Fill - Free fillable Form 8: Multiview Drawings Chapter OBJECTIVES As lines, PDF form

As lines, so loves oblique, may well

Themselves in every angle greet;

But ours, so truly parallel,

Though infinite, can never meet.

Andrew Marvell

375

Chapter

Multiview Drawings

OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Explain orthographic and multiview projection.

2. Identify frontal, horizontal, and profile planes.

3. Identify the six principal views and the three space

dimensions.

4. Apply standard line practices to multiview drawings.

5. Create a multiview drawing using hand tools or

CAD.

6. Identify normal, inclined, and oblique planes in

multiview drawings.

7. Represent lines, curves, surfaces, holes, fillets,

rounds, chamfers, runouts, and ellipses in multiview

drawings.

8. Apply visualization by solids and surfaces to

multiview drawings.

9. Explain the importance of multiview drawings.

10. Identify limiting elements, hidden features, and

intersections of two planes in multiview drawings.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8 introduces the theory, techniques, and standards

of multiview drawings, which are a standard method for

representing engineering designs. The chapter describes

how to create one-, two-, and three-view drawings with

traditional tools and CAD. Also described are standard

practices for representing edges, curves, holes, tangencies,

and fillets and rounds. The foundation of multiview draw-

ings is orthographic projection, based on parallel lines of

sight and mutually perpendicular views. ■

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8.1 PROJECTION THEORY

Engineering and technical graphics are dependent on pro-

jection methods. The two projection methods primarily

used are perspective and parallel. (Figure 8.1) Both

methods are based on projection theory, which has taken

many years to evolve the rules used today.

Projection theory comprises the principles used to

represent graphically 3-D objects and structures on 2-D

Projections

Perspective or Central

Projections

Parallel Projections

The Attributes of Each Projection Method

Projection Method

Linear Perspective

-One-Point

-Two-Point

-Three-Point

Oblique Projection

-Cavalier

-Cabinet

-General

Orthographic Projection

Axonometric

-Isometric

-Dimetric

-Trimetric

Multiview Projection

-Third Angle

-First Angle

Lines of

Sight

One principal

plane parallel

to plane of

projection

Application

(preferrred)

Converging;

inclined to

plane of

projection

Parallel;

normal to

plane of

projection

Parallel;

inclined to

plane of

projection

Parallel;

normal to

plane of

projection

Sometimes

Always

Never

For all

principal

views

Single view

pictorial

Single view

pictorial

Single view

pictorial

Multiview

drawings

Orthographic

Projections

One-Point

Perspective

Three-point

Perspective

Two-Point

Perspective

Cabinet

Projection

Cavalier

Projection

General

Projection

Isometric

oq = or = og

a =

b =

Dimetric

Trimetric

oq ≠ or ≠ og

a ≠ b ≠ c

Multiview

Projections

Axonometric

Projections

First-angle projection

Third-angle projection

FRS

Linear

Perspectives

Aerial

Perspectives

Oblique

Projections

Aerial Perspective

Object features appear

less focused at a distance

Depth

Varies

Full

Depth

Half

Depth

oq = or ≠ og

a = b ≠ c

Figure 8.1 Projection

Methods

Projection techniques

developed along two lines:

parallel and perspective.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 377

media. An example of one of the methods developed to

accomplish this task is shown in Figure 8.2, which is a

pictorial drawing with shades and shadows to give the

impression of three dimensions.

All projection theory is based on two variables: line of

sight and plane of projection. These variables are de-

scribed briefly in the following paragraphs.

8.1.1 Line of Sight (LOS)

Drawing more than one face of an object by rotating the

object relative to your line of sight helps in understanding

the 3-D form. (Figure 8.3) A line of sight (LOS) is an

imaginary ray of light between an observer’s eye and an

object. In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at

a single point (Figure 8.4); in parallel projection, all lines

of sight are parallel (Figure 8.5).

8.1.2 Plane of Projection

A plane of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is

an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by

the lines of sight is projected. The image is produced by

connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the

projection plane. (See Figure 8.5.) In effect, the 3-D ob-

ject is transformed into a 2-D representation (also called

a projection). The paper or computer screen on which a

sketch or drawing is created is a plane of projection.

Figure 8.2 Pictorial Illustration

This is a computer-generated pictorial illustration with shades

and shadows. These rendering techniques help enhance the 3-D

quality of the image.

(Courtesy of SDRC.)

EVO

LVED

TIPPED

rthographic

evolved

Tipped forw

ard

Paper

(Plane of projection)

Parallel lines of sight

Figure 8.3 Changing Viewpoint

Changing the position of the object relative to the line of sight creates different views of the same object.

