with visual impairments according

to students’ needs for these specialized services.

Special Education Class

Students placed in a special education classroom ordinarily require specialized

instruction for all or most of the school day. Instruction that emphasizes both subject

matter skills (Common Core State Standards) and the development of special skills is

provided by a teacher of students with visual impairments in coordination with other

appropriate staff. Students may profit by participating in general education classes in

selected academic subject areas or in nonacademic areas as appropriate.

114 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Special School for Students with Visual Impairments

Students who need intensive services throughout the day may attend a special school

that provides services to meet the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments. These students require specialized instruction and support services

related to their visual impairment that are not available in their local school districts.

Students enrolled in special school programs should have access to programs in local

schools to provide opportunities for inclusion as appropriate. Special school programs

may be offered on a nonresidential or residential basis. These programs include:

● A special school for students with visual impairments in a local educational

agency

● The California School for the Blind (See Appendix D)

Home Instruction

For various reasons, families may elect to homeschool a child with a visual impairment.

Homeschooled students are still eligible to receive specialized services according to

their needs; however, students enrolled in a private homeschool program are typically

not eligible to receive services beyond those offered in a public school program.

Hospital or Other Public or Private Institution

A hospital or private institution may be a program option when the student’s needs

cannot be met by a less restrictive placement. Services may be provided by nonpublic

schools and agencies when such services are not available in a public school; e.g.,

orientation and mobility instruction, instruction in daily living skills, and infant and

preschool services. (See Appendix G, “Resources for Technical Assistance,” for

additional information.)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 115

Service Delivery Models

Services provided by a teacher of students with visual impairments may follow one of

the following models, depending on each student’s individual needs:

Consultation Services

A consultation model may be initiated when students with visual impairments, including

those with additional disabilities, do not require direct services from a teacher of

students with visual impairments or an orientation and mobility specialist. In this model,

the teacher of students with visual impairments provides instruction to the adults who

interact with the student. Specifically, the classroom staff may require on-going

information or training on how to provide specialized support. Students with visual

impairments and additional disabilities may require direct instruction to acquire specific

skills, such as human guide or learning to scan for objects in the classroom, and then

move to consultation services, whereby the classroom teacher or Paraeducators follows

through with direct implementation.

Itinerant Services

An itinerant teacher of students with visual impairments provides direct services to

students based on their IFSPs/IEPs/ITPs. An itinerant teacher may cover a wide

geographical area and provide services to students in various placements. These

services may be provided in the classroom environment or in another setting as

appropriate. For younger children, the itinerant teacher of students with visual

impairments can provide intervention strategies in the home or in a preschool setting.

Resource Room for Students with Visual Impairments

Students placed in a resource room have more intensive needs that, ordinarily, require

daily support services and specialized instruction from a teacher of students with visua

impairments. Students also attend general or special education classrooms for varying

amounts of the school day according to their individual needs, as determined by the

educational team, including the teacher of students with visual impairments and the

classroom teachers.

Program Options for Infants and Preschool Children

Various options exist at the infant and preschool program level in California. All program

options, however, may not be available in each community. The following options are

cited as examples, not as a complete list:

● Public school programs for infants and preschoolers with disabilities

● Preschools that are supported by private funding

● State preschool programs

116 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

● Children’s centers

● School-age parenting and infant development programs

● Head Start programs

● Family information and counseling services, such as: as Family Resource

Networks

Role of the TVI in Providing Infant/Preschool Services



Referring children to the appropriate educational facilities



Providing appropriate assessment information to the educational team regarding

the child’s visual and developmental needs



Assisting infant and preschool teachers in methods of integrating and educating

young children with visual impairments, including students with visual

impairments and additional disabilities



Facilitating opportunities for families to network with other families of students

with visual impairments to exchange ideas and information



Providing opportunities for families to meet and consult with adolescents and

adults who are visually impaired



Providing information about specialized programs and services, resources and

materials, and agencies that help to support families

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 117

Class Sizes and Caseloads

How does the program establish class sizes and caseloads that allow for providing

specialized instruction and services based on the educational needs of students with

visual impairments?

It is essential to establish class sizes or caseloads for the teacher of students with visual

impairments and for the orientation and mobility specialist that are appropriate to assess

and provide the instruction and services necessary to meet the unique educational

needs of students who are visually impaired. It is also important to monitor the workload

of support service personnel, such as Paraeducators, transcribers (certified Braille

specialists) and readers.

It is recommended that programs use one or both of the following options in determining

class sizes and caseloads:

Option I

Develop a process for establishing and monitoring the class size or a caseload for the

teacher of students with visual impairments or for the orientation and mobility specialist

depending on the time required for:



Providing instruction based on the severity or intensity of students’ needs and

age of student:

o The intensity of the student’s needs is largely affected by the severity of

the student’s impairment. Typically, students who use Braille as their

primary learning medium require extensive intervention and modification

throughout their academic careers. On the other hand, students with low

vision may function well academically, but require support in various

aspects of the Expanded Core Curriculum.

o The consistency of instructional service and length of service will vary as

the student progresses through the stages of literacy. For instance, when

the student is in the beginning literacy stage (kindergarten to third grade),

it is recommended that consistency be high [daily contact], and the total

time per day devoted to instruction be as long as one-two hours

o Additional time consideration should be given to instruction in the

Expanded Core Curriculum including assistive technology, orientation

andmobility, independent living skills, compensatory skills, sensory

efficiency skills, social interaction skills, recreation and leisure and career

and vocational education. The time spent on providing instruction on the

expanded core curriculum will vary from student to student.

118 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



Providing comprehensive assessment related to the unique educational needs of

students with visual impairments



Ongoing communication/collaboration between school personnel and the

responsible supervisor or administrator to ensure that students are receiving

appropriate instruction and services in accordance with the IFSP/IEP/ITP and the

changing needs of students.



Securing and preparing needed specialized materials, media, and equipment and

implementing adaptations into student’s classroom



Training teachers and paraprofessionals on educational strategies that meet the

student’s unique needs



Ensuring adequate travel time:

o Number of schools served

o Location of schools served



Consulting with medical personnel and community resource persons



Consulting and assisting families



Attending meetings, preparing reports, and recordkeeping

Below are several links that offer tools such as formulas and severity rating scales,

which could help determine caseloads for teachers of students with visual impairments

as well as for orientation and mobility specialists.

The Michigan Vision Severity Rating Scale, designed for determining the type and

amount of services for infants:

http://www.tsbvi.edu/infants/3273-determining-type-and-amount-of-services-for-infants

The Michigan Vision Services Severity Rating Scale:

http://www.tsbvi.edu/images/documents/VSSRS-2013.pdf

The Michigan Vision Services Severity Rating Scale for Students with Additional Needs:

http://www.tsbvi.edu/images/documents/VSSRSplus-2013.pdf

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 119

The Michigan Orientation and Mobility Severity Rating Scale and The Michigan

Orientation & Mobility Severity Rating Scale for Students with Additional Needs:

http://mde-lio.cenmi.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RrNrK5Tc73E%3d&tabid=1901

Connecticut Plan for Determining Caseload Size for Teachers of the Visually Impaired:

http://www.tsbvi.edu/national-agenda/1209-national-agenda-goal-4-connecticut-plan-for-

determining-caseload-size-for-teachers-of-the-visually-impaired

QPVI: Caseload Analysis, Texas School for the Blind & Visually Impaired:

www.tsbvi.edu

*Information about consistency and length of instructional time for teaching Braille

literacy was gathered from the Delphi study, “Ensuring High-Quality Instruction for

Students in Braille Literacy Programs,” by Koenig and Holbrook (2000).“

Information on expanded core curriculum, caseload tools and severity scales were from

the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired website.

Caseload tools and severity scales were from the Texas School for the Blind and

Visually Impaired website.

120 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Option II

Establish local caseloads and class sizes based on the age and the severity of the

needs of the students being served and the instruction and services needed to mee

these needs.

The following ranges for class sizes and caseloads are based on state and national

averages and may be used as a general guide in establishing local caseloads and class

sizes. These ranges should not be viewed as establishing minimum state requirements.

Type of program Class size and caseload

ranges

Resource room (one

Paraeducator)

teacher and one

8 to 12 students

Special classrooms (one teacher and one

Paraeducator):

-Infants or preschool

-Kindergarten through third grade

-Fourth through twelfth grade

-Multiple disabilities

4 to 8

6 to

8 to

3 to

students

10 students

12 students

7 students

Itinerant teacher of

impairments

students with visual 8 to 12 students

Orientation and mobility specialist 8 to 12 students

Home-based infants or preschool age 13 to 17 children

Local caseloads and class sizes of staff may fall above or below these ranges according

to the time requirements outlined in Option I. Two tools used to determine caseload size

and services are the Caseload Analysis from the Texas School for the Blind & Visually

Impaired, and the Severity Rating Scale

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 121

Qualified Personnel

How does the program provide qualified certificated and non-certificated personnel who

have the skills and abilities necessary to conduct assessments and to provide

instruction and services that meet the educational needs of students with visual

impairments?

Provision of necessary qualified staff is a critical component in providing appropriate

assessments, instruction, and services.

Certificated Personnel

Programs for students who are visually impaired provide the necessary appropriately

credentialed professional staff; including the following (see Chapter Three for roles and

responsibilities and Appendix F for legal requirements):

● Teachers of students with visual impairments who are credentialed in this area

and possess the skills and abilities necessary to meet the unique educational

needs of the students with visual impairments they serve (See Appendix G,

“Resources for Technical Assistance.”. See Appendix F for legal requirements.)

● Orientation and mobility specialists who are credentialed in this area and

possess the skills and abilities necessary to meet the unique orientation and

mobility needs of the students with visual impairments they serve (See Appendix

G.)

● Assessment personnel, including a psychologist, as appropriate, who are

knowledgeable about assessing students who are visually impaired (See Chapter

One for additional information regarding assessment personnel.)

● Other professional staff, including, but not limited to, general and special

education teachers; program specialists; language, speech, and hearing

specialists; physical and occupational therapists; adapted physical education

specialists; school nurses; early childhood specialists; recreation therapists;

social workers; guidance counselors; and vocational specialists

All staff should be knowledgeable about their roles and responsibilities in providing and

coordinating needed instruction and services as outlined in Chapter Three. Personnel

serving preschool children should have competencies and experience in the areas of

education for children who are visually impaired and in early childhood education.

122 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Non-certificated Personnel

Each local or regional program for students with visual impairments should also provide,

as needed, transcribers, readers, paraprofessionals, and other personnel who possess

the skills necessary to meet the unique educational needs of the students who are

served. These individuals should receive training on how to work effectively with

students who are blind or visually impaired, including students with additional

disabilities.

Students who use braille as their primary reading medium should have equal access to

the same educational materials at the same time as their sighted classmates. Programs

for students with visual impairments should provide the services of certified braille

specialists to ensure that daily assignments, tests, work sheets, and textbooks are

available to these students. Students must be provided with braille and tactual materials

that have been transcribed in accordance with established codes and formats for

literary, Nemeth (math and science), music, and computer notation.

Students who use large print as their primary reading medium should have equal

access to the same educational materials at the same time as their sighted classmates.

Local or regional programs for students with visual impairments should provide these

students with the services of knowledgeable transcribers (certified braille specialists) to

ensure that daily assignments, tests, work sheets, and textbooks have been transcribed

or enlarged according to accepted standards. In addition, students with low vision

should receive the appropriate assessment and instruction in the use of low vision

devices, including magnifiers, monocular telescopes, and video magnification devices to

gain immediate access to printed material in the classroom.

Use of Paraeducators:

Careful consideration should be given to the use and function of Paraeducators for

students with visual impairments. When appropriately trained, by credentialed

personnel, the Paraeducators can support the unique educational needs of students

with visual impairments. The Paraeducators should not be used in place of a teacher for

students with visual impairments or an orientation and mobility instructor. The

IFSP/IEP/ITP team needs to consider the amount of time and the intensity of service the

Paraeducators will provide to the student. Please see Chapter Three for a detailed

description of the role and responsibilities of the Paraeducators.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 123

Staff Development and Parent Education

How does the program provide staff development and parent education that are based

on a needs assessment reflecting the unique educational needs of students with visual

impairments?

Staff development, based on a continuing needs assessment, is provided for all special

and general education personnel regarding the unique educational needs of students

with visual impairments and the roles and responsibilities of the staff in meeting these

needs. (See Chapter Three for a discussion of the roles and responsibilities of staff and

Appendix F for legal requirements.)

Family education based on a continuing needs assessment is provided in every local or

regional program for students who are visually impaired and is designed to:

● Assist families in their roles and responsibilities to meet the special

developmental needs of their children with visual impairments through ongoing

two-way communication. (See Chapter Three for a discussion of the roles and

responsibilities of families.)

● Provide families with needed information pertinent to the education of their

children, including information regarding the range of educational program

options, related agencies and services at local, state, and national levels,

conferences related to visual impairment and special education, and recreation

and leisure opportunities and agencies. (See Appendix F for legal requirements.)

Because of the low numbers of staff and families of students with visual impairments,

their specialized needs are often not addressed or are given a low priority, especially

when staff development and family education are based on a general needs

assessment. Collaboration on a regional level is often necessary to meet these

specialized needs.

124 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Guidelines for Facilities

How does the program provide for the design or modification of facilities to enhance the

provision of instruction and services to students with visual impairments?

Facilities should be provided to meet the unique educational needs of students who are

visually impaired. Resource rooms or special classrooms used in programs for the

students who are visually impaired should be the same as the standard size for regular

classrooms of the school system and should include:

● Appropriate lighting meeting minimum standards, including lighting which is

adjustable to meet the varying needs of students who have low vision

● Adequate storage space for specialized books, equipment, and materials

● A separate area for listening activities

● Furniture and chalkboards (black or white) with nongame surfaces

● A sufficient number of electrical outlets for specialized equipment

● A location on the site that allows convenient accessibility for all students with

visual impairments who are attending general education classes

The teacher of students with visual impairments should provide assistance in designing

and modifying facilities to meet the needs of students who will be using them.

The following guidelines should be considered:

● Appropriate bathroom facilities should be provided students with multiple

disabilities and primary-age students.

● Adequate working space, including space for safe storage of equipment and

materials, with proper lighting for individual instruction and counseling should be

available on a consistent basis in each school attended by a student with a visual

impairment who is being served by an itinerant teacher.

● Adequate desk and storage space should be provided in classrooms for the

visually impaired student’s specialized books, materials, and equipment.

● Office space should be available for itinerant teachers and orientation and

mobility instructors. Such office space should include adequate storage areas, a

computer, telephones, answering service, and clerical assistance.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 125

Adequate working space for the transcriber should be provided. Special equipment

should be available as needed for production and duplication of materials, including

computers, braille embossers, specialized software for production of braille and large

print, computer printers, tape-recording equipment and duplicators, enlarging

photocopiers, braillewriters, and braille binding and duplicating equipment.

Programs for preschool children who are visually impaired should be housed in a school

or facility where:

● Other preschool programs are available for nondisabled children to provide

inclusion opportunities for the children who are visually impaired.

● Bathroom facilities have been designed or adapted for young children.

● Playground facilities are adjacent to the classroom and include space for

appropriate toys and equipment.

126 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Emergency Procedures

Students with visual impairments, like all other students, should receive instruction and

practice in responding appropriately and calmly to emergencies by participating in fire

and earthquake drills, bus evacuation drills, and other emergency procedures, including

possible specialized health care needs. Local codes and ordinances regarding

emergency procedures must be followed.

Staff should be prepared to handle emergencies, including knowledge of the specific

procedures to follow. The teacher of students with visual impairments or the orientation

and mobility specialist should provide assistance to the students and staff in evacuatio

routes and procedures. The school nurse should assist with procedures to follow for

medical emergencies.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 127

Transportation

How does the program provide for transportation that is suitable to the health and safety

needs of students with visual impairments?

When students with visual impairments are transported to special classes or schools:

● Transportation is arranged appropriate to the health and safety of the students,

including consideration of the travel time involved.

● Drivers are made aware, through continuing in-service training by the orientation

and mobility instructor or teacher of students with visual impairments, of unique

orientation and mobility needs that may be useful, including emergency, drop-off,

and pick-up procedures.

● Students are encouraged to travel independently to and from school when they

have the necessary orientation and mobility skills.

128 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Program Improvement

How does the program improve its effectiveness in identifying, assessing, planning, and

providing instruction and services to meet the unique educational needs of students with

visual impairments?

Each program serving students with visual impairments has an ongoing process to

evaluate the effectiveness of the program in meeting students’ needs and using the

results for program improvement. The evaluation process should encompass all of the

areas outlined in this document, using the quality indicators and the key questions in

each chapter, and the “Self-Review Guide” (Appendix A) as the basis for program

improvement. It is particularly important that this process focus on student outcomes

and other evidence of student learning when a program’s effectiveness is being

determined. The unique educational needs outlined in Chapter Two may be used to

establish standards of expectations and to measure student outcomes based on these

expectations.

When conducting a self-review, program planners should develop specific questions for

interviewing administrators, special and general education staff, and families, and for

reviewing students’ records and other documentation. Interview questions should be

open-ended, beginning with how, what, who, and when as appropriate. This approach

will provide more valuable information than simple yes or no questions for determining

and improving the effectiveness of a program. This approach can also clarify a

program’s strengths and areas that need improvement.

These guidelines are considered when programs serving students with visual

impairments are monitored by the California Department of Education. The Department

also provides technical assistance to families, teachers, and administrators in the

implementation of these guidelines, including assistance in conducting self-reviews,

validation reviews, and program improvement. (See Appendix G, “Resources for

Technical Assistance,” and Appendix F, “Legal Requirements.”)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 129

Information for Families

Organizing and Supporting Instruction and

Services

What’s the difference between LEA and SELPA?

LEA: This acronym stands for local educational agency. In most cases, this is the school

district or County Office of Education that provides educational services and supports to

students with IEPs.

SELPA: This acronym stands for Special Education Local Plan Area. A SELPA may include

many districts or county offices within a geographical region. A region might be a group of

many small districts or a large single district, but each region must be of sufficient size and

scope to provide the full continuum of services for children and youth residing within the region

boundaries. By joining together the services, programs, and trainings needed by those LEAs can

be provided more equally and efficiently. There are approximately 124 SELPAs in California.

Three common collaborative approaches

Multidisciplinary



Each service provider is only responsible for goals and

services specific to his/her area of specialty.



Not much collaboration between service providers.

Interdisciplinary



Team members work together to create goals and plan

services.



Requires effective and consistent communication between

service providers

Transdisciplinary



A few key members are responsible for providing direct

services.



Other team members provide consultation and support as

needed to achieve common goals.

Program Fits Student, NOT Student Fits Program

It is important to remember that special education is service, not a place. Placement

decisions for students with visual impairments must be based on the needs and IEP goals of

each individual student, not the personnel or budgetary needs or restrictions of the school

district or county office of education serving the student.

To the maximum extent possible a student with visual impairments should be educated

alongside students without disabilities and provided equal access to the general education core

curriculum (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004).

A student’s program placement may change over the student’s time in school depending

on the intensity of services and supports needed and IEP goals related to the child’s future. The

IEP team must evaluate the appropriateness and intensity of services and supports and least

restrictive environment on a regular basis.

130 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Continuum of Program Options for Students with Visual Impairments

Chapter 4: Sidebar #4, p. 6 under Placement in the Least Restrictive Environment

Less intensive instruction &

services

More intensive instruction

& services

Maximum Integration

Least Restrictive

Least integration,

Most Restrictive

General Education Class without

Specialized Services

General Education Class with

Specialized Services

Special Education Class

Special School for Students with

Visual Impairments

Home Instruction

Hospital or Nonpublic or Private

Institution

Common Service Delivery Models

Consultation Services



Student does not require direct instruction from a vision or

orientation and mobility specialist.



Instruction is provided to adults who directly teach and support

student.



EXAMPLE: Student learning to scan to locate materials within the

classroom or use a human guide to get around campus.

Itinerant Services



An itinerant teacher of student with visual impairments provides

direct instruction to the student in various school locations on

regularly scheduled basis (e.g. weekly or monthly).



For younger students, these services might be provided in a home

or preschool setting.



EXAMPLE: An itinerant VI teacher instructs a student to use a

computer with and adapted screen with large font and Word

Prediction software to complete Language Arts assignments; an O

& M specialist provides orientation training to a 6 grade student in

the nearby community once a week for 1 hour.

Resource Room for

Students with Visual

Impairments



More intensive services are provided to students on a daily basis

from a teacher of students with visual impairments.



Students also attend other general education or special education

classes based on their IEP.



EXAMPLE: A small group of students with visual impairments

receive daily math lessons using a variety of adaptive materials and

assistive technology for 45 minutes each day.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 131

Note on table in the current text. On page 10 under Option II for Caseloads and Class sizes,

the

table used in the document could be clearer if the in the third row the information from the

second column was matched more exactly with information from the first column to really

show the number of students that should be considered for each type of special education

classrooms.