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8.1.3 Parallel versus Perspective Projection

If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite

(or essentially so), then the projectors (i.e., projection

lines) are parallel and the drawing is classified as a paral-

lel projection. (See Figure 8.5.) Parallel projection

378 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

requires that the object be positioned at infinity and

viewed from multiple points on an imaginary line paral-

lel to the object. If the distance from the observer to the

object is finite, then the projectors are not parallel and the

drawing is classified as a perspective projection. (See

Picture plane

(paper or com

puter screen)

Nonparallel lines of sight

radiating from a point

Observer (Station point)

One viewpoint

iew

of object projected onto

picture plane

Figure 8.4 Perspective Projection

Radiating lines of sight produce a perspective projection.

Parallel lines of sight

Observer (Station point)

Infinite viewpoint

Picture plane

(paper or com

puter screen)

View

of object projected onto

picture plane

Figure 8.5 Parallel Projection

Parallel lines of sight produce a parallel projection.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 379

Figure 8.4.) Perspective projection requires that the ob-

ject be positioned at a finite distance and viewed from a

single point (station point).

Perspective projections mimic what the human eye

sees; however, perspective drawings are difficult to cre-

ate. Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are

easier to draw. This chapter will focus on parallel projec-

tion. Perspective drawings are covered in Chapter 10.

Orthographic projection is a parallel projection

technique in which the plane of projection is positioned

between the observer and the object and is perpendicular

to the parallel lines of sight. The orthographic projection

technique can produce either pictorial drawings that

show all three dimensions of an object in one view or

multiviews that show only two dimensions of an object

in a single view. (Figure 8.6)

8.2 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION PLANES

Multiview projection is an orthographic projection for

which the object is behind the plane of projection, and the

object is oriented such that only two of its dimensions are

shown. (Figure 8.7) As the parallel lines of sight pierce

the projection plane, the features of the part are outlined.

Multiview drawings employ multiview projection

techniques. In multiview drawings, generally three views

of an object are drawn, and the features and dimensions

in each view accurately represent those of the object.

Each view is a 2-D flat image, as shown in Figure 8.8.

The views are defined according to the positions of the

planes of projection with respect to the object.

8.2.1 Frontal Plane of Projection

The front view of an object shows the width and height

dimensions. The views in Figures 8.7 and 8.8 are front

views. The frontal plane of projection is the plane onto

which the front view of a multiview drawing is projected.

Isometric MultiviewOblique

Figure 8.6 Parallel Projection

Parallel projection techniques can be used to create multiview

or pictorial drawings.

Plane of

projection

(frontal)

Projectors perpendicular to

plane

(A)

Plane of

projection

(frontal)

Lines of sight

perpendicular to plane

of projection

Object’s depth is not

represented

Front

view

(B)

Depth

Figure 8.7 Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is used to create this front multiview drawing by projecting details onto a projection plane that is parallel to

the view of the object selected as the front.

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380 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Industry Application

CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design

Source: “CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design,” Machine Design, August 13, 1993, p. 80. Photos courtesy of Thomas J. Pellegatto, Senior Design

Engineer, Peter Paul Electronics Co. Inc., New Britain, CT 06050–1180.

When Peter Paul Electronics faced the need to quickly re-

design a humidifier solenoid valve, Senior Design Engi-

neer Thomas J. Pellegatto naturally turned his CAD-KEY-

based system loose on the physical parameters of the

new valve. But that wasn’t enough. The design required

lower-cost manufacturing technology as well as dimen-

sional and mechanical design changes.

Existing valves from the company feature an all-steel

sleeve, consisting of a flange nut, tube, and end stop, all

of which are staked together for welding. A weld bead se-

cures the end stop to the tube at the top edge and joins

the tube and threaded portion of the flange nut at the bot-

tom. Alignment of these components becomes critical be-

The three components created in plastic include the

overmolded valve housing with integral bracket (red), the

bobbin on which the coil is wound, and the valve body with

which the solenoid valve is connected (blue).

Redesign and simplification of the solenoid valve coil and

sleeve assembly (left) is easily compared with the coil-on-

bobbin assembly. The extended and molded one-piece

bobbin eliminates the use of two machined parts, two welds,

and one quality operation while providing an improved

magnetic circuit, reduced weight, and lower cost.

cause the sleeve sits inside the coil, which is the heart of

the solenoid valve. In addition, a plunger that causes air

or fluid to flow in the valve rises inside the sleeve.

According to Pellegatto, the simplest method for

reducing cost and complexity of the critical sleeve

assembly was to use the coil’s bobbin to replace the

sleeve and house the plunger. Working directly with engi-

neers at DuPont, designers selected a thermoplastic

named Rynite to eliminate misalignment and the need for

welding the new assembly. The CAD system fed Peter

Paul’s internal model shop with the data to develop bob-

bin prototypes from the thermoplastic. In addition, de-

signers decided to mold the formerly metallic mounting

bracket as part of the plastic housing.