Principle 1: Provide multiple means of representation. Because students differ in how they

understand information, a curriculum should provide a variety of ways to comprehend the

concepts being taught—e.g., Braille, audio recordings, and tactual materials.

Principle 2: Provide multiple means of action and expression. Because students differ in ho

they navigate a learning environment and express what they know, a curriculum should be

flexible and provide varied ways for students to

respond to and act upon what they are learning.

Principle 3: Provide multiple means of engagement.

Because students differ in the ways they are motivated to learn, a curriculum should provide

varying levels of challenge, support, and relevance that help students stay engaged in learnin

and support meaningful connections with others.

(Hartmann, E. (2011) Universal Design for Learning)

Origins of UDL: Did you know?

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has its origins in architecture. The principle of

universal design was originated by architects and planners who sought to offer maximum access

and benefit to all users when considering the design of structures and environment This principle

was the inspiration behind differentiation of instruction for students with varying abilities,

accommodations and instructional needs in educational settings.

Consider the entrance to a local department store being redesigned to include a wide,

low-sloping ramp. This entrance will likely not only be used by shoppers using a wheelchairs or

walkers or guide dogs, but also by parents pushing a strollers, an elderly shopper with knees that

hurt when using stairs, the delivery person pushing a cart of merchandise, or another shopper

with bags full of new purchases. The design of this entrance benefits and provides access to

multiple members of the community.

The critical question asked when utilizing UDL is this simple, yet equally complex,

question: “Is this curriculum designed to maximize the learning for all learners?’ (Rose &

Meyer, 2002). This questions shift the focus to the barriers presented by the curriculum, rather

than on “problems” or deficits the students in the class may present.

UDL Principles

Chapter 4:Sidebar #7, p. 15 in UDL Section

132 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and

Technology (CMST)



Materials and specialized equipment

purchased with federal or state funds remain

property of the state and can be reassigned to

other students once they are no longer used

locally.



State-level clearinghouse that processes,

tracks, stores and redistributes adapted

materials and specialized equipment used by

students with visual impairments.



Local education agencies can make requests

to CMST for specialized equipment and

materials for students with visual impairments

Specialized Materials & Equipment: Organization and Dissemination

National Instructional Materials Access

Center (NIMAC)



This a national repository of source files for

accessible media production of textbooks and

related core curricular print materials.



Housed in Louisville, KY at the America

Printing House for the Blind.



Funded by the US Department of Education



Must be an authorized user to download files.

National Instructional Materials

Accessibility Standard (NIMAS)



Established in 2004 with IDEA Improvement

Act



Ensures access to media production of

textbooks and core curricular print materials

for use in elementary and secondary

instruction.



Files are downloaded by authorized users and

can be converted to in to braille, audio or

digital text, including large print format.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 133

Appendix A

Self-Review Guide

This self-review guide contains criteria for evaluating the components of chapters 1 – 4.

Listed in this guide are criteria for program self-review, a scale for rating program

effectiveness and a section for comments. This self-review guide is meant to be user

friendly and is to be used as a tool to evaluate strengths and timeliness of each

program. Listed below are the criteria rating scale.

4. Highly Effective. Criteria rated as highly effective provide exemplary practices that

may serve as a model statewide. These practices result in addressing students’ unique

educational needs, as measured by student outcomes.

3. Effective. Criteria rated as effective provide current practices that are satisfactory in

meeting the standards in these guidelines which result in programs that are effective in

meeting students’ unique educational needs, as measured by student outcomes.

2. Somewhat effective. Criteria rated as somewhat effective need improvement so

that they do not affect the program’s ability to address all of the students’ unique

educational needs, as measured by student outcomes.

Ineffective. Criteria rated as ineffective need change and strategies to bring about

improvement. It is critical to address ineffective practices so that they do not result in

programs that are ineffective in addressing students’ unique educational needs as

measured by student outcomes.

134 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Chapters 1 & 2

Chapter 1 – Identifying and Assessing Unique Educational Needs

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

I. How effective is your program in providing for each of the following?

A. Providing the process for referring

students identified through vision

screening?

B. Informing parents and staff of signs

that may indicate a visual impairment?

C. Coordinating with local eye specialists,

regional centers, infant/preschool

programs, and other referral sources?

Comments:

II. Assessing students with suspected visual impairments in all of the following areas

when appropriate:

A. Assessing vision/low vision:

1. Acquiring as much information as

possible on eye reports?

2. Ensuring that students with residual

vision receive a low vision assessment?

a. Conducting functional vision

assessment?

b. Determining the need for

further assessment?

c. Using the low vision assessment

to determine needs in the other

areas related to this disability

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 135

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

B. Determining the appropriate learning

medium or media:

1. Using functional vision assessment as

one criterion?

2. Determining the primary learning

medium?

3. Selecting the primary or alternative

learning medium or media?

C. Assessing Compensatory Skills:

1. Typing?

2. Signature?

3. Use of optical aids?

4. CCTV’s/video magnification?

5. Slate and stylus?

6. Abacus?

7. Talking calculator?

D. Compensatory Skills for Assessing Academic

Tasks:

1. Coordinating with the general education

classroom teacher?

2. Determining the student’s level of

functioning in academic tasks?

-- Choose --

136 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

3. Basic concepts for common core

subject matter?

a. Braille instruction in reading?

b. Braille instruction in math

c. Including Nemeth code?

d. Braille instruction in writing?

4. Listening skills?

5. Study skills?

6. Organizational skills?

E. Assessing O&M skills:

1. Gross and fine motor skills?

2. Alternative sensory

discrimination and integration

skills?

3. Posture, balance, strength,

movement, and coordination?

4. Spatial concepts?

5. Body image control and

purposeful movement?

6. Orientation and mobility skills?

a. Home?

b. School?

c. Community?

7. Residual vision for travel?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 137

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

8. Interaction with the public?

9. Acquiring and remembering

necessary information for travel?

10. Related daily living skills?

F. Assessing Social Interactions skills:

1. Socialization skills?

2. Affective education?

3. Social media?

4. Human sexuality?

5. Psychological implications?

G. Assessing Independent skills:

1. Personal hygiene?

2. Dressing skills?

3. Clothing care?

4. Food preparation?

5. Eating skills?

6. Money management?

7. Telephone skills?

8. Written communication?

9. Cleaning?

10. Shopping?

11. Time skills?

-- Choose --

138 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

12. Organizational skills?

H. Assessing Recreation and Leisure skills:

1. Student’s knowledge of age

appropriate recreational activitites?

2. Coordinating with appropriate

staff, including APE?

3. Knowledge of organizations/agencies

that provide recreation/leisure skills

development and activitites?

I. Assessing Career/Vocational skills:

1. Awareness?

a. Introduction to occupations?

b. Role models/mentors who are

visually impaired?

2. Exploration?

a. Job shadowing?

b. Department of Rehabilitation

referrals?

3. Preparation?

a. Technological and adaptive

devices?

b. Vocational education training

programs?

4. Participation?

a. Volunteer work?

b. Paid work experience?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 139

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

J. Assessing Assistive Technology?

1. Use of computer?

2. Use of keyboard commands for

editing formatting?

3. Use of screen reader?

4. Use of visual enhancement software?

5. Use of scanner?

6. Use of Braille note-takers?

7. Use of smart phones and tablets?

8. Use of reading devices

(bookport, VictorStream)?

K. Assessing Sensory Efficiency:

1. Uses vision effectively to perform

academic and functional tasks?

2. Use of hearing to interpret information

for academic and functional tasks?

3. Use of tactile skills to discriminate

information for academic and

functional tasks?

L. Interpretation of bio-behavioral states for

students with additional disabilities in

determining the appropriateness of academic

and functional tasks?

M. Self Determination:

1. Knowledge of student’s strengths

and limitations?

-- Choose --

140 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

2. Uses effective strategies for asking for

assistance or support?

3. Provides information to students about

visual impairments and other

disabilities if appropriate?

4. Provides opportunities for students

to advocate for themselves in a

positive manner?

5. Provides opportunities for students to

discuss visual impairments with others?

6. Provides opportunities for students to

take an active role in IEP/ITP

development and meetings?

Comments:

III. Providing assessment personnel who are knowledgeable about visual impairments:

A. Involving the teacher of the visually

impaired in determining appropriate

assessment strategies?

B. Providing for communication among

individuals conducting assessments?

C. Determining the best qualified individuals

to conduct assessments?

Comments:

IV. Identifying in the assessment report the unique educational needs related to the visual

impairments, including needs for specialized materials, and equipment in the following

areas:

A. Vision/low vision needs?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 141

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

B. Compensatory and academic skills?

C. Reading/leaning media needs?

D. Communication needs?

E. Orientation and Mobility skills?

F. Social interaction skills?

G. Independent Living skills?

H. Recreation and Leisure skills?

I. Career and Vocational needs?

J. Assistive Technology?

K. Sensory efficiency?

L. Self-determination?

Comments:

V. Considering the variables that affect unique educational needs when the following are

assessed:

A. Congenitally and adventitiously

visually impaired students?

B. Students with multiple impairments

including Autism Spectrum Disorders

(ASD)?

C. Infants and preschool children?

D. Elementary school and secondary

school students?

E. The nature of the student’s visual

impairments?

-- Choose --

142 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

F. Functionally blind and low vision

students?

G. Students who are English Language

Learners (ELL)?

Comments:

VI. Using assessed unique educational needs in the following areas:

A. Developing the IEP, including the need for

specialized materials, equipment, and

services in the following areas:

1. Compensatory and academic needs?

2. Communication needs including

instruction in Braille?

3. Orientation and Mobility including

sensory motor skills?

4. Social interaction skills?

5. Daily Living skills needs?

6. Recreation and Leisure?

7. Career vocational needs?

8. Assistive Technology?

9. Sensory efficiency?

10. Self-determination?

B. Providing appropriate instruction and

services in the following areas:

1. Compensatory and academic needs?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 143

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

2. Communication needs including

instruction in Braille?

3. Orientation and Mobility including

sensory motor skills?

4. Social interaction skills?

5. Daily Living skills needs?

6. Recreation and Leisure?

7. Career vocational needs?

8. Assistive Technology?

9. Sensory efficiency?

10. Self-determination?

C. Developing curriculum that provides for the

following areas:

1. Compensatory and academic needs?

2. Communication needs including

instruction in Braille?

3. Orientation and Mobility including

sensory motor skills?

4. Social interaction skills?

5. Daily Living skills needs?

6. Recreation and Leisure?

7. Career vocational needs?

8. Assistive Technology?

-- Choose --

144 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

9. Sensory efficiency?

10. Self-determination?

D. Providing the necessary specialized books,

materials, equipment and services in

accordance with the IEP to meet the unique

educational needs for:

1. Functionally blind students?

2. Low vision students?

3. Students with multiple impairments

including ASD?

4. Infants and preschool children?

5. Students who are ELL?

Comments:

VII. Ensuring that the following key individuals understand the unique needs and possess the

skills and abilities to carry out their roles and responsibilities:

A. Teacher of the students in VI general ed?

B. Classroom teacher (general ed, special class

or resource specialist)?

C. Orientation and mobility specialist?

D. Parent or caregiver?

E. Student who is visually impaired?

F. Eye specialist?

G. Regular or adapted education specialist?

H. Occupational or physical specialist?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 145

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

I. School Nurse?

J. Program specialist or administrator?

K. Early childhood specialist?

L. Specialist in career/vocational education?

M. Speech/language pathologist?

N. Assistive technology specialist?

O. Counselor?

P. School psychologist?

Q. Social worker?

R. Certified Braille specialist (transcriber)?

S. Reader?

T. Paraprofessional/instructional assistant?

U. Ancillary staff in residential programs:

1. Dormitory personnel?

2. Food services staff?

3. Health services staff?

Comments:

VIII. Coordinating the instruction and services provided to meet all of the needs of visually

impaired students:

A. Using the IFSP/IEP/ITP as the focus for

coordination?

-- Choose --

146 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

B. Assigning an individual responsible for

this coordination?

Comments:

IX. Providing for the delivery of appropriate instruction and services through a full range of

program options and support services that are planned, provided, and coordinated, as

necessary, on a local and/or regional basis:

A. Planning, providing, and coordinating the

following, as necessary:

1. A full range of program options and

services, including technology?

2. Specialized assessment, instruction,

curriculum, and support?

3. Specialized personnel development

for staff and families?

4. Other support services to address

additional needs which cannot be

met at the district, county or SELPA

levels?

Comments:

X. Placing students appropriately in the least restrictive environment:

A. Considering the changing needs and strengths

of students?

B. Placing students based on the intensity of

needs and the intensity of instructional

services to meet these needs?

C. Preparing the student for the most appropriate

placement?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 147

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

D. Preparing school staff and peers for inclusion?

E. Exploring additional program options?

F. Providing full range of program options when

needed, through:

1. Itinerant teacher?

2. Resource room?

3. Special day class?

4. California School for the Blind?

5. Nonpublic schools and agencies?

6. Additional options for instants and

preschool children?

Comments:

XI. Establishing class sizes and caseloads of staff to allow for providing specialized instruction

and services based on the needs of visually impaired students by:

A. Developing a process for establishing and

monitoring class sizes and caseloads based

on the time required to meet students’ needs?

B. Establishing local caseloads and class sizes

based on the age of the students and the

severity of their needs?

Comments:

-- Choose --

148 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

XII. Providing qualified professionals and paraprofessional personnel who have the skills and

abilities necessary to conduct assessments and provide instruction and services that meet

the education needs of students:

A. Certificated personnel:

1. Appropriately credentialed teachers

of the visually impaired?

2. Appropriately credentialed orientation

3. And mobility specialists?

4. Assessment personnel?

B. Noncertificated personnel:

1. Transcribers?

2. Readers?

3. Paraeducators?

4. Other staff as needed?

Comments:

XIII. Providing staff development and education for parents based on a needs assessment:

A. Basing the needs assessment for specialized

parent education and parents’ roles and

responsibilities and the unique educational

needs of their children?

B. Basing the needs assessment for specialized

staff development on the staff members’ roles

and responsibilities and the unique educational

needs of the students they serve?

Comments:

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 149

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

XIV. Designing and modifying facilities to enhance the provision of instruction and services to

meet the unique educational needs of visually impaired students in the following areas:

A. Facilities for school-age students:

1. Lighting?

2. Storage space and electrical outlets?

3. Area for listening activities?

4. Furniture and whiteboards/smart board

surfaces?

5. Bathroom facilities?

6. Work area and storage space for students

being served by an itinerant teacher?

7. Work space for the transcriber?

8. Special equipment for production and

duplication of Braille?

B. Facilities for infants and preschool children:

1. Opportunities for inclusion with students

who do not have disabilities?

2. Bathroom facilities?

3. Playground and storage space?

C. Emergency procedures?

Comments:

-- Choose --

150 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

XV. Providing the materials and equipment necessary to meet the unique educational needs of

students as specified in the IFSP/IEP/ITP:

A. Establishing a system for budgeting that

projects costs of specialized media materials

and equipment?

B. Allowing time for the teacher or transcriber or

both to locate, prepare and disseminate media,

materials and equipment?

C. Establishing an organized, cost-effective and

coordinated system for acquiring, disseminating,

and maintaining specialized media, materials

and equipment?

Comments:

XVI. Providing appropriate transportation to students with visual impairments:

A. Considering health and safety, including

travel time?

B. Providing continuing in-service training

to drivers?

C. Encouraging students to travel independently

when appropriate?

Comments:

XVII. Establishing a process to improve the effectiveness of programs in meeting the needs of

visually impaired students in these areas:

A. Identification?

B. Assessment?

C. Planning?

-- Choose --

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 151

Evaluation: Highly Effective – 4; Effective – 3; Somewhat effective – 2; Ineffective – 1

D. Providing instruction and services?

E. Planning, organizing, and supporting

instruction and services?

F. Using information obtained through self-

review process to:

1. Identify the areas of need and

suggestions for improvement?

2. Identify area of strength?

3. Identify needs for technical assistance?

4. Coordinate with monitoring activities

of the California Department of

Education?

G. Using student outcomes to determine

programs effectiveness?

-- Choose --

152 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

PAGE INTENTIONALLY BLANK

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 153

Appendix B

Assessing Vision/Low Vision

This appendix contains a list of visual impairments and a discussion of procedures for

assessment by a qualified eye specialist and for assessment of functional vision. Also

included are the following forms:

Observational Assessment of Functional Vision, adapted from Lueck, (2004). Functional

vision: A practitioner’s guide to evaluation and intervention. New York: AFB Press

Functional Vision Assessment (Children and Adults), compiled by Stephanie Herlich &

Angela Martyn, California School for the Blind

Functional Vision Assessment (Young Children and Students with Additional

Disabilities), compiled by Stephanie Herlich & Angela Martyn, California School for the

Blind

Eye Report for Children with Visual Problems, California State Department of Education

Preferred Visual Acuity Notations, Northern California Society to Prevent Blindness

Visual Impairments

The list of visual impairments in this appendix is by no means meant to be complete or

all-inclusive. Rather, it is presented as an example of the range of visual impairments

that may be encountered. Many of the visual impairments listed may be congenital or

acquired. The educational implications of the eye condition are an important factor in

determining needs. Interaction of the teacher of students with visual impairments, the

eye specialist, and the student’s physician is essential in assessing and meeting the

student’s unique educational needs in this area.

A chart of most common causes of visual impairment and visual consequences follows.

At the bottom of the last chart include following reference: Source: Flom, Roann,

(2004). Visual Consequences of Most common Eye Conditions Associated with Visual

Impairment. In Lueck Hall, Amanda (editor), Functional Vision A Practitioner’s Guide to

Evaluation and Intervention. New York: AFB Press

Assessment by a Qualified Eye Specialist

An assessment by a fully qualified eye specialist should be performed to provide an

understanding of the nature and extent of visual loss. The following is a list of the

information contained in a thorough vision report:



Cause of visual impairment



Date of onset



Distance acuity with and without correction

154 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



Near vision acuity: recommended print size from specific distance



Visual field assessment



Binocular status (whether both eyes are used together), stereopsis (depth

perception



Contrast sensitivity



Color vision



Prognosis



Recommended spectacle prescription



Further treatment, if needed (medical treatment is determined by an ophthalmologist



Restrictions to activities



Date for next visit to eye care specialist

If a low vision examination has been conducted:



Recommended low vision devices such as magnifiers, CCTV, monocular,

sunshades, etc.



Lighting recommendations

The Eye Report for Children with Visual Problems and Preferred Visual Acuity Notations

has been included for use in this appendix.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 155

Functional Vision Assessment

Students with a visual impairment need to learn to use their remaining vision as

efficiently as possible. This refers to the relative ease and speed with which a particular

student is able to use his or her vision to access instruction and instructional materials

and to interpret environmental cues for safe orientation and mobility in a variety of

settings. To meet this need, the teacher of students with visual impairments, in

conjunction with the orientation and mobility specialist, should evaluate how the student

uses his or her vision to function within a variety of settings and situations which include

the school, home, and community. Information from eye specialists and the family can

also provide valuable information about the student’s use of vision. The functional vision

assessment is one criterion that is used in determining the appropriate reading medium

or media for functionally blind students who have the ability to read. (See Appendix F,

Legal Requirements, and Appendix C, Determining the Appropriate Learning Medium.)

The goals of the functional vision assessment are to:



Identify apparent vision-related needs which result from the vision impairment.



Provide information about necessary interventions or compensations (e.g.,

adaptations to materials or specialized instructional methods and modifications)

that will enable the student with a visual impairment to function as independently

as possible, and with maximum efficiency, within the school, home, and

community. (Refer to the discussion of low vision in Chapter 3.)

Areas that are a part of a functional vision assessment include the following, many of

which are of interest to teachers of students with visual impairments and to orientation

and mobility specialists. (Evaluation of the student’s use of remaining vision as it relates

to orientation and mobility in the student’s environments should be conducted by the

orientation and mobility specialist.)



Background information obtained from the most recent vision evaluation by an

eye specialist



Relevant health/medical information



Observational information about the following:

o Viewing distances for common tasks

o Lighting needs and sensitivity

o Eye preference and appearance

156 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

o Contrast sensitivity

o Color recognition

o Print size requirements

o Object and picture recognition

o Handwriting

o Depth perception

o Eye-hand coordination

A Functional Vision Evaluation Report for Young Children and Students with Additional

Disabilities a Functional Vision Evaluation Summary for Children and Adults, Recording

Form Observational Assessment of Functional Vision are included in this appendix for

use in documenting this information. For students with low incidence disabilities, one of

which is visual impairments, this report is to include the need for specialized books,

materials, and equipment. (See Appendix F, Legal Requirements.)

From this assessment information the teacher of students with visual impairment and

the orientation and mobility specialist will be able to provide specialized materials and

strategies that enable or enhance a student’s access to instruction and the environment

and teach the student to maximize the functional use of vision in a variety of settings.

Specialized instruction in adaptations for indoor or outdoor settings may include:



Control of lighting and glare factors



Preferred field of view and best gaze posture (eccentric viewing)



Advantageous positioning of materials to maximize field of view and postural

comfort



Adaptations for reading and reading materials, such as print size, use of color,

fatigue factors, time adjustments, and assignment modification



Provide information that will be used in the Learning Media Assessment with

regard to use of alternative learning media, such as large print, braille, objects,

and aural media

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 157



Use of specialized access skills, such as visual or tactual scanning for

efficient

localization of designated material or previewing of printed or raised

line or both



Use of optical low vision aids, for near and distance viewing (e.g., magnifiers

and monoculars)



Use of nonoptical low vision aids, such as specialized paper, and reading stands



Provide information that will be used in the Learning Media Assessment with

regard to training in the use of access technology, such as an electronic braille

note-taker,

talking calculator, closed circuit television, computer hard and

software to provide required print specifications, digital listening devices, etc.

158 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Functional Vision Assessment of Preschool Children

It is important to use age-appropriate activities and materials when the functional vision

assessment of a preschool-age child (three to five years old) is being conducted. Much

relevant information about vision related functioning and apparent vision-related needs

can be derived from observation of the child while he or she interacts with toys,

household materials, and other items and while he or she moves about in different

environments.

To get meaningful information about nonreaders’ use of functional vision, use objects,

shapes, and pictures of shapes and common objects. Vary the size, contrast and

distance presented to get an idea of current and potential use of vision and of vision-

related needs. This information will be helpful in determining the appropriate learning

medium. This decision becomes increasingly important and receives greater focus as

the transition from preschool to formal education approaches. (See Appendix C,

Determining the Appropriate Learning Media.)

The following suggestions are intended to assist teachers of students with visual

impairments and orientation and mobility specialists with the functional vision

assessment of preschoolers:

Observe how the child typically becomes oriented to objects. Does

he or she use visual, tactual, auditory, or olfactory senses? Does

the child seem to show a preference for looking, touching or both?

Note the child’s apparent ease and speed in visual orientation to

objects and to small parts of them. Does the child seem to quickly

notice and/or reach for a pictured detail or part to manipulate?

Is eye-hand coordination (e.g., precise aim) demonstrated in the

child’s grasp of, and/or manipulation of, small parts or use of items

which fit together?

Observe how the child typically becomes oriented to pictured

material. Does the child notice, point to, or name pictured shapes,

single objects, pictured activity, numbers, and letters? Notice the

size, amount of detail, contrast.

Note the child’s apparent ease, speed, and stamina in attention to

or in the recognition of objects and pictorial materials.

Does the child appear to “work” at seeing? Is recognition slow and

laborious, or is it accomplished with apparent ease and at

reasonable speed? Note the child’s posture and the position of

materials.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 159

Observe the distance, background, and size of objects detected or

picked up or both from a table, floor, or shelf.

Observe the child’s head position and distance, as well as factors

of contrast and quality, with the child’s attempts at using scissors to

cut paper or at using writing utensils (for coloring, tracing, etc.)

Note how the child moves about the home, school, and/or

community environments. What cues are noticed and responded

to—visual, tactual, auditory, or olfactory?

10.

How does the child become oriented to and move about within

familiar and unfamiliar surroundings? Is movement accomplished

safely and with apparent ease and speed?

11.

Note environmental factors, such as lighting, contrast, and texture

cues, that the child appears to be aware of, respond to or both.

What does the child avoid or detect as he or she moves about?

Additional Resources:

American Foundation for the Blind Glossary of Eye Conditions:

http://www.afb.org/section.aspx?FolderID=2&SectionID=93

Low Vision Information: Definitions, causes, devices, assessment, and resources. This

information is available on the California Department of Education website at:

http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/sm/lowvision.asp

160 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

CONFIDENTIAL Eye Report for Children with Visual Problems R L B

Name of Pupil Sex

(Type or print) (First) (Middle) (Last)

Address Date of Birth

(No. and street) (City or town) (Country) (State)

Grade ___________ School Address

I. HISTORY

A. Probable age at onset of vision impairment. Right eye (O.D.) Left eye (O.S.)

B. Severe ocular infections, injuries, operations, if any, with age at time of occurrence

C. Has pupil’s ocular condition occurred in any blood relative(s)? If so, what relationship?

II. MEASUREMENTS (See back of form for prefrfered notation for recording visual acuity and table of approximate equivalents.)

A. VISUAL ACUITY

DISTANCE NEAR VISION PRESCRIPTION

Without With best With low Without With best With low

Correction Correction* Vision aid Correction Correction* Vision aid Sph. Cyl. Axis

Right eye (O.D.) ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________

Left ey ) ________ ________ ________ ________ e (O.S. ________ ________ ________ ________ ________

Both eyes (O.U.) ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ Date ___________________________

B. If glasses are to be worn, were safety lenses prescribed in : Plastic Tempered Glass *with ordinary lenses

C. If low vision aid is prescribed, specify type and recommendations for use.

D. FIELD OF VISION: Is there a limitation? If so, record results of test on chart on back of form.

What is the widest diameter (in degrees) of remaining visual field ? O.D. O.S.

E. Is there impaired color perception? If so, for what color(s)?

III. CAUSE OF BLINDNESS OR VISION IMPAIRMENT

A. Present ocular condition(s) responsible for O.D. __________________________________________________________________________

vision impairment. (If more than one, specify all

but underline the one which probably first

caused severe vision impairment.) O.S. __________________________________________________________________________

B. Preceding ocular condition, if any, which led O.D. __________________________________________________________________________

to present condition or the underlined condi-

tions, specified in A.

O.S. __________________________________________________________________________

C. Etiology (underlying cause) of ocular condition O.D. __________________________________________________________________________

primarily responsible for vision impairment,

(e.g., specific disease, injury, poisoning, heredity

or other prenatal influence.) O.S. __________________________________________________________________________

D. If etiology is injury or poisoning, indicate circumstances and kind of object or poison involved.

IV. PROGNOSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Is pupil’s vision impairment considered to be: Stable ___________ Deteriorating ____________ Capable of improvement ___________ Uncertain ____________

B. What treatment is recommended, if any?

C. When is reexamination recommended?

D. Glasses: Not needed _____ To be worn constantly _____ For close work only _____ Other (specify)

E. Lighting requirements: Average _____ Better than average _____ Less than average _____

F. Use of eyes: Unlimited _____ Limited, as follows:

G. Physical activity: Unrestricted _____ Restricted, as follows:

TO BE FORWARDED BY EXAMINER TO:

Date of examination

Signature

Of Examiner Degree

Address

Name of

If clinic case: Number of clinic

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 161

Preferred Vision Acuity Notations

DISTANT VISION. Use Snellen notation with test distance of 20 feet. (Examples: 20/100, 20/60). For acuities less than 20/200

record distance of

which 200 foot letter can be recognized as numerator of fraction and 200 as denominator. (Examples: 10/200,

3/200). If the 200 foot letter is not

recognized at 1 foot record abbreviation for best distant vision as follows:

Hand Movements (Specify inches or feet)

PLL

Perceives And Localizes Light In One Or More Quadrants

Perceives But Does Not Localize Light

LPNo Light Perception

NEAR VISION. Use standard A.M.A. notation and specify best distance at which pupil can read. (Example: 14/70 at 5 in.)

TABLE OF

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT VISUAL ACUITY NOTATIONS

These notations serve only as an indication of the approximate relationship between recording of distant and near vision and point

type sizes. The

teacher will find in practice that the pupil's reading performance may vary considerably from the equivalents shown.

Near

% Central Visual

Distant Snellen A.M.A.

Jaeger Metric Efficiency for Near Point Usual Types of Text Size

20/20 (ft.) 14/14 (in.) 1 0.37 (M.) 100 3 Mail order catalogue

20/30 14/21 2 0.50 95 5 Want ads

20/40 14/28 4 0.75 90 6 Telephone directory

20/50 14/35 6 0.87 50 8 Newspaper text

20/60 14/42 8 1.00 40 9 Adult text books

20/80 14/56 10 1.50 20 12 Children's books 9-12 yrs

20/100 14/70 11 1.75 15 14 Children's books 8-9 yrs.

20/120 14/84 12 2.00 10 18 Large type text

20/200 14/140 17 3.50 2 24 Large type text

12.5/200 14/224 19 6.00 1.5

8/200 14/336 20 1

5/200 14/560

3/200 14/900

FIELD OF VISION. Record results on chart below.

Type of test used: Illumination in ft. candles:

Test Object: Color(s) Size(s)

Test object: Color(s) Size(s)

Distance(s):

162 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

FUNCTIONAL VISION ASSESSMENT

CHILDREN AND ADULTS

Assessor: Assessment Date(s):

Student’s Name: Birth Date:

School: Program:

Grade:

REVIEW OF RECORDS

Visual Diagnosis:

Visual Prognosis 

stable



deteriorating

 capable of improvement  unknown

Eye Doctor: Name:

Phone:

Address:

Date of most recent assessment:

Visual

Acuity without correction from doctor’s report:

OD (right): OS (left): OU (both):

Visual Acuity with correction from doctor’s report:

OD (right): OS (left): OU (both):

Glasses

Prescribed: Near

Distance

Contacts: yes

Sunglasses: yes

Visual Field from doctor’s report:

Surgeries:

Doctor’s

recommended activity limitations:

Other Relevant Health/Medical/Educational Information: (If this FVA is part of a complete

Triennial, other health/medical information may not need to be repeated.)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 163

INTERVIEW

How is your vision doing?

What are your main concerns?

What is most difficult at school?

What is most difficult at home?

Are you using any current low vision aids?

Assistive technology? (Brands & style)

Other comments:

1A. READING

List current reading activities:

Are you using large print books? Font size?

Check

desired reading tasks currently unable to perform:

164 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

 Usual reading material (specify grade level if in school and type of material)

 textbooks  dictionary  labels and price etags

 paperback books  bills, letters  maps, charts, graphs

 newspaper text  newspaper headlines  wall menus

 menus  stove, radio, TV dials  food & medicine lables

 cookbooks  sheet music  other

Eye Fatigue yes/no

1B. KNOWLEDGE OF EYE CONDITION

Describes eye condition information as follows:

Comments:

2.OBSERVATION

2A. UNUSUAL VISUAL BEHAVIORS

 Presses eyes  Head tilt when viewing  Light flicks

 Pokes eyes  Twirls or spins objects  Shakes head side to side

 Other

Comments:

2B. SOCIAL BEHAVIORS DEPENDENT UPON VISION CUES

 Identifies people from distance (specify distance)

 Identifies facial expressions (specify distance)

 Maintains appropriate social distance when talking (specify distance)

 Uses appropriate gesture (for school-age students primarily)

 Recognizes gestures of others

 Uses eye contact appropriately

 Other (specify)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 165

2C. BRIGHTNESS SENSITIVITY

 Sunglasses outdoors ears regularly  rarely uses

 Requires tints indoors  wears regularly

 w

 rarely uses

 Visor  wears regularly  rarely uses

 Sun hat (Baseball cap)

 wears regularly  rarely uses

 Directional lighting: near tasks  uses regularly  rarely uses

 Squints in bright light  avoids looking toward bright light

 Visually disoriented for _____ minutes when going from indoors to outdoors

 Visually disoriented for _____ minutes when going from outdoors to indoors

 Performs near tasks more accurately or easily with directional light on task (based on information

from observation and/or tests of visual acuity)

Comments

2D. APPEARANCE OF EYES

List any unusual appearance of the eyes that should be evaluated by an eye doctor.

2E. PREFERRED MODES OF VIEWING

Natural viewing distance for viewing up close

Natural

viewing distance for viewing far away

Head

tilt?

 Must first touch or hear object before vision is used to investigate it. (Often associated with

cortical visual impairment.)

Comments

166 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

2F. EYE PREFERENCE FOR NEAR WORK

If consistently holds objects or reading material under one eye compared to another, that eye is

the preferred eye for near work.

Eye preference:  RE  LE  None observed

Comments

2G. ASSISTIVE DEVICES

Describe efficiency and independence when using devices

2 H. ORGANIZATIONS

Describe organizational skills/patterns

Level of independence

3.DIRECT ASSESSMENT

3A.. PERIPHERAL VISUAL FIELDS (Confrontation Field Test)

(Note: Color in area where targets are not seen)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 167

When moving, often bumps into objects:  to the left  to the right  above  below

Comments

3B. DISTANCE VISUAL ACUITY

Test Administered:

 With correction  Without correction

Distance Presented_ Symbol Size Read

Visual

Acuity (Test Distance/Symbol Size)

Converted to Equivalent Snellen Acuity_

Additional

Comments:

3C. NEAR VISUAL ACUITY

Test Administered:

 With correction  Without correction

 With directional lamp or  under usual room illumination

Symbol Size Read Most Comfortably: M units or Point Size Distance

Smallest

Symbol Size Read (Threshold): M units or Point Size Distance

Comments

3D. CONTRAST SENSITIVITY

Test Administered:

Describe

Lighting:

Comments:

168 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

3E. COLOR

Test Administered:

Comments:

 demonstrates color preferences (specify colors)

Comments

3F. READING

Many of these factors can be measured in conjunction with formal reading tests (i.e., MN Read,

reading level inventories) or usual reading material.

Evaluate 2 different reading tasks (i.e. textbook, maps, pleasure reading, magazine…)

Task 1: Description_ Print

Size

Distance

Comments (ex. Finger guide, missing words, loses place, posture…)

Task 2: Description

Size

Distance

Comments (ex. Finger guide, missing words, loses place, posture…)

3G. WRITING

 handwriting is legible

 reads own handwriting

 uses optical device to assist with handwriting (describe)

Comments:

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 169

3H. COPYING AND LOCATION SKILLS (if appropriate to student)

Locating items while reading

 locates page numbers in a book easily

 locates words in table of contents, glossary or index

 easily locates items on maps, charts, graphs easily

 can follow unusual formats (e.g., columns, sidebars, descriptions under pictures, bill)

Copying (Describe speed, accuracy, and distance)

 copies from board

 copies from books

3I. PICTURE AND PHOTOGRAPH RECOGNITION

 Recognizes simple pictures: smallest size

 Recognizes complex pictures: smallest size

 Recognizes black/white photos of people: smallest size

 Recognizes color photos of people: smallest size

Comments

3J. EYE-HAND COORDINATION (for students in primary grades)

Consider student’s grade level.

 Draws lines  Cuts along lines

 Draws intersecting lines  Pastes within lines

 Colors within lines  Accurate reach for objects

 Draws shapes (specify)  Accurate placement of objects

Comments

170 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

FUNCTIONAL VISION ASSESSMENT

YOUNG CHILDREN AND STUDENTS WITH ADDITIONAL DISABILITIES

Assessor: Assessment Date(s):

Student’s Name: Birth Date:

School: Program:

Grade:

REVIEW OF RECORDS

Visual Diagnosis:

Visual Prognosis 

stable



deteriorating

 capable of improvement  unknown

Eye Doctor: Name:

Phone:

Address:

ate

of most recent assessment:

Visual Acuity without corre

ction from doctor’s report:

OD (right): OS (left): OU (both):

Visual Acuity with correction from doctor’s report:

OD (right): OS (left): OU (both):

Glasses

Prescribed: Near

Distance

Contacts: yes

Sunglasses: yes

Visual Field from doctor’s report:

Surgeries:

Doctor’s

recommended activity limitations:

Other Relevant Health/Medical/Educational Information: (If this FVA is part of a complete

Triennial, other health/medical information may not need to be repeated.)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 171

1A. INTERVIEW (Parent and/or Education)

Does the student communicate about what he or she sees? Provide examples or behaviors.

Does the student take medication regularly? Do you notice if he/she is visually affected by the

medication?

What materials does the student prefer for leisure activities? Provide examples or behaviors.

When is the student most alert?

What is the student’s preferred position?

Does the student demonstrate unusual sensory response, such as a startle, tactile defensiveness,

or visual attraction?

172 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

2.OBSERVATION

2A. UNUSUAL VISUAL BEHAVIORS

 Presses eyes  Head tilt when viewing  Light flicks

 Pokes eyes  Twirls or spins objects  Shakes head side to side

 Other

Comments

2B. SOCIAL BEHAVIORS DEPENDENT UPON VISION CUES

 Identifies people from distance (specify distance)

 Identifies facial expressions (specify distance)

 Maintains appropriate social distance when talking (specify distance)

 Uses appropriate gesture (for school-age students primarily)

 Recognizes gestures of others

 Uses eye contact appropriately

 Other (specify)

Comments

2C. BEHAVIORAL IMPRESSIONS

 Responds to simple verbal requests

 Communicates verbally  Communicates non-verbally only

 Responds more readily to familiar people

 Responds more readily in familiar places

 Has limited hand use (specify)

 Has limited mobility (specify)

 Requires minimal environmental distractions to stay on task

Comments

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 173

2D. PREFERRED AREA OF VIEWING

Observe the student’s visual behaviors during usual activities for preferred areas of viewing.

Pay attention to direction and distance. For students with physical impairments, it is important

to determine if responses are due to physical or visual limitation or both.

Responds and/or reaches for objects or people based on vision alone:

 To the right  To the left  Above  Below  Directly in front

2E. PREFERRED DISTANCE OF VIEWING

Natural viewing distance for viewing up close

Natural viewing distance for viewing far away_

Describe head tilts when viewing (These postures may be adopted to achieve the null point for

nystagmus, to compensate for a peripheral field loss, or to view eccentrically if there is a central

scotoma)

 Must first touch or hear object before vision is used to investigate it.

Comments

2F. BRIGHTNESS SENSITIVITY

Be sure to observe lighting needs of students who must lay on their backs in the classroom; in

some cases, overhead lights may be uncomfortable for them.

Outdoors, student prefers to use  baseball cap  visor  sunglasses

 Student requires tinted lenses indoors

 Student squints in bright light  Student avoids looking toward bright light

 Student visually disoriented for ________ minutes when going from indoors to outdoors

 Student performs near tasks more accurately or easily with directional light on tasks (based on

information from observation and/or tests of visual acuity)

Comments

174 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

3.DIRECT ASSESSMENT

3A. APPEARANCE OF EYES

List any unusual appearance of the eyes that should be evaluated by an eye doctor.

3B. SHIFT OF GAZE

Present two lights or two objects to the student in the positions indicated below. Shine, blink, or

shake one object, then pause and do the same with the second object. Additional response time

may be needed for students who have motor coordination or motor planning difficulties.

Shifts gaze from one light source to another:

Shifts gaze from one object to another:

Comments

3C. FOLLOWING (TRACKING)

Use a small object or light source that holds the student’s attention. Move object or light slowly

-while it is within the student’s range of vision. Try objects first, use a light if not successful with

an object.

Object/Light Used:

Follows object or light source:  left  right  up  down Distance:

Follows a person’s movement:  within 3 ft.  within 10 ft.  within 25 ft.

Following is:  smooth  jerky

Follows across midline:  Yes  No

Follows with:  head  head and eyes  both eyes  RE only  LE only

Comments

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 175

3D. PERIPHERAL VISUAL FIELDS

(Note: Color in area where targets are not seen)

When moving often bumps into object:  to the left  to the right  above  below

Comments

3E. DISTANCE VISUAL ACUITY

Only test if appropriate to student’s cognitive level and ability.

Test Administered:

Distance Presented_ Symbol Size Read

Visual Acuity (Test Distance/Symbol Size)

Converted

to Equivalent Snellen Acuity_

Comments:

3F. NEAR VISUAL ACUITY USING SYMBOLS (OPTOYPES)

Only test if appropriate to student’s cognitive level and ability.

Test Administered:

Distance Presented

Symbol Size Read

176 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Recognizes Pictures (If appropriate)

 Recognizes simple pictures: smallest size

 Recognizes complex pictures: smallest siz

Comments

3G. CONTRAST SENSITIVITY

Test Administered:

Describe

Lighting:

Comments:

3H. STEREOPSIS

This pertains to fine nearpoint tasks such as threading needles, pouring liquids, reaching for

objects within arm’s reach. For activities such as walking, climbing stairs, and stepping down

from curbs, the major cause of reported difficulties is poor contrast sensitivity rather than poor

stereopsis.

Activity Observed:

Comments

3I. COLOR

 Selects or points to named primary colors:

 Matches primary colors:

 Demonstrates color preferences (specify colors):

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 177

Test Administered:

Comments

References

Corn, A. & Koenig, A. (200). Foundations of low vision: Clinical and functional perspectives,

pg. 229.

Harrell, L. Functional Vision Assessment Checklist: Appendix E.

178 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 179

Appendix C

Learning Media Assessment and

Expanded Core Curriculum Assessment Resources

This Appendix contains guidelines and website sources about assessments in all areas

of the Expanded Core Curriculum. Forms for Learning Media Assessments are

included.

Assessments:

The following websites include compilations of assessments, including formal and

informal assessments, checklists, observational protocols and assessment guidelines.

Compendium of Instruments for Assessing the Skills and Interests of Individuals with

Visual Impairments or Multiple Disabilities, Second Edition(August 2005), compiled by

Keith Benoff, Ph.D. & Mary Ann Lang, Ph.D., available from Lighthouse International,

111 East 59

Street, New York, NY 10022 and from the following website:

http://www.lighthouse.org/for-professionals/practice-management/patient-

management-pediatrics/assessment-compendium

Perkins School for the Blind: Assessment of Children with Visual Impairments or

Blindness, available from: http://www.perkins.org/resources/scout/early-

childhood/assessment.html#Tools

Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired Instructional Resources: Assessment

(last updated November 2010), available from: https://www.tsbvi.edu/instructional-

resources/1879-assessment

Forms included:

Assessment of Learning Media, 2

Edition, compiled by Julie Manning, June Waugh,

Lizbeth Barclay and Sharon Sacks, California School for the Blind, available from:

http://www.csb-cde.ca.gov/assessment_learning_media.htm

Learning Media Assessment:

The Learning Media Assessment (LMA) offers a framework for selecting appropriate

literacy media for a student who is visually impaired. A Functional Vision Assessment

(FVA) should be done first, in order to determine what the student is able to see and

how he or she is using his or her vision. These two assessments should be used

together to help to guide the team decision about the best instructional medium for a

given student, such as braille, print, dual media (both print and braille), auditory, tactile

or some combination.

180 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

The Learning Media Assessment is:



an assessment for selecting the appropriate literacy media for students with visual

impairments. "Literacy media" refers to the way in which students access the

general education curriculum and includes braille, print, auditory strategies,

objects, and pictures.



offers teachers and educational teams a framework or decision-making process

for the selection of literacy media.



provides a decision and monitoring tool for both conventional and functional

literacy for students with visual impairments.



involves a team process and the collation of medical, educational, family and

student-supplied data to make informed decisions.

What exactly does the LMA assess?

The LMA assesses a student's learning style, or the way in which he or she uses vision,

touch, hearing, and other senses, either singularly or in combination, to gain access to

information. This is where LMA has often been misunderstood. One of the key things

that is assessed is the student's learning style, which is particularly useful when

working with young children with visual impairments.

Where and when should the LMA be done?

The LMA scale should begin no later than age 3, when a child begins the transition to

preschool. It should be updated annually and/or as visual functioning changes.

LMA takes a broad definition of literacy, which includes reading and writing in some form,

such as using drawing or expressive communication. Some Teachers of Students with

Visual Impairments (TVIs) only look at the braille/print decision, but the Learning

Media Assessment goes much further than that to look at the preferred sensory

channels of ALL students.

Why perform Learning Media Assessments?

The primary reason to perform a Learning Media Assessment is to ensure that all

students have access to literacy and to education. In addition, Braille Bills require the

determination of literacy media exists at both the Federal and State level. These

various Braille bills assume that Braille is the modality to be used unless

otherwise demonstrated through appropriate assessment. Learning Media

Assessment offers the tool to make that determination and monitor it over time. (See

Appendix F, “Legal Requirements.”)

Information above from: http://www.pathstoliteracy.org/learning-media-assessment

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 181

Guidelines to Determine the Appropriate Learning Media

Listed as follows are guidelines to help in determining the appropriate reading medium

for a student with a visual impairment:

An examination by an eye specialist with expertise in low vision is important in

order to determine the student’s ability to benefit from optical low vision aids.

Flexibility across learning tasks and environments should always be encouraged

for the student with a visual impairment. Some students may benefit from

instruction in both braille and print. A

survey of the types of instructional tasks,

curricular areas, and educational media the student is required to use will

determine the most efficient medium for each task. A primary reading medium

should be selected and used for the majority of educational tasks.

Alternative

learning media (e.g., digital, reader, or tactual representation) are recommended

for occasions when it is necessary to alleviate fatigue experienced when the

primary reading medium is being used for an extended period of time.

Use of audio material, while an important resource and alternative learning

medium, should not be relied on to the exclusion of

providing access in hard

copy for students who read (print or braille or both). Verbal descriptions alone

are inadequate to convey meaning in maps, diagrams, charts, and drawings,

provision of

tactile graphics can expand a student’s understanding.

Current technology can enable or enhance access to both braille

and print. Specialized equipment does not supplant the need for

braille or print literacy or the student’s need to receive hard copies

of instructional materials.

Many interrelated factors (e.g., visual, social/ emotional, or

learning) may need to be considered in addition to the selection of

the most appropriate reading medium when a student is having

difficulty with learning and achievement. Difficulty in reading or

writing or both may be more related to the inability of a student to

understand what he or she sees rather than to his or her ability to

access the information in either braille or print. Multidisciplinary

assessment is crucial to determine the specific factors related to

difficulties in learning and achievement.

182 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Factors to Consider in Determining the Learning Media

Academic performance and selection of the most appropriate reading and writing

medium are influenced by many factors. No single factor in isolation should be used in

determining the most appropriate medium. This decision has significant implications,

and decisions should be made through an ongoing evaluation process as well as

through consideration of visual, learning, and social/emotional variables.

Vision-Related Factors

Etiology and Prognosis—the nature and extent and stability of the

student’s vision loss determined on the basis of a current

examination by an eye specialist is an important consideration.

Visual Acuity—A student’s distance and near acuity, with and

without corrective lenses or low vision aids.

Visual Field—the visual field may affect a student’s reading rate.

Although the student may be able to read labels or signs, with a

restricted visual field, their reading rate may not be sufficient for

sustained and/or extensive reading as required in school and

workplace settings.

Focal Distance—Focal distance as it applies to this discussion is

the distance between the student’s eyes and the reading or writing

material. The focal distance will vary with print size. Low

visionstudents often require less than standard reading and writing

distances (14 to 16 inches). The closer the student is to the reading

and/or writing material, the more physically challenging the task

may become. For example, unnatural body positions, head tilting,

difficulty maintaining focus, and loss of field may make reading or

writing slow and tedious.

Type Size required—the required type size is the smallest print size

that the student can read efficiently and accurately, even with

optical aids. Large-print materials are usually published in the 18 to

22 point range; materials beyond 24 points are not readily

available.

Visual Stamina—this is the amount of time a student (with

correction) can sustain a reading or writing activity before making

significant errors or experiencing physical signs of fatigue and

discomfort. Signs of fatigue or discomfort may include headaches,

watery eyes, neck and shoulder strain, and other signs of stress.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 183

Related Factors

Preferred Mode of Functioning—It is important to consider whether the student is

primarily a visual, tactual, or auditory learner. Observation of the student in a variety

of settings and activities will help determine which sensory modality the student

prefers.

General Learning Abilities—It is important to consider the student’s overall present

levels of functioning in areas such as intellectual ability, academic achievement,

motor ability, communication skills, and so forth, as well as the student’s preferred

learning modality. These considerations give relevant information about the student,

which is important when the student receives instruction in reading and writing.

Special Considerations for Students with Visual Impairments and Other Disabilities—

It is important to keep in perspective the presence of other known or suspected

sensory, physical, or cognitive disabilities. The presence of an apparent

learning

disability, developmental delay, or orthopedic impairment, for example, may interfere

with the student’s ability to learn and demonstrate adequate skills or progress. A

multidisciplinary team should consider the use of braille or print in a modified or an

adapted format that enables and promotes, to the maximum extent

possible, the

student’s acquisition of information and functional communication skills.

10.

Reading Rate—Just as a student’s reading vocabulary and comprehension should

increase, so too should there be measurable growth in a student’s reading rate. If

the student’s reading rate (with correction and print modification) is considerably

slower than that of his or her sighted peers, and apparently is the result of a vision

impairment rather than of a visual perceptual/visual motor dysfunction problem, the

process of determining the appropriate reading medium should be initiated.

11.

Comprehension—The student’s reading comprehension should be commensurate

with that of his or her sighted peers. Consideration must be given to the student’s

abilities and length of instruction in the medium. If the student spends an inordinate

amount of physical energy trying to see the material, that problem will interfere with

the student’s ability to comprehend at the expected level.

184 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Social/Emotional-Related Factors

12.

Attitude and Motivation—Acceptance of visual loss and the need to use different

educational media can be stressful for students. The student with a visual

impairment and his or her family may be very sensitive to using media in an

adapted format and may need help to adjust. A student must have the desire and

motivation to use the adapted medium for learning and achievement.

13.

Parents and Community—It is important that the student’s family and community

understand and value the learning medium selected. To ensure this acceptance,

the family should be involved in the ongoing assessment and decision-making

process.

Determining the Appropriate Learning Media:

The Preschool Child

The assessment and determination of the appropriate reading medium for a preschool

child three to five years old require careful observation and interpretation of apparent

vision-related strengths and limitations. There is a considerable amount of preacademic

information, skills, and concepts which preschoolers need to learn. Preschoolers who

have low vision may have difficulty in learning this information for three major reasons:

first, they may not yet have had the opportunity; second, they may not have been shown

how to use their vision effectively and efficiently; and third, they may be using sensory

channels other than vision or vision alone to learn because of the nature and extent of

their visual impairment. It is important to separate the apparent difficulties that, most

likely, may result from the inability to see from the apparent difficulties that may reflect

initial lack of exposure and experience in use of vision.

Preschoolers cannot be assessed through the use of the same techniques and

materials that would be used with students who have learned their letters or have

started reading. However, it is possible to use age appropriate activities and materials to

get an idea of whether print or braille or both will be the appropriate reading medium.

For some children it may be clear (on the basis of a child’s medical information and

results from assessed visual functioning) whether print or braille will be the appropriate

reading medium. For other children, initially, it may be necessary to simultaneously

develop visual and tactual prereading skills to maximize participation and access to

learning; then as a child’s skills emerge, an appropriate and/or primary reading medium

can be more clearly determined.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 185

Selected References

Conroy, M. AB 2445, Chapter 998, Statutes of 1994, known as the “Braille Bill.”

(See Appendix F, “Legal Requirements.”)

Efron, J. “Determining Appropriate Reading Medium,” Edsp 467, California State

University, Los Angeles. January 26, 1993. (Lecture Notes).

Koenig, A. J., and M. C. Holbrook. “Determining the Reading Medium for Visually

Impaired Students Via Diagnostic Teaching,” Journal of Visual Impairment

and Blindness, Vol. 85, No. 2, (1991), 61–68.

Mangold, S. S., and P. N. Mangold. “Selecting the Most Appropriate Primary

Learning Medium for Students with Functional Vision,” Journal of Visual

Impairment and Blindness, Vol. 83, No. 6, (1989), 294–96.

Print and Braille Literacy: Selecting Appropriate Learning Media. Edited by H.

Caton. Louisville, Ky.: American Printing House for the Blind, 1991.

186 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 187

Appendix D

California School for the Blind

This appendix contains information about the California School for the Blind in Fremont,

including the program’s mission, referral and admissions procedures, residential policy,

and assessment program.

MISSION STATEMENT

The California School for the Blind provides intensive, disability specific educational

services for enrolled students who are blind, visually impaired, deaf blind and visually

impaired/multi-disabled, whose primary learning needs are related to their visual

impairment.

In partnership with student, families, other consumers, local educational agencies,

professional and community resources, California School for the Blind prepares

students to participate at their highest level of independence in their schools,

workplaces and communities.

The California School for the Blind, as a State Special School of the California

Department of Education, is a statewide resource offering expertise in the low

prevalence disabilities of visual impairment and deaf blindness through innovative

model programs, assessment, consultation, and technical assistance, professional

development, research and publications, advocacy and outreach.

Further information regarding the school may be found at http://www.csb-cde.ca.gov/ ;

the following are among the services and organizations offered at CSB;



Educational and transition placements from elementary school through the

age of 22;



Assessment Center services statewide;



Assistive technology services and consultation statewide;



Low vision examinations at CSB and other sites statewide;



An active Community Advisory Committee;



An active Parents and Friends organization, along with an Educational

Foundation;



Orientation and Mobility services



Adapted Physical Education.

188 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Please visit the CSB website!

http://www.csb-cde.ca.gov/

Guidelines for Enrollment

The following guidelines for enrollment define the referral process and criteria for

referral of students to the California School for the Blind.

Referral Process: The referral process is contained in the California Code of

Regulations at Title 5. EDUCATION, Division 1. California Department of Education,

Chapter 18. California State Schools for the Deaf, Blind, Subchapter 2. State Special

Schools Admission Process

Definitions

Article 2. California School for the Blind

§ 17664. Definitions.

(a) An “applicant” includes “blind or visually impaired applicant,” and “deaf-blind

applicant” and is a pupil between the age of 3 through 21 whose primary disability is a

severe sensory loss which limits their ability to access the general education curriculum

and who seeks admission into California School for the Blind’s (CSB) educational

program.

(b) “Assessment of suitability for placement” is the period of evaluation and

review for purposes of determining whether the CSB is the appropriate placement for an

applicant.

program.

(d) “Severe sensory loss” is a loss of vision, or vision and hearing combined, that

severely affects the pupil’s ability to access the general education or alternative

curriculum and causes difficulty to such an extent that it adversely affects his/her

educational performance requiring the services of personnel trained to work with blind,

visually impaired or deaf-blind children.

(e) “Temporary assignment” is an applicant’s presence at the School for

purposes of completing an assessment of suitability for placement at the school.

Temporary assignment shall not exceed the time limits set forth in Education Code

section 56344(a), and does not guarantee admission. For purposes of stay put, the

temporary assignment shall not constitute the last agreed upon placement.

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: 5 CCR section

3030(a); Section 56342(a), Education Code; 34 CFR Section 300.555.

§ 17665. Admission Process for the California School for the Blind (CSB).

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 189

For purposes of determining whether an applicant is qualified for enrollment in

CSB, the following process shall be followed:

(a) The school district of residence (LEA) shall refer an applicant to CSB by

submitting an application packet to CSB.

(b) The completed application packet must be received by CSB within 60

calendar days of the referral. It is the responsibility of the LEA to complete the

application packet and submit it to CSB. Applications not completed within 60 days of

the referral shall be returned to the applicant’s district of residence (LEA), and the

applicant shall not be assessed for suitability of placement at CSB.

reports:

(1) The last three years of IEP or IFSP if completed;

(2) An Ophthalmologic or optometric assessment completed within one year of

the date of the application;

(3) The current assessments and/or reports prepared pursuant to Education

Code sections 56320, et seq. and 56352, and as required to comply with Education

Code section 56381; and

(4) Any additional assessments and/or reports dated within two years of the date

of the application of admission which document:

(A) The impact of the applicant’s vision or vision and hearing loss,

(B) The applicant’s inability to visually or visually and auditorily access the

general education curriculum; and

ability to access the general education curriculum.

(D) Once a completed application has been received, CSB shall initiate and

complete an assessment of suitability for placement at CSB, in accordance with

Education Code section 56344. It is the sole responsibility of the applicant’s district of

residence (LEA) to ensure compliance with Education Code section 56321 prior to

CSB’s commencement of the applicant’s assessment for suitability for placement. This

assessment plan may include temporary assignment at CSB for purposes of

determining eligibility for enrollment in the day or residential program and should include

any necessary and appropriate amendments to the IEP to ensure appropriate services

during this temporary assignment.

190 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(E) Prior to the completion of the assessment of suitability for placement at CSB,

the applicant’s IEP team, including the appropriate CSB personnel, shall meet to

determine the appropriate placement. The IEP team may not make a determination of

placement at CSB without the agreement of CSB personnel.

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: 5 CCR Section

3030(a); Section 56342(a), Education Code; 34 CFR Section 300.555.

Eligibility, Day Students:

§ 17666. Eligibility for Enrollment in CSB’s Day Program.

Applicants may be considered for admission if they can demonstrate they will

benefit educationally from the CSB instructional program by showing:

(a) Applicant demonstrates that his or her primary educational needs are related

to a severe sensory loss such that it affects the pupil’s ability to access the general

education or alternative curriculum.

(b) The ability to attend to non-visual stimuli.

the following:

(1) Potential to learn Braille, potential to use low vision aids;

(2) Potential to benefit from expanded core curriculum instruction; and

(3) Potential to benefit from adaptations to the environment.

(4) The ability to learn simple mobility patterns and routes around campus, as

demonstrated by the following:

(5) The potential to use the white cane;

(6) The potential to orient self in space;

(7) The potential to learn own body and body parts; and

(8) The potential to learn concepts of directionality.

(9) Applicant demonstrates the ability to access the general education or

alternative curriculum with reasonable accommodations without requiring a

fundamental alteration of the educational program of CSB.

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: Sections 56350

and 56352, Education Code.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 191

Eligibility, Residential Students:

§ 17667. Eligibility for Enrollment in CSB’s Residential Program.

Applicants eligible for CSB’s day program are not automatically enrolled into the

residential program. Enrollment into CSB’s residential program is a separate and

distinct consideration even for a pupil currently enrolled in CSB’s day program. An

applicant who meets the criteria established by section 17666 may also be admitted into

CSB’s residential program, if CSB determines:

(a) The applicant resides beyond a 60-minute commute each way between home

and CSB using transportation the LEA provides for day pupils.

(b) The applicant has the ability to respond independently and appropriately to

life-threatening situations.

applicant’s placement in the residential program.

(d) The applicant does not have a history of un-rehabilitated behavior that poses

a threat to themselves and/or others, including but not limited to substance abuse, fire-

starting, sexually predatory behavior or assault.

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: Section 59020,

Education Code.

192 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Assessment Program

In addition to providing educational and residential services, the CSB offers diagnostic

evaluation and outreach services to students with visual impairments who are enrolled

in public and private schools throughout California and who are expected to continue in

those settings. This assessment program helps local educators and parents to better

understand students’ needs so that the most effective educational program can be

designed. CSB assessment program staff members are available to provide direct

student assessment services, train local teams in the assessment of visually impaired

students, work with educators and parents to modify curriculum and instruction,

disseminate information regarding vision loss and the implications of vision loss for the

school program, and provide training for educational staff and parents. Services may be

provided at the CSB or in the LEA.

The assessment program is provided in accordance with the following provision of the

Education Code:

59102. The California School for the Blind is under the administration of the State

Department of Education.

The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in connection with the California School for the

Blind, shall do all of the following:

(a) Provide educational assessments and individual educational recommendations for

individuals referred for those services pursuant to Section 56326

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 193

Appendix E

Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment

This appendix identifies sources of funding for specialized books, materials, and

equipment. Information on the American Printing House for the Federal Quota Program

is also provided. Funding provisions for all special education programs are found in Part

30, Chapter 7, of the Education Code, commencing with Section 56836.

Funding for Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment

Low Incidence State funding is available to purchase and coordinate the use of

specialized equipment and materials for pupils with low incidence disabilities. Yearly

entitlements are computed and allocated on a per capita basis by using the December

unduplicated pupil counts of Special Education Local Plan Area (SELPA) for students in

the following categories: hard of hearing, deaf, visually impaired, orthopedically

impaired, and deaf-blind. This entitlement is allocated at the SELPA level. Each

responsible local education agency (LEA) of the SELPA needs to ensure that

appropriate materials and equipment are purchased, as required under the

Individualized Education Program (IEP), coordinated, and reassigned as necessary.

(See Appendix F for legal requirements and Appendix G for sources of technical

assistance from the California Department of Education.)

Another source of funding for materials and equipment for legally blind students is the

American Printing House for the Blind Federal Quota Program, administered by the

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Translations (CSMT), a unit of the California

Department of Education. The activities of CSMT are described in the next section of

this appendix.

Local service clubs and other community groups may help to provide funds for

equipment and materials when no other funding source is available.

Sources of Specialized Books, Materials, and Equipment

Sources of specialized books, materials, and equipment discussed in this section are

the Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Technology (CSMT).

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Translations

The California Department of Education’s Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and

Technology (CSMT) is a unit within the Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional

Resources Division of the Instructional and Learning Support Branch. Major functions

and services of the CSMT discussed in this section are the provision of

state-adopted instructional materials, kindergarten through grade eight.

State-adopted elementary school textbooks. The State Board of Education (SBE) is

required to provide state-adopted textbooks in braille and large print to pupils enrolled in

194 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

elementary schools through grade eight whose visual impairment makes the use of

such books necessary (see Education Code sections 60240, 60312, and 60313).

Information regarding the titles and formats of instructional materials are available

online at http://csmt.cde.ca.gov/.

Titles produced in braille, large print, and audio and digital media are produced and

distributed through:

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Translations

California Department of Education

1430 N Street, Suite 3207

Sacramento, CA 95814

csmt@cde.ca.gov

(916) 445-5103

FAX: (916) 323-9732

At the end of the school year, current adoptions in braille or large print that will not be

used must be returned by mail to:

CSMT Textbook Warehouse

3740 Seaport Blvd. #20

West Sacramento, CA 95691

(916) 272-3193

Books that have become obsolete during the year may be retained, shared with other

education agencies, or disposed of through regular procedures. The CSMT should be

notified of titles that are to be destroyed.

Computer searches. The CSMT uses the American Printing House for the Blind (APH)

Louis repository to help teachers and parents locate books in braille, large print, and

other specialized media for high school titles or materials not adopted by the SBE.

Those wishing to have the CSMT search the APH database may send an e-mail to

csmt@cde.ca.gov and include the title, publisher, copyright date, and International

Standard Book Number (ISBN).

Parents, consumers, and teachers in their search for assistive devices and instructional

materials for students with vision impairments are referred to the APH catalog, online at

http://shop.aph.org/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/Home_10001_11051.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 195

Key Agencies for Specialized Materials

Agencies that have an extensive role in providing specialized materials for students who

are visually impaired are listed as follows:

American Printing House for the Blind

1839 Frankfort Avenue

Louisville, KY 40206

Phone at (800) 223-1839, Web site at http://www.aph.org/

California Department of Education

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Translations

California Department of Education

1430 N Street, Suite 3207

Sacramento, CA 95814

Phone at (916) 445-5103, Web site at http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/sm/

National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped

Library of Congress

Washington, DC 20542

Phone at (800) 952-5666, Web site at http://www.loc.gov/nls/

Braille Institute

741 North Vermont Avenue

Los Angeles, CA 90029

Phone at (800) 252-9486, Web site at http://www.brailleinstitute.org/

Braille and Talking Book Library

California State Library

900 N Street

Sacramento, CA 95814

(Phone at (800) 952-5666, Web site at

http://www.library.ca.gov/services/btbl.html

Learning Ally (formerly Recordings for the Blind and Dyslexic)

2633 McKinney Avenue, Suite 103

Dallas, TV 75204

Phone at (800) 221-4792, Web site at https://www.learningally.org/

Bookshare

480 S. California Avenue, Suite 201

Palo Alto, CA 94306-1609

Phone at (650) 644-3400, Web site at https://www.bookshare.org/

196 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Key Agencies for Technology

Key agencies for technology discussed in this section are the AT Network, the California

Technology Assistance Project (CTAP), and the Alternate Text Production Center

(ATPC).

AT Network: Located in 19 centers throughout California, the AT Network provides

information, training on assistive technology tools, and borrow/lend in their Reuse

facilities. Legal questions and referrals are provided by professional consultants for

individuals with disabilities.

AT Network

California Foundation for Independent Living Centers, California Department of

Rehabilitation

Toll-Free: 800-390-2699 TTY: 800-900-0706 |

E-mail: info@atnet.org Web site at http://www.atnet.org/

California Technology Assistance Project: The California Technology Assistance

Project (CTAP) is a state-wide technical assistance program. Intended to promote the

effective use of technology in teaching, learning and school administration, the CTAP

provides assistance to schools and districts based upon local needs in each of 11

regions in California. Workshops, tutorials, and technical assistance are provided

through each of their facilities located throughout California.

California Technology Assistance Project

Web site at http://www.myctap.org/

Alternate Text Production Center: The ATPC is the first publicly funded, system-wide

resource dedicated to serving the alternate media needs of the students with

disabilities. There are 112 community colleges in California and each of them has equal

access to the media services provided by the ATPC.

Alternate Text Production Center (ATPC)

1175 Calle Suerte

Camarillo, California 93012

(805) 383-0187

http://www.atpc.net/

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 197

American Printing House for the Blind Federal Quota Program

Each year Congress appropriates a specific sum of money to the American Printing

House for the Blind (APH) to be used for developing and supplying books in special

media as well as for providing specialized aids and equipment for educating the nation’s

blind students. In turn, the APH allots a credit to each agency, public or private, on the

basis of the number of blind students in that organization. States may acquire materials

and equipment from the APH without cost up to the amounts of their federal quota

allotment.

In California the APH Federal Quota Program is administered by the Clearinghouse for

Specialized Media and Translations (CSMT), a unit of the California Department of

Education. During January of each year, the CSMT conducts an annual registration of

blind students in California to establish the state’s proportional credit allotment with the

APH. As is the policy in many other states, the allotment for California from the annual

federal quota appropriation is apportioned to school districts, county education offices,

state hospitals, and private schools on the basis of the number of legally blind students

registered in the educational programs of these facilities.

To acquire materials on the APH Federal Quota accounts, schools in California access

the Instructional Materials Ordering and Distribution System (IMODS), an online

ordering Web site. Most items are stocked in the CSMT Warehouse. Items not stocked

by the CSMT are shipped directly to the school from the APH.

198 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 199

Appendix F

Legal Requirements

Note: Reference is first made to the IDEA (20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq.) and the Code of

Federal Regulations (CFR §300 et seq.).This appendix contains pertinent sections from

the California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Education and the California Education

Code that apply to the content of this publication. These legal requirements were

current as of January 2014. The purpose of this appendix is to give readers an

opportunity to review legislative provisions for which citations appear throughout this

publication.

Federal definitions of visual impairment are as follows:

34 C.F.R. 300.8(c)(13)

Eligibility criteria: Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision

that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The

term includes both partial sight and blindness.

34 C.F.R. 300.8(c)(2)

Eligibility criteria: Deaf-blindness means concomitant hearing and visual impairments,

the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental

and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education

programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

CALIFORNIA

Eligibility Criteria for the Visually Impaired

Sec. 300.8(c)(13) of IDEA 2004 states:

Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision that, even with

correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both

partial sight and blindness.

Text of Code:

30 EC 56350 - Definitions; Visually Impaired Pupils

56350. Unless the context otherwise requires, the definitions set forth in this section

shall govern the construction of this article.

(a) A "functionally blind pupil" means a pupil who relies basically on senses other than

vision as major channels for learning.

200 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(b) A "pupil with low vision" means a pupil who uses vision as a channel for learning, but

who may also benefit from instruction in braille.

vision. For purposes of this article, a "visually impaired pupil" does not include a pupil

who is eligible for special education and related services based on a specific learning

disability identified pursuant to Section 56338.

(d) A pupil has a visual impairment which, even with correction, adversely affects a

pupil’s educational performance.

Vision Services

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Education, Section 3051.7

(a) Vision services shall be provided by a credentialed teacher of the visually

handicapped and may include:

(1) Adaptations in curriculum, media, and the environment, as well as instruction in

special skills.

(2) Consultative services to pupils, parents, teachers, and other school personnel.

(b) An assessment of and provision for services to visually impaired pupils may be

conducted by an eye specialist who has training and expertise in low vision disabilities

and has available the appropriate low vision aids for the purposes of assessment. The

eye specialist may provide consultation to the pupil, parents, teacher and other school

personnel as may be requested by the individualized education program team.

authorized by federal and state laws and regulations and performed in accordance with

these laws and regulations and standards of the profession.

(d) For the purposes of this section, an eye specialist shall mean a licensed optometrist,

ophthalmologist, or other licensed physician and surgeon who has training and

expertise in low vision disabilities.

Low Incidence Disabilities Definitions

Education Code Section 56000.5

(a) The Legislature finds and declares that:

(1) Pupils with low incidence disabilities, as a group, make up less than 1 percent of the

total statewide enrollment for kindergarten through grade 12.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 201

(2) Pupils with low incidence disabilities require highly specialized services, equipment,

and materials.

Education Code Section 56026.5

“Low incidence disability” means a severe disabling condition with an expected

incidence rate of less than one percent of the total statewide enrollment in kindergarten

through grade 12. For purposes of this definition, severe handicapping conditions are

hearing impairments, vision impairments, and severe orthopedic impairments, or any

combination thereof. For purposes of this definition, vision impairments do not include

disabilities within the function of vision specified in Section 56338.

Qualified Staff

Education Code Section 56001

It is the intent of the Legislature that special education programs provide all of the

following:

(n) Appropriate qualified staff are employed, consistent with credentialing requirements,

to fulfill the responsibilities of the local plan and positive efforts are made to employ

qualified disabled individuals.

Special Education Program Options

Education Code Section 56031

Text of Code:

30 EC 56031 - Definition of "Special Education"

56031. (a) "Special education," in accordance with Section 1401(29) of Title 20 of the

United States Code, means specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parent, to

meet the unique needs of individuals with exceptional needs, including instruction

conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and other

settings, and instruction in physical education.

(b) In accordance with Section 300.39 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations,

special education includes each of the following, if the services otherwise meet the

requirements of subdivision (a):

(1) Speech-language pathology services, or any other designated instruction and

service or related service, pursuant to Section 56363, if the service is considered

special education rather than a designated instruction and service or related servic

under state standards.

202 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(2) Travel training.

(3) Vocational education.

in accordance with Section 300.43(b) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations, if

provided as specially designed instruction, or a related service, if required to assist an

individual with exceptional needs to benefit from special education.

(d) Individuals with exceptional needs shall be grouped for instructional purposes

according to their instructional needs.

Continuum of Program Options

Text of Code:

EC 56361 - Continuum of Program Options

56361. The continuum of program options shall include, but not necessarily be limited

to, all of the following or any combination of the following:

(a) Regular education programs consistent with subparagraph (A) of paragraph (5) of

subsection (a) of Section 1412 of Title 20 of the United States Code and implementing

regulations.

(b) A resource specialist program pursuant to Section 56362.

(d) Special classes pursuant to Section 56364 or Section 56364.2

(e) Nonpublic, nonsectarian school services pursuant to Section 56365.

(f) State special schools pursuant to Section 56367.

(g) Instruction in settings other than classrooms where specially designed instruction

may occur.

(h) Itinerant instruction in classrooms, resource rooms, and settings other than

classrooms where specially designed instruction may occur to the extent required by

federal law or regulation.

(i) Instruction using telecommunication, and instruction in the home, in hospitals, and in

other institutions to the extent required by federal law or regulation.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 203

Special education provides a full continuum of program options to meet the educational

and service needs of individuals with exceptional needs in the least restrictive

environment.

Guidelines, Technical Assistance, and Monitoring

Education Code Section 56136

The superintendent shall develop guidelines for each low incidence disability area and

provide technical assistance to parents, teachers, and administrators regarding the

implementation of the guidelines. The guidelines shall clarify the identification,

assessment, and planning of, and the provision of, specialized services to pupils with

low incidence disabilities. The superintendent shall consider the guidelines when

monitoring programs serving pupils with low incidence disabilities pursuant to

subdivision (a) of Section 56836.04. The adopted guidelines shall be promulgated for

the purpose of establishing recommended guidelines and shall not operate to impose

minimum state requirements.

Compliance Assurances/Description and Services

Education Code 56205

Local Plans, Assurances and Services Agreements

56205. (a) Each special education local plan area submitting a local plan to the

Superintendent under this part shall ensure, in conformity with Sections 1412(a) and

1413(a)(1) of Title 20 of the United States Code, and in accordance with Section

300.201 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations, that it has in effect policies,

procedures, and programs that are consistent with state laws, regulations, and policies

governing the following:

(1) Free appropriate public education.

(2) Full educational opportunity.

(3) Child find and referral.

(4) Individualized education programs, including development, implementation, review,

and revision.

(5) Least restrictive environment.

(6) Procedural safeguards.

(7) Annual and triennial assessments.

204 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(8) Confidentiality.

(9) Transition from Subchapter III (commencing with Section 1431) of Title 20 of the

United States Code to the preschool program.

(10) Children in private schools.

(11) Compliance assurances, including general compliance with the federal Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. Sec. 1400 et seq.), Section 504 of the federal

Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29 U.S.C. Sec. 794), the federal Americans with Disabilities

Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101 et seq.), federal regulations relating thereto, and this

part.

(12) (A) A description of the governance and administration of the plan, including

identification of the governing body of a multidistrict plan or the individual responsible for

administration in a single district plan, and of the elected officials to whom the governing

body or individual is responsible.

(B) A description of the regionalized operations and services listed in Section 56836.23

and the direct instructional support provided by program specialists in accordance with

Section 56368 to be provided through the plan.

Section 56190.

(D) Multidistrict plans, submitted pursuant to subdivision (b) or (c) of Section 56195.1,

shall do the following:

(i) Specify the responsibilities of each participating county office and district governing

board in the policymaking process, the responsibilities of the superintendents of each

participating district and county in the implementation of the plan, and the

responsibilities of district and county administrators of special education in coordinating

the administration of the local plan.

(ii) Identify the respective roles of the administrative unit and the administrator of the

special education local plan area and the individual local educational agencies within

the special education local plan area in relation to the following:

(I)

The hiring, supervision, evaluation, and discipline of the administrator of the special

education local plan area and staff employed by the administrative unit in support of the

local plan.

(II)

The allocation from the state of federal and state funds to the special education local

plan area administrative unit or to local educational agencies within the special

education local plan area.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 205

(III)

The operation of special education programs.

(IV)

Monitoring the appropriate use of federal, state, and local funds allocated for

special education programs.

(V)

The preparation of program and fiscal reports required of the special education local

plan area by the state.

(iii) Include copies of joint powers agreements or contractual agreements, as

appropriate, for districts and counties that elect to enter into those agreements pursuant

to subdivision (b) or (c) of Section 56195.1.

(E) The description of the governance and administration of the plan, and the

policymaking process, shall be consistent with subdivision (f) of Section 56001,

subdivision (a) of Section 56195.3, and Section 56195.9, and shall reflect a schedule of

regular consultations regarding policy and budget development with representatives of

special education and regular education teachers and administrators selected by the

groups they represent and parent members of the community advisory committee

established pursuant to Article 7 (commencing with Section 56190) of Chapter 2.

(13) Personnel qualifications to ensure that personnel, including special education

teachers and personnel and paraprofessionals providing related services, necessary to

implement this part are appropriately and adequately prepared and trained in

accordance with Sections 56058 and 56070 and Sections 1412(a)(14) and 1413(a)(3) of

Title 20 of the United States Code.

(14) Performance goals and indicators.

(15) Participation in state and district wide assessments, including assessments

described under Section 1111 of the federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act

of 1965 (20 U.S.C. Sec. 6301 et seq.) and alternate assessments in accordance with

Section 1412(a) (16) of Title 20 of the United States Code, and reports relating to

assessments.

(16) Supplementation of state, local, and other federal funds, including nonsupplantation

of funds.

(17) Maintenance of financial effort.

(18) Opportunities for public participation prior to adoption of policies and procedures.

(19) Suspension and expulsion rates.

(20) Access to instructional materials by blind individuals with exceptional needs and

others with print disabilities in accordance with Section 1412(a)(23) of Title 20 of the

United States Code.

206 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(21) Over identification and disproportionate representation by race and ethnicity of

children as individuals with exceptional needs, including children with disabilities with a

particular impairment described in Section 1401 of Title 20 of the United States Code

and in accordance with Section 1412(a)(24) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(22) Prohibition of mandatory medication use pursuant to Section 56040.5 and in

accordance with Section 1412(a)(25) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(b) Each local plan submitted to the Superintendent under this part shall also contain all

the following:

(1) An annual budget plan that shall be adopted at a public hearing held by the special

education local plan area. Notice of this hearing shall be posted in each school in the

local plan area at least 15 days prior to the hearing. The annual budget plan may be

revised during any fiscal year according to the policymaking process established

pursuant to subparagraphs (D) and (E) of paragraph (12) of subdivision (a) and

consistent with subdivision (f) of Section 56001 and Section 56195.9. The annual

budget plan shall identify expected expenditures for all items required by this part which

shall include, but not be limited to, the following:

(A) Funds received in accordance with Chapter 7.2 (commencing with Section 56836).

(B) Administrative costs of the plan.

disabilities.

(D) Special education services to pupils with non-severe disabilities.

(E) Supplemental aids and services to meet the individual needs of pupils placed in

regular education classrooms and environments.

(F) Regionalized operations and services, and direct instructional support by program

specialists in accordance with Article 6 (commencing with Section 56836.23) of Chapter

7.2.

(G) The use of property taxes allocated to the special education local plan area

pursuant to Section 2572.

(2) An annual service plan shall be adopted at a public hearing held by the special

education local plan area. Notice of this hearing shall be posted in each district in the

special education local plan area at least 15 days prior to the hearing. The annual

service plan may be revised during any fiscal year according to the policymaking

process established pursuant to subparagraphs (D) and (E) of paragraph (12) of

subdivision (a) and consistent with subdivision (f) of Section 56001 and with Section

56195.9. The annual service plan shall include a description of services to be provided

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 207

by each district and county office, including the nature of the services and the physical

location at which the services will be provided, including alternative schools, charter

schools, opportunity schools and classes, community day schools operated by districts,

community schools operated by county offices, and juvenile court schools, regardless of

whether the district or county office is participating in the local plan. This description

shall demonstrate that all individuals with exceptional needs shall have access to

services and instruction appropriate to meet their needs as specified in their

individualized education programs.

(3) A description of programs for early childhood special education from birth through

five years of age.

(4) A description of the method by which members of the public, including parents or

guardians of individuals with exceptional needs who are receiving services under the

plan, may address questions or concerns to the governing body or individual identified

in subparagraph (A) of paragraph (12) of subdivision (a).

(5) A description of a dispute resolution process, including mediation and final and

binding arbitration to resolve disputes over the distribution of funding, the responsibility

for service provision, and the other governance activities specified within the plan.

(6) Verification that the plan has been reviewed by the community advisory committee

and that the committee had at least 30 days to conduct this review prior to submission

of the plan to the Superintendent.

(7) A description of the process being utilized to meet the requirements of Section

56303.

nonpublic, nonsectarian schools and the method of ensuring that all requirements of

each pupil's individualized education program are being met. The description shall

include a method for evaluating whether the pupil is making appropriate educational

progress.

(d) The local plan, budget plan, and annual service plan shall be written in language that

is understandable to the general public.

Staff Development

Education Code Section 56240 - 56245

Staff development programs shall be provided for regular and special education

teachers, administrators, certificated and classified employees, volunteers, and

community advisory committee members and, as appropriate, members of the district

and county governing boards. The programs shall be coordinated with other staff

208 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

development programs in the district, special education local plan area, or county office,

including school level staff development programs authorized by state and federal law.

56241. Staff development programs shall include, but not be limited to, all the following:

(a) Provision of opportunities for all school personnel, paraprofessionals, and volunteers

to participate in ongoing development activities pursuant to a systematic identification of

pupil and personnel needs.

(b) Be designed and implemented by classroom teachers and other participating school

personnel, including the school principal. Teachers shall comprise the majority of any

group designated to design local staff development programs for instructional personnel

to be established pursuant to this part. Positive efforts shall be made to ensure the

individuals with exceptional needs and parents of such individuals are involved in the

design and implementation of staff development programs.

groups, self-directed learning, and systematic observation during visits to other

classrooms or schools.

(d) Scheduling of time which is set aside for such purpose throughout the school year,

including, but not limited to, time when participating school personnel are released from

their regular duties.

(e) Evaluation and modification on a continuing basis by participating school personnel

with the aid of outside personnel, as necessary.

(f) Inclusion of the school principal and other administrative personnel as active

participants in one or more staff development activities implemented pursuant to this

chapter.

(g) Provision of a budget for reasonable and necessary expenses, relating to staff

development programs.

56243. It is the intent of the Legislature, pursuant to this article, that a local educational

agency provide regular classroom teachers serving individuals with exceptional needs

appropriate training each year relating to the needs of those individuals.

56244. The superintendent shall, to the extent possible using federal and state funds

appropriated for this purpose, provide staff development to child care center staff and

family day care providers to improve child care services to individuals with exceptional

needs.

56245. The Legislature encourages the inclusion, in local in-service training programs

for regular education teachers and special education teachers in local educational

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 209

agencies, of a component on the recognition of, and teaching strategies for, specific

learning disabilities, including dyslexia and related disorders.

Identification and Referral

Education Code Section 56300

A local educational agency shall actively and systematically seek out all individuals with

exceptional needs, from birth to 21 years of age, inclusive, including children not

enrolled in public school programs, who reside in a school district or are under the

jurisdiction of a special education local plan area or a county office of education.

Education Code Section 56301

30 EC 56301 - Continuous Child-Find System

56301. (a) All children with disabilities residing in the state, including children with

disabilities who are homeless children or are wards of the state and children with

disabilities attending private, including religious, elementary and secondary schools,

regardless of the severity of their disabilities, and who are in need of special education

and related services, shall be identified, located, and assessed and a practical method

is developed and implemented to determine which children with disabilities are currently

receiving needed special education and related services as required by Section

1412(a)(3) and (10)(A)(ii) of Title 20 of the United States Code. A child is not required to

be classified by his or her disability so long as each child who has a disability listed in

Section 1401(3) of Title 20 of the United States Code and who, by reason of that

disability, needs special education and related services as an individual with exceptional

needs defined in Section 56026.

(b) (1) In accordance with Section 300.111(c) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal

Regulations, the requirements of this section also apply to highly mobile individuals with

exceptional needs, including migrant children, and children who are suspected of being

an individual with exceptional needs pursuant to Section 56026 and in need of special

education, even though they are advancing from grade to grade.

(2) In accordance with Section 300.213 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations,

the local educational agency shall cooperate in the efforts of the federal Secretary of

Education, under Section 6398 of Title 20 of the United States Code, to ensure the

linkage of records pertaining to migratory children with disabilities for the purpose of

electronically exchanging, among other states, health and educational information

regarding those children.

education and related services of parentally placed private schoolchildren with

210 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

disabilities and an accurate count of those children. Child find activities conducted by

local educational agencies, or where applicable, the department, shall be similar to

those activities undertaken for pupils in public schools.

(2) In accordance with Section 1412(a)(10)(A)(ii)(IV) of Title 20 of the United States

Code, the cost of the child find activities in private, including religious, elementary and

secondary schools, may not be considered in determining whether a local educational

agency has met its obligations under the proportionate funding provisions for children

enrolled in private, including religious, elementary and secondary schools.

(3) The child find process described in paragraph (1) shall be completed in a time period

comparable to that for other pupils attending public schools in the local educational

agency.

(d) (1) Each special education local plan area shall establish written policies and

procedures pursuant to Section 56205 for use by its constituent local agencies for a

continuous child find system that addresses the relationships among identification,

screening, referral, assessment, planning, implementation, review, and the triennial

assessment. The policies and procedures shall include, but need not be limited to,

written notification of all parents of their rights under this chapter, and the procedure for

initiating a referral for assessment to identify individuals with exceptional needs.

(2) In accordance with Section 1415(d)(1)(A) of Title 20 of the United States Code, and

Section 300.504(a) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations, parents shall be

given a copy of their rights and procedural safeguards only one time a school year,

except that a copy also shall be given to the parents:

(A) Upon initial referral or parental request for assessment.

(B) Upon receipt of the first state complaint under Section 56500.2 in a school year.

school year.

(D) When a decision is made to make a removal that constitutes a change of placement

of an individual with exceptional needs because of a violation of a code of pupil conduct

in accordance with Section 300.530(h) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

(E) Upon request by a parent.

(3) A local educational agency may place a current copy of the procedural safeguards

notice on its Internet Web site, if such Web site exists, pursuant to Section

1415(d)(1)(B) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(4) The contents of the procedural safeguards notice shall contain the requirements

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 211

listed in Section 1415(d)(2) of Title 20 of the United States Code and Section 300.504(c)

of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

(e) Child find data collected pursuant to this chapter, or collected pursuant to a

regulation or an interagency agreement, are subject to the confidentiality requirements

of Sections 300.611 to 300.627, inclusive, of Title 34 of the Code of Federal

Regulations. Each district, special education local plan area, or county office shall

establish written policies and procedures for a continuous child-find system which

addresses the relationships among identification, screening, referral, assessment,

planning, implementation, review, and the triennial assessment. The policies and

procedures shall include, but need not be limited to, written notification of all parents of

their rights under this chapter, and the procedure for initiating a referral for assessment

to identify individuals with exceptional needs.

Education Code Section 56302

A local educational agency shall provide for the identification and assessment of the

exceptional needs of an individual, and the planning of an instructional program to meet

the assessed needs. Identification procedures shall include systematic methods of

utilizing referrals of pupils from teachers, parents, agencies, appropriate professional

persons, and from other members of the public. Identification procedures shall be

coordinated with school site procedures for referral of pupils with needs that cannot be

met with modification of the regular instructional program.

Education Code Section 56303

A pupil shall be referred for special educational instruction and services only after the

resources of the regular education program have been considered and, where

appropriate, utilized.

Assessment/Low Vision Assessment

Education Code Section 56320

(f) The pupil is assessed in all areas related to the suspected disability including, if

appropriate, health and development, vision, including low vision, hearing, motor

abilities, language function, general intelligence, academic performance,

communicative status, self-help, orientation and mobility skills, career and vocational

abilities and interests, and social and emotional status. A developmental history shall

be obtained,

when appropriate. For pupils with residual vision, a low vision assessment

shall be provided in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

In assessing each pupil under this article, the assessment shall be conducted in

accordance with Sections 300.304 and 300.305 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal

Regulations. The pupil is assessed in all areas related to the suspected disability,

including, where appropriate, health and development, vision, including low vision,

212 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

hearing, motor abilities, language function, general ability, academic performance, self-

help, orientation and mobility skills, career and vocational abilities and interests, and

social and emotional status. A developmental history is obtained, when

appropriate.The assessment of a pupil, including the assessment of a pupil with a

suspected low incidence disability, shall be conducted by persons knowledgeable of

that disability.

Special attention shall be given to the unique educational needs,

including, but not

limited to, skills and the need for specialized services, materials, and

equipment

consistent with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

Persons Conducting the Assessment

Education Code Section 56320

Assessment Report

Education Code Section 56327

30 EC 56327 - Assessment Results; Reports

56327. The personnel who assess the pupil shall prepare a written report, or reports, as

appropriate, of the results of each assessment. The report shall include, but not be

limited to, all the following:

(a) Whether the pupil may need special education and related services.

(b) The basis for making the determination.

setting.

(d) The relationship of that behavior to the pupil's academic and social functioning.

(e) The educationally relevant health and development, and medical findings, if any.

(f) For pupils with learning disabilities whether there is such a discrepancy between

achievement and ability that it cannot be corrected without special education and

related services.

(g) A determination concerning the effects of environmental, cultural, or economic

disadvantage, where appropriate.

(h) The need for specialized services, materials, and equipment for pupils with low

incidence disabilities, consistent with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 213

Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Dysfunction

Education Code Section 56338

As used in Section 56337, “specific learning disability” includes, but is not limited to,

disability within the function of vision which results in visual perceptual or visual motor

dysfunction.

Individualized Education Program

Education Code Section 56345

a) The individualized education program is a written statement for each individual with

exceptional needs that is developed, reviewed, and revised in accordance with this

section, as required by Section 1414(d) of Title 20 of the United States Code, and that

includes the following:

(1) A statement of the individual’s present levels of academic achievement and

functional performance, including the following:

(A) The manner in which the disability of the individual affects his or her involvement

and progress in the general education curriculum.

(B) For preschool children, as appropriate, the manner in which the disability affects his

or her participation in appropriate activities.

alternate achievement standards, a description of benchmarks or short-term objectives.

(2) A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic and functional goals,

designed to do the following:

(A) Meet the needs of the individual that result from the disability of the individual to

enable the pupil to be involved in and make progress in the general education

curriculum.

(B) Meet each of the other educational needs of the pupil that result from the disability

of the individual.

(3) A description of the manner in which the progress of the pupil toward meeting the

annual goals described in paragraph (2) will be measured and when periodic reports on

the progress the pupil is making toward meeting the annual goals, such as through the

use of quarterly or other periodic reports, concurrent with the issuance of report cards,

will be provided.

214 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(4) A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids

and services, based on peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be

provided to the pupil, or on behalf of the pupil, and a statement of the program

modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided to enable the pupil

to do the following:

(A) To advance appropriately toward attaining the annual goals.

(B) To be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum in

accordance with paragraph (1) and to participate in extracurricular and other

nonacademic activities.

nondisabled pupils in the activities described in this subdivision.

(5) An explanation of the extent, if any, to which the pupil will not participate with

nondisabled pupils in the regular class and in the activities described in subparagraph

(6) (A) A statement of individual appropriate accommodations that are necessary to

measure the academic achievement and functional performance of the pupil on state

and district wide assessments consistent with Section 1412(a)(16)(A) of Title 20 of the

United States Code.

(B) If the individualized education program team determines that the pupil shall take an

alternate assessment instead of a particular state or district wide assessment of pupil

achievement, a statement of the following:

(i) The reason why the pupil cannot participate in the regular assessment.

(ii) The reason why the particular alternate assessment selected is appropriate for the

pupil.

(7) The projected date for the beginning of the services and modifications described in

paragraph (4), and the anticipated frequency, location, and duration of those services

and modifications.

(8) Beginning not later than the first individualized education program to be in effect

when the pupil is 16 years of age, or younger if determined appropriate by the

individualized education program team, and updated annually thereafter, the following

shall be included:

(A) Appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based upon age-appropriate transition

assessments related to training, education, employment, and where appropriate,

independent living skills.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 215

(B) The transition services, as defined in Section 56345.1, including courses of study,

needed to assist the pupil in reaching those goals.

(b) If appropriate, the individualized education program shall also include, but not be

limited to, all of the following:

(1) For pupils in grades 7 to 12, inclusive, any alternative means and modes necessar

for the pupil to complete the prescribed course of study of the district and to meet or

exceed proficiency standards for graduation.

(2) For individuals whose native language is other than English, linguistically

appropriate goals, objectives, programs, and services.

(3) Pursuant to Section 300.106 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations,

extended school year services shall be included in the individualized education program

and provided to the pupil if the individualized education program team of the pupil

determines, on an individual basis, that the services are necessary for the provision of a

free appropriate public education to the pupil.

(4) Provision for the transition into the regular class program if the pupil is to be

transferred from a special class or nonpublic, nonsectarian school into a regular class in

a public school for any part of the school day, including the following:

(A) A description of activities provided to integrate the pupil into the regular education

program. The description shall indicate the nature of each activity, and the time spent

on the activity each day or week.

(B) A description of the activities provided to support the transition of pupils from the

special education program into the regular education program.

(5) For pupils with low-incidence disabilities, specialized services, materials, and

equipment, consistent with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

the local educational agency is responsible for providing the services delineated in the

individualized education program. However, the Legislature recognizes that some pupils

may not meet or exceed the growth projected in the annual goals and objectives of the

individualized education program of the pupil.

(d) Consistent with Section 56000.5 and Section 1414(d)(3)(B)(iv) of Title 20 of the

United States Code, it is the intent of the Legislature that, in making a determination of

the services that constitute an appropriate education to meet the unique needs of a

deaf

or hard-of-hearing pupil in the least restrictive environment, the individualized

education program team shall consider the related services and program options that

provide the pupil with an equal opportunity for communication access. The

individualized education program team shall specifically discuss the communication

216 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

needs of the pupil,

consistent with “Deaf Students Education Services Policy

Guidance” (57 Fed. Reg. 49274 (October 1992)), including all of the following:

(1) The pupil’s primary language mode and language, which may include the use of

spoken language with or without visual cues, or the use of sign language, or a

combination of both.

(2) The availability of a sufficient number of age, cognitive, and language peers of

similar abilities, which may be met by consolidating services into a local plan area wide

program or providing placement pursuant to Section 56361.

(3) Appropriate, direct, and ongoing language access to special education teachers and

other specialists who are proficient in the pupil’s primary language mode and language

consistent with existing law regarding teacher training requirements.

(4) Services necessary to ensure communication-accessible academic instructions,

school services, and extracurricular activities consistent with the federal Vocational

Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29 U.S.C. Sec. 794 et seq.) and the federal Americans with

Disabilities Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101 et seq.).

(5) In accordance with Section 300.113 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations,

each public agency shall ensure that hearing aids worn in school by children with

hearing impairments, including deafness, are functioning properly.

(6) Subject to paragraph (7), each public agency, pursuant to Section 300.113(b) of Title

34 of the Code of Federal Regulations, shall ensure that external components of

surgically implanted medical devices are functioning properly.

(7) For a child with a surgically implanted medical device who is receiving special

education and a service under Section 56363, a public agency is not responsible for the

postsurgical maintenance, programming, or replacement of the medical device that has

been surgically implanted, or of an external component of the surgically implanted

medical device.

(e) State moneys appropriated to districts or local educational agencies may not be

used for any additional responsibilities and services associated with paragraphs (1) and

(2) of subdivision (d), including the training of special education teachers and other

specialists, even if those additional responsibilities or services are required pursuant to

a judicial or state agency determination. Those responsibilities and services shall only

be funded by a local educational agency as follows:

(1) The costs of those activities shall be funded from existing programs and funding

sources.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 217

(2) Those activities shall be supported by the resources otherwise made available to

those programs.

(3) Those activities shall be consistent with Sections 56240 to 56243, inclusive.

(f) It is the intent of the Legislature that the communication skills of teachers who work

with hard-of-hearing and deaf children be improved. This section does not remove the

discretionary authority of the local educational agency in regard to in-service activities.

(g) Beginning not later than one year before the pupil reaches the age of 18 years, a

statement that the pupil has been informed of the pupil’s rights under this part, if any,

that will transfer to the pupil upon reaching the age of 18 years pursuant to Section

56041.5.

(h) The individualized education program team is not required to include information

under one component of a pupil’s individualized education program that is already

contained under another component of the individualized education program.

(i) This section does not require that additional information, beyond that explicitly

required by Section 1414 of Title 20 of the United States Code and this part, be included

in the individualized education program of a pupil.

Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils

Education Codes 56350 to 56352

56350. Unless the context otherwise requires, the definitions set forth in this section

shall govern the construction of this article.

(a) A “functionally blind pupil” means a pupil who relies basically on senses other than

vision as major channels for learning.

(b) A “pupil with low vision” means a pupil who uses vision as a channel for learning, but

who may also benefit from instruction in braille.

vision. For purposes of this article, a “visually impaired pupil” does not include a pupil

who is eligible for special education and related services based on a specific learning

disability identified pursuant to Section 56338.

(d) “Braille” means the system of reading and writing through touch commonly known as

“Standard English Braille, American Edition.”

56351. Local educational agencies shall provide opportunities for braille instruction for

pupils who, due to a prognosis of visual deterioration, may be expected to have a need

for braille as a reading medium.

218 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

56351.5. (a) (1) A local educational agency may reinforce braille instruction using a

braille instructional aide who meets the criteria set forth in paragraph (2) under the

supervision of a teacher who holds an appropriate credential, as determined by the

Commission on Teacher Credentialing, to teach pupils who are functionally blind or

visually impaired. This instruction shall be in accordance with the individualized

education program of the pupil.

(2) For purposes of this section, a braille instructional aide shall demonstrate to the

supervising teacher that he or she is fluent in reading and writing grade 2 braille and

possesses basic knowledge of the rules of braille construction.

(b) A local educational agency that employs a braille instructional aide shall provide the

aide with information regarding teaching credential programs, including the Wildman-

Keeley-Solis Exemplary Teacher Training Act of 1997 (Article 12 (commencing with

Section 44390) of Chapter 2 of Part 25) and the Teacher Education Internship Act of

1967 (Article 3 (commencing with Section 44450) of Chapter 3 of Part 25).

(a) The Superintendent of Public Instruction shall form an advisory task force to

develop standards for the mastery of the braille code as a child progresses through

kindergarten to grade 12, inclusive.

(b) The task force shall include, but shall not be limited to, members approved by the

State Board of Education representing all of the following:

(1) Parents of visually impaired pupils.

(2) Teachers of visually impaired pupils.

(3) Researchers in the field of visual impairment.

(4) Braille experts.

(5) Groups that advocate for teaching of, and use of, braille.

(6) Groups that advocate for the visually impaired.

Assembly and the Senate by June 30, 2004.

(A) The Superintendent shall utilize the advisory task force established pursuant to

Section 56351.7 to develop standards for pupils described in subdivision (b) to learn,

and to achieve mastery of, the braille mathematics code as they progress through

kindergarten and grades 1 to 12, inclusive.

(b) The standards described in subdivision (a) shall be developed for pupils who, due to

a visual impairment, are functionally blind or may be expected to have a need to learn

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 219

the braille code as their primary literacy mode for learning.

(a) By June 1, 2006, the state board shall adopt braille reading and mathematics

standards for pupils who, due to a visual impairment, are functionally blind or may be

expected to have a need to learn the braille code as their primary literacy mode for

learning.

(b) County offices of education, school districts, and special education local plan areas

shall provide to pupils described in subdivision (a) opportunities for instruction to master

the braille reading and mathematics standards described in subdivision (a).

56352. (a) A functional vision assessment conducted pursuant to Section 56320 shall

be used as one criterion in determining the appropriate reading medium or media for the

pupil.

(b) An assessment of braille skills shall be required for functionally blind pupils who

have the ability to read in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to Section

56136. A local educational agency may provide pupils with low vision with the

opportunity to receive assessments to determine the appropriate reading medium or

media, including braille instruction, for the pupils.

appropriate medium or media, including braille, for functionally blind pupils who have

the ability to read shall use as one criterion the assessment provided for pursuant to

subdivision (b) and shall be in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to

Section 56136.

(d) Except as provided in subdivision (b) of Section 56351.5, braille instruction shall be

provided by a teacher who holds an appropriate credential, as determined by the

Commission on Teacher Credentialing, to teach pupils who are functionally blind or

visually impaired.

(e) Each visually impaired pupil shall be provided with the opportunity to receive an

assessment to determine the appropriate reading medium or media, including braille

instruction, if appropriate, for that pupil.

Definitions

Education Code Section 56350 (as above)

Unless the context otherwise requires, the definitions set forth in this section shall

govern the construction of this article.

(a) A “functionally blind pupil” means a pupil who relies basically on senses other than

vision as major channels for learning.

220 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

(b) A “pupil with low vision” means a pupil who uses vision as a channel for learning, but

who may also benefit from instruction in braille.

vision. For purposes of this article, a “visually impaired pupil” does not include a pupil

who is eligible for special education and related services based on a specific learning

disability identified pursuant to Section 56338.

(d) “Braille” means the system of reading and writing through touch commonly known as

“Standard English Braille, American Edition.”

Education Code Section 44265.5(a)

Pupils who are visually impaired, as defined in Section 56350, shall be taught by

teachers whose professional preparation and credential authorization are specific to that

impairment. .

As above

Education Code Section 56360

Each special education local plan area shall ensure that a continuum of program options

is available to meet the needs of individuals with exceptional needs for special

education and related services, as required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education

Act (20 U.S.C. Sec. 1400 et seq.) and federal regulations relating thereto.

Designated Instruction and Services

Education Code Section 56363

(a) As used in this part, the term “designated instruction and services” means “related

services” as that term is defined in Section 1401(26) of Title 20 of the United States

Code and Section 300.34 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The term

“related services” means transportation, and such developmental, corrective, and other

supportive services (including speech-language pathology and audiology services,

interpreting services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy,

recreation, including therapeutic recreation, social work services, school nurse services

designed to enable an individual with exceptional needs to receive a free appropriate

public education as described in the individualized education program of the child,

counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation, and mobility

services, and medical services, except that such medical services shall be for

diagnostic and evaluation purposes only) as may be required to assist an individual with

exceptional needs to benefit from special education, and includes the early identification

and assessment of disabling conditions in children.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 221

(b) These services may include, but are not limited to, the following:

(1) Language and speech development and remediation. The language and speech

development and remediation services may be provided by a speech-language

pathology assistant as defined in subdivision (i) of Section 2530.2 of the Business and

Professions Code.

(2) Audio logical services.

(3) Orientation and mobility services.

(4) Instruction in the home or hospital.

(5) Adapted physical education.

(6) Physical and occupational therapy.

(7) Vision services.

(8) Specialized driver training instruction.

(9) Counseling and guidance services, including rehabilitation counseling.

(10) Psychological services other than assessment and development of the

individualized education program.

(11) Parent counseling and training.

(12) Health and nursing services, including school nurse services designed to enable an

individual with exceptional needs to receive a free appropriate public education as

described in the individualized education program.

(13) Social worker services.

(14) Specially designed vocational education and career development.

(15) Recreation services.

(16) Specialized services for low-incidence disabilities, such as readers, transcribers,

and vision and hearing services.

(17) Interpreting services.

(c)

The terms “designated instruction and services” and “related services” do not

include a medical device that is surgically implanted, including cochlear implants, the

optimization of the functioning of a medical device, maintenance of that device, or the

replacement of that device, pursuant to Section 300.34(b) of Title 34 of the Code of

222 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Federal Regulations. In accordance with Section 300.34(b) of Title 34 of the Code of

Federal Regulations, nothing in this subdivision shall do any of the following:

(1) Limit the right of an individual with exceptional needs with a surgically implanted

device, including a cochlear implant, to receive related services or designated

instruction and services that are determined by the individualized education program

team to be necessary for the individual to receive a free appropriate public education.

(2) Limit the responsibility of a local educational agency to appropriately monitor and

maintain medical devices that are needed to maintain the health and safety of the

individual, including breathing, nutrition, or operation of other bodily functions, while the

individual is transported to and from school or is at school.

(3) Prevent the routine checking of an external component of a surgically implanted

device to make sure it is functioning properly, as required by Section 300.113(b) of Title

34 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

Integrated Special Classes/Instruction

Education Code Section 56364.1

Notwithstanding the provisions of Section 56364.2, pupils with low incidence disabilities

may receive all or a portion of their instruction in the regular classroom and may also be

enrolled in special classes taught by appropriately credentialed teachers who serve

these pupils at one or more school sites. The instruction shall be provided in a manner

which is consistent with the guidelines adopted pursuant to Section 56136 and in

accordance with the individualized education program.

Low Incidence Funding

Since the mid 1980’s, the state budget has included two line items for funding

specialized equipment, books and materials and for specialized services for students

with low incidence disabilities. Beginning in the state budget for 2013-14, those two line

items were put into one line item. The funds are to be used for special education and

related services indicated in the IEP of students with low incidence disabilities.

Braille Standards

Text of Code:

30 EC 56351.9 - State Board Shall Adopt Braille Reading and Mathematics Standards

for Pupils

(As above)

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 223

The Braille Reading Standards can be found on the CDE Web site at

www.cde.ca.gov/sp/se/sr/documents/braillereadstand.pdf#search=Braille%20Standards

&view=FitH8pagemode=none

The Braille Math Standards can be found on the CDE Web site at

www.cde.ca.gov/sp/se/sr/documents/braillemathstand.pdf#search=Braille%20Standards

&view=FitH8pagemode=none .

224 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

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Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 225

Appendix G

Resources for Technical Assistance

This list of resources shows where information about specific areas may be obtained.

Resources for technical assistance are available from the California Department of

Education, other state agencies, and various state and national organizations.

California Department of Education

For information about identification, assessment, instruction and services, curriculum,

public school programs and private schools and agencies, directories (including the low

incidence directory), funding (including low incidence funding), and legal requirements,

and monitoring, one should contact:

Special Education Division

1430 N Street

Sacramento, California 95814

(916) 445-4613

TDD: (916) 323-4014 or 327-3678

Information about the educational and residential program, the assessment center, and

assistance in assessing and providing specialized instruction to students with visual

impairments (particularly students with additional disabilities) may be obtained from:

California School for the Blind

500 Walnut Ave.

Fremont, CA 94536

(510) 794-3800

Materials and equipment, aural media, and transcribers, as well as information about

them, are available from:

(Send materials in packages to this address):

Clearinghouse for Specialized Media and Technology

1430 N Street

Sacramento, CA 95814

(916) 445-5103

www.cde.ca.gov/

Additional program support and assistance are also provided by many other units within

the following main branches of the California Department of Education. The main

mailing address is California Department of Education, 1430 N Street, Sacramento, CA

95814

226 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Special Services and Support Branch Phone: 916-319-0797 Fax: 916-319-0100

Curriculum, Learning and Accountability Branch Phone: 916-319-0812 Fax: 916-319-

0109

Finance, Technology and Administrative Branch Phone: 916-319-0815 Fax: 916-319-

0106

Government Affairs and Charter Development Branch Phone: 916-319-0700 Fax: 916-

319-0116

Additional Resources

The following agency provides assistance in a variety of settings to parents, staff, and

administrators of programs serving students who are deaf-blind and maintains a registry

of these students in California:

California Deaf-Blind Services

San Francisco State University

1600 Holloway Ave./

San Francisco, CA 94132-4201

cadbs@sfsu.edu

415-405-7560 - V/TTY

415-405-7562 - FAX

800-822-7884 - Toll Free

For information about eye specialists, one should contact:

California Optometric Association

2415 K Street

Sacramento, CA 95816

(916) 441-3990

(800) 877-5738

(916) 448-1423 (Fax)

contact@coavision.org

California Academy of Eye Physicians and Surgeons

1201 J Street, Suite 200

Sacramento, CA 95814

Phone: (415) 777-3937

Fax:

(415) 777-1082

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 227

The following organization sponsors an annual state conference and provides

information about transcription in special media and publications, including a newsletter

for transcribers and educators:

California Transcribers and Educators of the Visually Handicapped

741 N. Vermont Ave.

Los Angeles, CA 90029

(213) 666-2211

The address of the main office of the California State Department of Rehabilitation is:

California Department of Rehabilitation

(916) 324-1313 (VOICE)

(916) 558-5807 (TTY)

Mailing Address:

P.O. Box 944222

Sacramento, CA 94244-2220

Physical Address:

721 Capitol Mall

Sacramento, CA 95814

ExternalAffairs@dor.ca.gov

District offices are located throughout the state. Information about state hospital

programs in California is available from:

The address of the main office of the California Department of Developmental Services

is:

Department of Developmental Services

1600 Ninth St., Second Floor

South Sacramento, CA 95814

(916) 323-4848

Information about preparation programs for teachers of the visually impaired, orientation

and mobility specialists, and credentials may be obtained from:

Commission on Teacher Credentialing

1020 “O” St., Rm 222

Sacramento, CA 95814

(916) 445-7254

California State University, Los Angeles Special Education Division

5151 State University Dr.

Los Angeles, CA 90032

(213) 343-4400

228 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

San Francisco State University Department of Special Education

1600 Holloway Ave.

San Francisco, CA 94132

(415) 338-1080 or 338-1245

The following is the only membership organization dedicated to the education and

rehabilitation of blind and visually impaired children and adults. The organization and

chapters conduct local, regional, and international meetings and conferences; provide

publications, including newsletters and journals; and offer a job exchange service. The

address is as follows:

Association of Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (National

Office)

1703 North Beauregard Street, Suite 440

Alexandria, VA 22311

877-492-2708 (Toll free)

703-671-4500

703-671-6391 (Fax)

www.aerbvi.org

The following professional organizations of orientation and mobility specialists hold state

and local meetings, publish newsletters, and provide information in this field. The

addresses in California for this organization are:

California Association of Orientation and Mobility Specialists

Northern California Chapter

San Francisco State University Department of Special Education

1600 Holloway Ave.

San Francisco, CA 94132

(415) 338-1245

California Association of Orientation and Mobility Specialists

Southern California Chapter

California State University, Los Angeles Department of Special Education

5151 State University Dr.

Los Angeles, CA 90032

(213) 343-4411

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 229

The organization listed as follows provides catalogs of publications and media. The

services of national and regional consultants and publications, including the Directory of

Agencies Serving the Visually Handicapped in the U.S., are available from this

organization:

American Foundation for the Blind, Inc.

Tel: (212) 502-7600

Fax: (888) 545-8331

E-mail: afbinfo@afb.net 2

Penn Plaza, Suite 1102

New York, NY 10121

The following organization publishes newsletters and position papers and hosts national

meetings:

Division for Visually Handicapped Council for Exceptional Children

1920 Association Dr.

Reston, VA 22091

(703) 620-3660

The following organization supports sight conservation and work for the blind:

Lions International

300 22nd St.

Oak Brook, IL 60521

The organization listed below provides peer support, information, and services to

parents of visually impaired and multiply impaired/visually impaired students.

National Association for Parents of the Visually Impaired, Inc.

1 North Lexington Avenue

White Plains, New York

(212) 769-7819 or (800) 562-6265

The address of the California chapter is:

California Association for Parents of the Visually Impaired

P.O. Box 1126

Los Gatos, CA 95031

(909) 945-5619

230 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Organizations of the blind that can provide assistance to staff and parents are:

California Council of the Blind

1303 J Street Suite 400

Sacramento, CA 95814-2900

(916)441-2100 or (800) 221-6359

National Federation of the Blind of California

3934 Kern Court

Pleasanton, CA 94588

(510) 846-6086

The following organization is a source for a network of services to infants and preschool

children provided by agencies in southern California:

Southern California Network

Serving Infant and Preschool Children with Visual Impairments

P.O.

Box 1305

Woodland Hills, CA 91365

For resources related to materials and equipment, see Appendix E.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 231

Appendix H

The Early Start Program

The California State Legislature passed the California Early Intervention Services Act in

1993 (CEISA; 14 G.C. Section 95000 et seq.). CEISA established state authority to

develop an early intervention service system that was congruent with federal

requirements. The California Department of Developmental Services (DDS) plans,

develops, implements, and monitors the statewide early intervention services system in

collaboration with the California Department of Education (CDE), and with advice and

assistance from the State Interagency Coordinating Council (ICC). The Departments of

Health, Social Services, Mental Health, and Alcohol and Drug Programs cooperate and

coordinate with DDS and CDE in the delivery of early intervention services.

The Early Start Program became California's response to the federal legislation,

ensuring that early intervention services to infants and toddlers with disabilities and their

families are provided in a coordinated, family-centered system of services available

statewide.

The California Early Start Program reflects the focus and intent of Part C legislation and

has a positive impact on early intervention services through:



Continued support for existing services and expansion of some programs



Enhanced services for infants and toddlers with low incidence conditions, which

include vision, hearing and orthopedic disabilities and combinations thereof



Commitment to family-focused service delivery systems, including support for

local Family Resource Centers (FRC/N)



Interagency collaboration to promote local interagency agreements, memoranda

of understanding (MOU), and the coordinated development of services in the

participating agencies.

The success of the Early Start Program depends on parent involvement, interagency

collaboration and a broad base of community support to establish and maintain an

effective early intervention system.

Listed as follows are 14 basic elements of Part C of IDEA and California’s Early Start

Program:

A definition of developmental delay

A timetable for availability of services

A comprehensive multidisciplinary evaluation of children and families

An individualized family service plan that includes coordination of servi

A comprehensive child-find and referral system

ces

232 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

A public awareness program to focus on early identification of developmentally

delayed children

A central directory of services, resources, state experts, and research and

demonstration projects

A comprehensive system of personnel development

A single line of authority to a lead agency

10.

A policy for contracting or making arrangements with local service providers

11.

Steps for timely reimbursements of funds

12.

Procedural safeguards

13.

Policies and procedures for personnel standards

14.

A system of compiling data regarding the early intervention program

Eligibility

Under California government code children age 0 to 2 with visual impairments may be

eligible for services from LEAs if they meet the requirements in the California Code of

Regulations, Title 5, Education, section 3030(d). A pupil has a visual impairment which,

even with correction, adversely affects a pupil's educational performance. But they are

required to have an established risk of a solely low incidence disability and not be

eligible for services from the Regional Center. Infants and toddlers who have visual

impairments are not required to show a 50 percent delay in one area or a 25 percent

delay in two areas.

California Code of Regulations, Title 17, Division 2, Chapter 2 - Early Intervention

Services

SubChapter 1 - General Provisions Article 2 - Eligibility for California's Early Start

Program also states: eligibility exists under established risk when an infant or toddler

has a solely low incidence disability.

Infants and toddlers whose multiple disabilities include visual impairment, may be dually

eligible for and dually served by Regional Centers and the LEA. The number of dually

eligible infants and toddlers receiving services from the LEA is determined by the LEA’s

funded capacity.

Determination of eligibility is established through evaluation; programmatic needs are

determined through assessment in all the five domains of development and will include

an assessment of the family’s concerns, priorities and resources.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 233

Early Intervention Services

Early education programs for infants identified as individuals with exceptional needs,

that provide educational services with active parent involvement, can significantly

reduce the potential impact of many disabling conditions, and positively influence later

development when the child reaches school age. Early education programs shall

provide a continuum of program options provided by a multi-disciplinary team to meet

the multiple and varied needs of infants and their families. Recognizing the parent as

the infant's primary teacher, it is the intent that early education programs will include

opportunities for the family to receive home visits and to participate in family

involvement activities. As an infant grows older, program emphasis would shift from

home-based services to a combination of home-based and group services.

It is further the intent of Early Start that services provided by state and local agencies

serving infants with exceptional needs and their families be coordinated and maximized.

(California Education Code: 56441.

Early Start services are specialized and provide ongoing support, which includes

developmental, educational, health and social interventions that influence the overall

development of the child with disabilities.

Multi-disciplinary coordination of specialties, such as vision and hearing services,

physical/occupational therapies, nutritional, speech, medical and psychosocial, has a

goal of reducing duplication of services and ensuring the provision of needed services.

Services shall include, but are not limited to:

(1) Observing the infant's behavior and development in his or her natural environment.

(2) Presenting activities that are developmentally appropriate for the infant and are

specially designed, based on the infant's exceptional needs, to enhance the infant's

development. Those activities shall be developed to conform with the infant's

individualized family service plan (IFSP) and to ensure that they do not conflict with his

or her medical needs.

(3) Modeling and demonstrating developmentally appropriate activities for the infant to

the parents, siblings, and other caregivers, as designated by the parent.

(4) Interacting with the family members and other caregivers, as designated by the

parent, to enhance and reinforce their development of skills necessary to promote the

infant's development.

(5) Discussing parental concerns related to the infant and the family, and supporting

parents in coping with their infant's needs.

(6) Assisting parents to solve problems, to seek other services in their community, and

to coordinate the services provided by various agencies.

(b) The frequency of home-based services shall be once or twice a week, depending

on the needs of the infant and the family.

(Education Code: 56426.1)

234 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Home based and group activities shall also include, but are not limited to:

(1) Group and individual activities that are developmentally appropriate and specially

designed, based on the infant's exceptional needs, to enhance the infant's

development. Those activities shall be developed to conform with the infant's

individualized family service plan and to ensure that they do not conflict with his or her

medical needs.

(2) Opportunities for infants to socialize and participate in play and exploration

activities.

(3) Transdiciplinary services by therapists, psychologists, and other specialists as

appropriate.

(4) Access to various developmentally appropriate equipment and specialized

materials.

(5) Opportunities for family involvement activities, including parent education and

parent support groups.

(Education Code: 56426.2)

Credentialed personnel with expertise in vision or hearing impairments shall be made

available by the Local Educational Agency to early education programs serving infants

identified in accordance

with subdivision (a), (b), or (d) of Section 3030 of Title 5 of the California Code of

Regulations, and shall be the primary providers of services under those programs

whenever possible.

(Education Code: 56426.6<b>)

Individualized Family Service Plan

The purpose of the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) is to provide a process

that enables the family and service provider(s) to work together as equal partners in

determining child and family needs, priorities and resources, and the early intervention

services required for the child with disabilities and the family. Both formal and informal

resources and services are considered. The IFSP is one component of a

comprehensive system of early intervention services: a process where family member

and the team reflect on what has been learned while planning for the next steps in the

journey.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 235

The Role of the IFSP

The most important part of the IFSP is the relationship built among the family,

professionals and paraprofessionals.

The relationship is built on trust and respect, with the goal of enabling and empowering

the family to become active decision makers on behalf of the child and family. Family

members should be supported in their attainment of self-confidence and self-esteem as

a result of participating in development of their child’s IFSP.

For children who may be eligible for services from regional centers as well as from

LEAs, an interagency team must participate in decisions about the early intervention

services for infants, toddlers and their families.

Infants and toddlers who are enrolled in LEA programs are eligible for services such as

service coordination, respite, nutrition consultation, and transportation for families to

activities that are necessary to fulfill the requirements of the IFSP. The IFSP must also

describe services the family needs that other agencies may offer, but are not paid for by

the LEA.

Periodic Review

Part C also requires that every child’s individualized family service plan (IFSP) is

reviewed every six months and that steps for a transition be written in the IFSP when

the child is two years and six months of age. The receiving preschool staff needs to be

involved in the transition planning to ensure a smooth transition and no gap in service

when the child turns three.

Assessment

Part C requires an assessment in all five areas of development: cognitive,

communication, adaptive, social and emotional, and physical, which includes vision,

hearing and health status.

Transition

Families are the primary decision maker for their child. Transition planning should be

approached as though the team were consultants to the family, providing them with the

information they need to assess the various program options in light of their child’s and

family’s needs and resources. This approach should permeate the entire system and

influence each service and each transition that a family experiences.

236 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Families of children with disabilities who are making transition from infant care to

preschool and preschool to kindergarten programs experience stress from many

sources:



Loss of support persons in their lives and in their child’s life



Anxiety regarding separation and safety issues, particularly if the child is unable

to communicate



Responsibility for making placement decision that will affect the child’s future



Adjustment to a new system of service provision that establishes relationships

with the child’s new support team and to the role of advocate for the child in the

new situation.



The need to adopt new family routines, depending on the location and schedule

of the child’s new program.

The stressors may increase when the disability is initially diagnosed and the family first

learns of the impact of the diagnosis on the child and whole family.

(p.6, Handbook on Transition from Early Childhood Programs, 2005).

Preschool Children

Part B of IDEA requires policies and procedures to ensure that children participating in

early intervention programs under Part C will participate in preschool programs under

Part B, if eligible, and experience a smooth and effective transition. For a child

previously served under Part C, IDEA requires that an invitation to the initial IEP

meeting, at the request of the parent, be sent to the Part C Service Coordinator or other

representatives of the Part C system to assist with the smooth transition of services.*

Eligibility for preschool services under Part B of IDEA is the same as for older children

to age twenty two. Preschoolers, making a transition to kindergarten or to the first

grade must be assessed to determine whether they continue to be eligible for special

education and related services.

Once a child is determined eligible, any necessary special education placement option

or related service is available to insure the child’s educational progress. The

individualized family service plan (IFSP) must contain the steps supporting the transition

of the child to a Part B preschool special education program if appropriate, or to other

available services. For children, whose multiple impairments include vision impairment,

adult to child ratios are specified in Education Code 56441.5.

*Handbook on Transition from Early Childhood Special Education, California

Department of Education, Sacramento, 2005

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 237

Appendix I

“A Brief Overview of Cerebral Visual Impairment (CVI)”

adapted from Lueck, A.H., & Dutton, G.N. (in press). Impairment of vision

due to disorders of the visual brain in childhood: A practical approach

Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is the most frequent cause of visual impairment during

childhood in industrialized countries, including the United States. It refers to damage to

the visual brain that leads to disordered vision and/or visual perception of any type or

severity. While CVI is often associated with additional conditions in children, such as

cerebral palsy, it can occur in students who do not have other disorders. Students with

more severe visual conditions due to CVI are more likely to be identified than those with

milder visual concerns, but students with CVI can have less severe visual impairment or

even normal to near normal visual acuity.

CVI can be described as a deficiency in the functions of vision due to damage or

malfunction of visual pathways and/or visual centers in the brain (specifically those

behind the lateral geniculate bodies), including the optic radiations, the occipital cortex

and the visual associative areas, which may be accentuated by associated disorders of

the control of eye movements.

From a practical perspective, students who have cerebral visual impairment fall into

three groups:

Students with profound visual impairment due to CVI. This group comprises those who

do not use vision as their primary mode of learning, but many of these students may

have identifiable elements of visual function that respond to interventions. Infants and

very young children in this category often develop more functionally useful vision over

time.

Students with CVI who have functionally useful vision and cognitive challenges. These

students have widespread damage to the brain that affects vision, intellect, and often

mobility. Students with cerebral palsy, for example, may have this type of widespread

brain damage.

Students with CVI who have functionally useful vision and who work at or near the

expected academic level for their age group. These youngsters are the least severely

affected, but some may have additional minor disorders of intellectual function and

mobility. Others may have good central visual functions (acuity and contrast sensitivity),

but their principal visual difficulties relate to disorders of visual perception and may also

impair the way in which vision is used to guide movement of the limbs and body.

While these three broad categories are useful, they are not mutually exclusive and may

overlap. For example, a child who has developed poor visual acuity due to an episode

238 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

of low oxygen/blood delivery to the parts of the brain that serve vision (the occipital

lobes), can retain the ability to move around and be intellectually unaffected.

Clarification of the use of the term “cortical visual impairment”: The term “cerebral visual

impairment” has historically been applied in a variety of ways, as has the term “cortical

visual impairment.” At times these terms have been used interchangeably to refer to

visual impairment that is due to damage or malfunction of the brain. The term cortical

visual impairment has, however, tended to refer to visual impairment related to the

cortical area of the brain only, or to be conceptually limited to deficits in visual acuity

and/or visual field due to damage to the brain. Yet many affected children with low

visual acuity or limited visual fields may also display a variety of perceptual deficits or

disorders of visual guidance of movement that need to be recognized and addressed. In

addition there is a range of affected children whose visual acuities are normal or near

normal (Ortibus et al., 2011), and these children do not fall under this definition of

cortical visual impairment. While some highlight that the terms “cortical” and “cerebral”

have similar meanings (Good, 2009), others have suggested the need for a term that

could be applied to white matter injuries that are anatomically outside the cortical region

of the brain. This led to a movement to adopt a term that encompassed more than the

cortical region, and the term “cerebral visual impairment” was introduced (Ortibus et al.,

2011).

CVI can affect a range of visual functions. These can include but are not limited to:

Visual acuity is commonly reduced but can be normal.

Visual field can be affected. The type of field impairment depends of the site of

brain damage. For example, bilateral lower visual field loss is commonly

associated with periventricular leukomalacia (PVL).

Contrast sensitivity is more likely reduced in most profound injuries, but can be

normal.

Color perception is most likely reduced in most profound injuries, but can be

normal

Eye movements can be affected. There can be eye motility concerns,

strabismus, nystagmus, inaccurate fast eye movements (saccades), and

deficient visual following movements (smooth pursuit).

Accommodation disorders may be present.

Perception of movement can be absent or only slow movements can be seen.

Visually-guided movement concerns can be present such as inaccurate reach

and grasp, inaccurate movement through space, difficulty negotiating

stairs, and difficulty in the perception of floor boundaries (e.g., may

interpret change from carpet to linoleum as a drop-off).

Object/shape recognition can be affected.

Face or facial expression recognition may be absent.

Orientation in space can be affected.

Following travel routes may be problematic.

Visual-memory tasks such as copying may be affected.

Visual crowding can make it harder for children to decipher details.

Visual attention such as visual neglect (inattention to an area of vision) or

maintaining global vs. focal attention can be affected.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 239

Assessment

Comprehensive assessment for all children with CVI is multidimensional. A variety of

functional domains may need to be evaluated in individual children and a team of

specialists may be required to conduct the array of assessments required.



Both visual functions (i.e., the limits at which the eyes and visual system operate)

and functional vision (i.e., the limitations to the ways in which a person uses visual

skills and abilities binocularly in typical tasks of daily life) need to be ascertained.



Visual processing concerns, related to damage to the visual brain, need to be

addressed. This requires gathering information about higher order brain functions

through history taking, brain imaging, observation, interview, and performance on

key assessment tasks.



Motor function and knowledge of abilities and disabilities in verbal and performance

tasks must be analyzed so that their effects can be taken into account in the design

of appropriate intervention strategies (Dutton & Jacobson, 2001).



Evaluation of social and emotional ramifications must also be considered so that

evaluators are aware of the ways in which the student, family, and other caregivers

have addressed and adapted to the student’s CVI.



Disordered auditory processing can be associated with CVI in children (Morse,

2012). It is important to consider the evaluation of auditory processing as well as

visual processing for students who have CVI.



Evaluation of the influence of the student’s environment on performance is critical,

since the performance of students who have CVI can be particularly sensitive to the

way the environment is structured and to the effects of competing sensory stimuli.

This will lead to recommendations about ways in which each setting can be

structured to support a student’s growth and learning.

Assessment results, pulled together by the educational team, paint a summary picture

of ways in which a student functions and addresses such questions as:



What does the student perceive, and what does he or she miss?



How does the student prefer to interact with his or her world?



How does the student react in different environments and under different

environmental conditions?



How do internal states affect function (e.g. discomfort, sickness, hunger, fatigue,

emotions)?



How are the environments in which the student operates constructed?



What activities motivate the student?

240 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition



What are the student’s likes and dislikes?



What are the student’s and family’s understanding of CVI and the student’s

condition?



What are the student’s and family’s immediate and future concerns?

This picture is used to better understand how the student functions in different settings

and how best to design matching interventions so that they are multidimensional,

motivational, and address the complex interplay of vision and vision processing with

other areas of function. As with assessment of students with CVI, interventions may

also need to be multidisciplinary to address diverse learning and environmental needs

(Lueck, 2004). Furthermore, interventions can also address the design of general

learning environments, to minimize distraction and reduce stress from competing

sensory stimuli. Such learning environments, with or without adaptations, can render

key elements perceptible for all students in order to promote active participation,

interaction, and learning.

Instructional activities, methods, and strategies for students with CVI are ones that

engage, motivate, and sustain student interest and attention within a framework of

instruction that highlights the use of appropriate adaptations to maximize active

participation. Instruction in basic skills can be considered for some children with CVI.

This is especially important for infants and toddlers, but may also apply to older

students who have CVI. Since the evidence-base for successful interventions for

children with CVI is just beginning to develop, diagnostic teaching is recommended as a

way to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional approaches in a systematic way. With

this approach, methods and progress are monitored regularly, and successful

interventions are developed, maintained, and expanded. Intervention protocols are

revised when they do not work or no longer apply, as students grow and change, or

their learning environments alter.

References

Dutton, G.N., & Jacobson, L.K. (2001). Cerebral visual impairment in children.

Seminars in Neonatology. 6, 47-485.

Good, W.V. (2009). Cortical visual impairment: new directions. Optometry and

Visual Science, 86, 663-665.

Lueck, A.H. (2004). Overview of compensatory methods. In A. H. Lueck (Ed.).

Functional vision: A practitioner’s guide to evaluation and intervention. New York: AFB

Press. pp. 257-275.

Morse, M. T. (2012). Cerebral/cortical visual impairment. Southeast Region

Education Service Center (SERESC) Educational and Conference Center Series

October 1, 2012; Retrieved December 15, 2012, http://www.seresc.net/cerebral-

cortical-visual-impairment

Ortibus E.L., De Cock P.P., Lagae, L.G. (2011) Visual perception in preterm

children: What are we currently measuring? Pediatric Neurology, 45,1-10.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 241

Glossary

The purpose of this glossary is to define terminology that may be unfamiliar to some

readers of this publication. These terms apply to the areas of special treatment,

medication, and services for the visually impaired as well as to the nature of certain

visual impairments.

Accommodation - The adjustment of the eye to focus at different distances,

accomplished by changing the shape of the crystalline lens through action of the ciliary

muscle.

Adapted physical education - A diversified program of developmental activities,

physical fitness, games, sports, and rhythms suited to the needs, interests, capacities,

and limitations of students who may not safely or successfully engage in unrestricted

participation in the vigorous activities of the general physical education program.

Adaptive behavior - A reaction that promotes the social or biological welfare of an

organism and leads to the adjustment of the organism to its environment.

Adventitious - Occurring after birth; not present at birth.

Albinism - Congenital absence or deficiency of pigment in the iris, skin, and/or hair;

usually associated with lowered visual acuity, nystagmus, and photophobia and often

accompanied by large refractive errors.

Amblyopia - Diminished visual acuity, not correctable with conventional lenses, and not

related to structural or pathological ocular defects.

Aniridia - Congenital or acquired absence of the iris.

Anomaly - Marked deviation from the normal standard.

Anophthalmos (Anophthalmia) - Absence of a true eyeball.

APH - American Printing House for the Blind. Major supplier of educational materials for

visually impaired children.

Aphakia - Absence of the crystalline lens of the eye, a result of surgery, trauma, or a

congenital condition.

Assistive technology - Any item, piece of equipment, or system that is used to

increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

Astigmatism - A refractive error that prevents the light rays from a single point from

coming to a single focus on the retina because of unequal refraction or bending of the

incident light by the refractive media of the eye.

242 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Aural - Pertaining to the ear, hearing.

Binocular vision - The ability to use the two eyes simultaneously to focus on the same

object and to fuse the two images into a single perception.

Blindness - The inability to see; absence or severe reduction of vision.

Blind spot - A “blank” area in the visual field, corresponding to the position of the optic

nerve (a physiological blind spot). May also be an area of absent or reduced sensitivity

anywhere in the visual field.

Braille - A system of raised dots that enable some functionally blind students to read by

touch.

Braillewriter - A machine used to produce embossed braille symbols.

Cataract - A condition in which the crystalline lens of the eye partially or totally loses

transparency, with consequent loss of visual acuity.

Central visual acuity - Ability of the macula to separate details of images brought to a

focus on it.

Choroiditis - Inflammation of the choroid.

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) - Electronically enlarges printed material onto a

television screen; allows the user to change black print on a white background into

white print on a black background. The degree of illumination can be altered, as well as

that of magnification.

Cognitive skills - Intellectual processing abilities.

Color deficiency - Partial or complete inability to discriminate the ordinarily

differentiated hues.

Communication skills - Skills that enable a visually impaired person to communicate

with or receive communications from others.

Compensatory skills - Any technique, habit, or activity that must be developed to

overcome a severe visual impairment; e.g., daily living skills, social and emotional skills.

Cones and rods - Two kinds of cells that form the photoreceptor layer of the retina and

act as light-receiving media. Cones are concerned with visual acuity and color

discrimination; rods pertain to motion and vision at low degrees of illumination (night

vision).

Congenital - Present at birth.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 243

Conjunctiva - Mucous membrane that forms the posterior layer of the eyelids and

covers the front part of the eyeball, ending at the corneal limbus.

Contact lenses - Lenses made to fit directly on the cornea. These lenses are used for

correction of vision in people having a cone-shaped cornea (keratoconus) to provide an

improved retinal image and for cosmetic reasons. Corneal lenses are also used after

cataract (lens) extraction to replace the lens removed from the eye. They provide less

distortion and difference in the size of the image than spectacles do.

Convergence - The process of directing the visual axes of the two eyes to a near point,

with the result that the pupils of the two eyes are closer together. The eyes are turned

inward.

Cornea - Clear, transparent portion of the outer coat of the eyeball forming the front of

the aqueous chamber. The cornea is also the major refracting medium of the eyes.

Corneal scarring - A lack of transparency of the clear tissue forming the anterior

surface of the aqueous humor.

Cortical Visual Impairments (CVI) – A form of visual impairment that affects the visual

system in the brail. Students can have CVI along with other visual impairments. Also

referred to as neurological visual impairment.

Count fingers (CF) - A method of reporting vision too poor to read the Snellen chart;

the examiner records the number of inches at which fingers can be counted.

Daily living skills – Skills that enable student with a visual impairment to live

independently. This content area is also known as independent living skills.

Dark adaptation - The ability of the retina and pupil to adjust to a dim light.

Depth perception - The ability to perceive the solidity of objects and their relative

position in space.

Diffused light - Light spread out to cover a large space or area.

Diopter - Unit of measurement of lens power.

Diplopia - The seeing of one object as two.

Direct lighting - Light with no shield; creates glare.

Distance vision - The ability to see objects clearly from a distance.

Echolalia - The meaningless repetition by a person of words addressed to him or her.

Enucleation - Complete surgical removal of the eyeball.

244 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Esotropia - A manifest turning inward of the eye.

Exotropia- Abnormal turning outward from the nose of one or both eyes. Extraocular

motility. Ability to move the eyes from one position to another.

Expanded Core Curriculum – A disability specific curriculum that includes ten content

areas of instruction for students with visual impairments.

Eye specialist - A California-licensed ophthalmologist or optometrist.

Farnsworth test - A measurement of color perception using a series of plastic chips of

slightly differing hues.

Federal quota program - See “American Printing House for the Blind Federal Quota

Program,” which appears in Appendix E.

Fixation ability - Ability of the eyes to direct a person’s gaze on an object and to hold

the object steadily in view.

Focus - Point to which rays are converged after passing through a lens.

Foot candle - The unit commonly used to measure light intensity; the amount of light

given off by a candle at a one-foot distance.

Fovea - A pit or depression; a rodless area of the retina affording acute vision.

Free matter for the blind - The mail regulation that permits free mailing privileges for

the blind.

Functional vision - The presence of enough usable vision, giving the student the ability

to use sight as a primary channel for learning. This term also means the total act of

seeing and how the student uses sight to function educationally.

Functionally blind - A student whose primary channels for learning are tactual and

auditory.

Fusion - The power of coordinating the images received by the two eyes into a single

mental image.

Glare - A quality of light that causes discomfort in the eye; it may result from a direct

light source within the field of vision or from a reflection of a light source not in the field

of vision.

Glaucoma - A disease of the eye marked by an increase in the intraocular pressure

causing organic changes in the optic nerve and defects in the visual field.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 245

Halberg clips - Lens holders that can be placed on glasses for testing.

Hemianopsia (Hemianopia) - Defective vision or blindness in half of the visual field.

Hand movements (HM) - A method of reporting the vision of people that is too poor for

them to read the Snellen chart and too poor for them to count fingers; the examiner

moves his or her hand at a relatively close distance from the eyes of the patient and

records this distance, if movement is discernible.

Hyperopia - Farsightedness; a condition of the eye in which light rays from distant

objects are brought to a focus behind the retina when the eye is at rest.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) - IDEA ensures a free appropriate

public education in the least restrictive environment for all students and youths with

disabilities.

Individualized Education Plan (IEP) - A written plan for a special education student

that is developed and implemented in accordance with the IEP team and that is

designed to meet the assessed needs of the student.

Individualized plan - Includes the IFSP, the IEP, and/or the ITP.

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) - A plan developed to meet the

requirements of Part H of IDEA.

Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) - A term commonly used to refer to transition

language in the IEP required by IDEA.

Intraocular origin - Occurring from inside the eye.

Iris - Colored, circular muscle suspended between the cornea and the crystalline lens. It

separates the anterior and posterior chambers and is perforated in the center to form

the pupil.

Jaeger test - A test for reading, in which lines of reading matter are printed in a series

of type sizes, often written J#1, J#2, and so forth.

Keratoconus - A conical protrusion of the cornea associated with corneal thinning and

scarring.

Keratometry - The measurement of corneal curvature.

Large print or type - Print which is larger than type commonly found in magazines,

newspapers, and books. Ordinary print is 6 to 11 points in height (about 1/16 to 1/8 of

an inch). Large type is 14 to 18 points (3/16 to 1/4 of an inch) or larger.

LEA - Local educational agency.

246 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Legally blind - Central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye after best

correction with conventional spectacle lenses; or visual acuity better than 20/200 if there

is a field defect in which the widest diameter of the visual field is no greater than 20

degrees. In the United States this definition has been established primarily for economic

and legal purposes.

Lens - A refractive medium.

Lentiglobus - An exaggerated curvature of the crystalline lens producing a spherical

bulging on its anterior surface.

Light adaptation - The power of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the amount of

light. Light perception (LP). The ability to distinguish light from dark.

Light preference - Preferring a specific type of light and/ or degree of illumination to

accommodate for a visual impairment; i.e., direct light to indirect lighting/dim light to

bright.

Light projection - The ability to determine the direction of light.

Loupe - A small magnifier.

Low vision - A student whose vision can be used as a primary channel for learning

(sometimes referred to as partial sight or subnormal vision).

Low vision aids - Optical devices of various types useful to persons with visual

impairments (magnifiers, monoculars, lenses, hand-held telescope, prism lenses, and

so forth).

Low vision assessment - A comprehensive assessment of a visually impaired

student’s visual impairment and visual potentials and capabilities.

Low vision clinic - A clinic that gives eye examinations, provides low vision

assessments, prescribes low vision aids, and offers instruction on how to use the aids.

Macula lutea - The small area of the retina that surrounds the fovea and with the fovea

makes up the area of the most distinct vision.

Macular degeneration - A disease affecting cone cells in the macula, usually results in

gradual loss of central vision, but never in total blindness. It is often associated with the

aging process.

Mobility - A term used to denote the ability to navigate from one’s present fixed position

to one’s desired position in another part of the environment. (See also Orientation.)

Monocular diplopia - A condition in which two images of the same object are seen by

one eye.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 247

Motor skills - Movement ability.

Multiply impaired - Two or more concomitant disabilities that have a direct effect on

learning ability.

Muscle balance - The ability of the six extra ocular eye muscles of each eye to pull

together to allow binocular vision to occur in all directions—vertical, horizontal, oblique,

and circular.

Myopia - Nearsightedness; a refractive error in which the point of focus for rays of light

from distant objects falls in front of the retina.

Near vision - The ability to see objects distinctly at the required reading distance.

Nemeth Code - A braille code for mathematics and science.

Night blindness - A condition in which the rod function is diminished to cause deficient

visual acuity at night and in dim light.

Nystagmus - An involuntary, rapid movement of the eyeball; it may be lateral, vertical,

rotary, or mixed.

Ocular pursuit - The act of tracking a moving object in all cardinal directions—vertical,

horizontal, oblique, and circular.

Occipital cortex - The section of the brain that monitors visual sensations.

O.D. - Oculus dexter; right eye.

Ophthalmologist - A doctor of medicine (M.D.) who specializes in diagnosis and

treatment of defects and diseases of the eye, performing surgery when necessary or

prescribing other types of treatment, including glasses or other optical devices.

Optic atrophy - Degeneration of the nerve tissue that carries messages from the retina

to the brain.

Optic nerve - The group of nerve fibers that carry impulses from the retina to the visual

cortex.

Optic Nerve Hypolesia – A underdeveloped optic nerve

Optician - One who grinds lenses, fits them into frames, and dispenses and adjusts

glasses or other optical devices on the written prescription of an optometrist or

physician.

248 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

ptometrist - A doctor of optometry (O.D.) who specializes in the examination and

treatment of conditions or impairments of the visual system. Optometrists are trained to

detect problems with vision, eye diseases, and other abnormalities.

Orientation - The process of using the remaining senses in establishing one’s position

and relationship to all other significant objects in the environment. (See also Mobility.)

Orthoptic training - Series of scientifically planned exercises for developing or

restoring the normal teamwork of the eyes.

Orthoptist - One who provides orthoptic training.

O.S. - Oculus sinister; left eye.

O.U. - Oculus unitas; both eyes.

Paresis - Slight or partial paralysis.

Part H - The section of IDEA dealing with infants with disabilities.

Partially sighted - The visual acuity of a partially sighted person ranges from 20/70 to

20/200 in the better eye, with correction. (See also Low vision.)

Peripheral vision - The perception of objects, motion, or color by any part of the retina,

excluding the macula.

Photophobia - Abnormal sensitivity to or discomfort from light.

Polycoria - The existence of more than one pupil in an eye.

Program evaluation - A process for obtaining information to assist in making decisions

on program improvement and expansion, maintenance, or termination of a program or

program component.

Proprioceptive - Receiving stimulations within tissues of the body.

Ptosis - A paralytic drooping of the upper eyelid.

Public Law 94-142. - A federal law that mandates a free appropriate public education

for all handicapped children.

Pupil - The round opening (black center) in the center of the iris, which corresponds

roughly with the shutter opening of a camera. This opening permits light to enter the

eye.

Quadrantanopsia (Quadrantanopia) - Defective vision or blindness in one-fourth of

the visual field bounded by a vertical and a horizontal radius.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 249

Reading machine - A machine used to read printed material orally or tactually.

Reading stand - A stand that supports regular or large print books and allows the

reader to change the position of the book.

Refraction - The bending or deviation of rays of light in passing obliquely from one

medium to another one of different density; the determination of the refractive errors of

the eye and their correction by prescription of lenses.

Refractive error - A defect in the eye that prevents light rays from being brought to a

single focus on the retina.

Residual vision - The remaining useful sight after a congenital defect, injury, illness,

trauma, systemic disease, or ocular pathology has caused a vision loss.

Retina - Innermost coat of the eye, containing light sensitive nerve cells and fibers

connecting with the brain through the optic nerve.

Retinal detachment - A separation of the retina from the choroid.

Retinitis - Inflammation of the retina.

Retinitis pigmentosa - Degeneration and atrophy of the light-sensitive (rod cells) of the

retina.

Retinoblastoma - A tumor arising from the retinal germ cells; the most common

malignant intraocular tumor of childhood, usually occurring under age five.

Retinopathy of Prematurity – Visual impairment due to premature birth causing

scarring of the retinal tissues and possible retinal detachment.

Retinoschisis - A congenital cleft of the retina. A cleavage of the retinal layers.

Retrolental fibroplasia (RLF) - A disease of the retina in which a mass of scar tissu

fills the space between the back of the lens and the retina. Both eyes are affected in

most cases, and it occurs chiefly in infants born prematurely who receive excessive

oxygen.

Saccadic fixation - Relating to eye movements; the jumping movement of the eyes

between fixations. Sclera. The white coating of the eye.

Scotoma (Scotomata) - A blind or partially blind area in the visual field.

SEA - State educational agency; e.g., the California Department of Education.

SELPA - Special education local plan area.

Sensory/motor - Relating to or functioning in either sensory or motor aspects or both of

bodily activity.

250 Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition

Sensory stimulation - To rouse or invigorate the senses— visual, auditory, olfactory,

gustatory, and kinesthetic.

Sighted guide techniques - Techniques that are used by the sighted to guide the

visually impaired.

Sine correction (SC) - Without correction, not wearing glasses.

Slate and stylus - Slate: a metal plate used to hold paper for hand brailing. Stylus: an

instrument used to press the braille dots on the paper held by the slate.

Snellen chart - Used for testing central visual acuity. It consists of lines of letters,

numbers, or symbols in graded sizes drawn to Snellen measurements. Each size is

labeled with the distance at which it can be read by the normal eye. Most often used for

testing vision at a distance of 20 feet.

Stereoscopic vision (Stereopsis) - Ability to perceive the relative position of objects in

space without such cues as shadows, size, and overlapping.

Retinoscope - An instrument for the objective determining of the refractive state of the

eye by observing the movements of lights and shadows across the pupil by the light

thrown onto the retina from a moving mirror.

Strabismus - Squint; failure of the two eyes to direct their gaze simultaneously at the

same object because of muscle imbalance.

Suppression - A mental process of inattention to distracting or disturbing stimuli. Often

a forerunner of amblyopia.

Telebinocular - Any stereoscopic instrument used for vision screening.

Tonometer - An instrument for measuring pressure inside the eye.

Tracking - The ability of the eye or eyes to follow systematically an object of regard;

e.g., print or ball.

Trailing - Information-gathering and direction-taking techniques using the hand or cane.

Trauma - Injury, wound, or shock, or the resulting condition.

Tunnel vision - Contraction of the visual field to such an extent that only a small area of

central visual acuity remains, thus giving the affected individual the impression of

looking through a tunnel.

Vision - The art or faculty of seeing.

Program Guidelines for Students Who are Visually Impaired: 2014 Revised Edition 251

Visual acuity - The measurement of the sharpness of vision in respect to the ability to

discriminate detail. A visual acuity measurement is not useful for determining a career

choice, classroom situation, or training program. Visual acuity should not be used to

predict one’s visual function or educational performance.

Visual efficiency - The level of visual function.

Visual processing - How one uses or processes the images acquired by the act of

seeing.

Vitreous humor - Transparent, colorless mass of soft, gelatinous material filling the

space between the lens and retina.

Vitreous turbidity - Cloudiness or haze in the vitreous humor.

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