Once designs were finalized, Pellegatto sent the CAD

file to a local stereolithography shop, which built demon-

stration models using a 3D Systems unit. Two copies

each of three molded components—the bobbin, valve

body, and overmolded housing—were produced for

about $3,000. Finally, after sample parts were approved

by the customer, hard tooling was developed using re-

vised CAD files. This venture into “desktop manufactur-

ing” saved enormous amounts of design cycle time, ac-

cording to Pellegatto.

■

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 381

8.2.2 Horizontal Plane of Projection

The top view of an object shows the width and depth di-

mensions. (Figure 8.9) The top view is projected onto the

horizontal plane of projection, which is a plane sus-

pended above and parallel to the top of the object.

8.2.3 Profile Plane of Projection

The side view of an object shows the depth and height di-

mensions. In multiview drawings, the right side view is

the standard side view used. The right side view is pro-

jected onto the right profile plane of projection, which

is a plane that is parallel to the right side of the object.

(Figure 8.10)

8.2.4 Orientation of Views from Projection Planes

The views projected onto the three planes are

shown together in Figure 8.11. The top view is always

positioned above and aligned with the front view, and the

right side view is always positioned to the right of and

aligned with the front view, as shown in the figure.

8.3 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS

In order to produce a new product, it is necessary to

know its true dimensions, and true dimensions are not

adequately represented in most pictorial drawings. To

illustrate, the photograph in Figure 8.12 is a pictorial

perspective image. The image distorts true distances,

which are essential in manufacturing and construction.

Figure 8.13 demonstrates how a perspective projection

distorts measurements. Note that the two width dimen-

sions in the front view of the block appear different in

length; equal distances do not appear equal on a per-

spective drawing.

In the pictorial drawings in Figure 8.14, angles are also

distorted. In the isometric view, right angles are not

shown as 90 degrees. In the oblique view, only the front

surfaces and surfaces parallel to the front surface show

true right angles. In isometric drawings, circular holes ap-

pear as ellipses; in oblique drawings, circles also appear

as ellipses, except on the front plane and surfaces parallel

to the front surface. Changing the position of the object

will minimize the distortion of some surfaces, but not all.

Since engineering and technology depend on exact

size and shape descriptions for designs, the best approach

Width

Height

Figure 8.8 Single View

A single view, in this case the front view, drawn on paper or

computer screen makes the 3-D object appear 2-D; one

dimension, in this case the depth dimension, cannot be

represented since it is perpendicular to the paper.

Top View

vie

Plane of

projection

(horizontal)

Line of

sight

Perpendicular to plane

Depth

Width

Figure 8.9 Top View

A top view of the object is created by projecting onto the horizontal plane of projection.

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382 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

R side view

Plane of projection

(profile)

Perpendicular to plane

Right side view

Line of

sight

Depth

Height

Figure 8.10 Profile View

A right side view of the object is created by

projecting onto the profile plane of projection.

Top view

Front view Right side view

Figure 8.11 Multiview Drawing of an Object

For this object three views are created: front, top, and right

side. The views are aligned so that common dimensions are

shared between views.

Figure 8.12 Perspective Image

The photograph shows the road in perspective, which is how

cameras capture images. Notice how the telephone poles appear

shorter and closer together off in the distance.

(Photo courtesy of

Anna Anderson.)

Lines of sight

Front

Lines of sight

Side

WIDTH

Front

What you see

Side

What you see

12345

1 2 340

WIDTH

Figure 8.13 Distorted Dimensions

Perspective drawings distort true dimensions.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 383

is to use the parallel projection technique called ortho-

graphic projection to create views that show only two of

the three dimensions (width, height, depth). If the object

is correctly positioned relative to the projection planes,

the dimensions of features will be represented in true size

in one or more of the views. (Figure 8.15) Multiview

drawings provide the most accurate description of three-

dimensional objects and structures for engineering, man-

ufacturing, and construction requirements.

In the computer world, 3-D models replace the multi-

view drawing. These models are interpreted directly from

the database, without the use of dimensioned drawings.

(Figure 8.16) See Chapter 7.

8.4 THE SIX PRINCIPAL VIEWS

The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an in-

finite number of views of an object. However, some

views are more important than others. These principal

views are the six mutually perpendicular views that are

produced by six mutually perpendicular planes of projec-

tion. If you imagine suspending an object in a glass box

with major surfaces of the object positioned so that they

are parallel to the sides of the box, the six sides of the

Right angle does

not measure 90°

Oblique

Right angle

does not

measure 90°

Isometric

Figure 8.14 Distorted Angles

Angular dimensions are distorted on pictorial drawings.

Figure 8.16 CAD Data Used Directly by Machine Tool

This computer-numeric-control (CNC) machine tool can

interpret and process 3-D CAD data for use in manufacturing,

to create dimensionally accurate parts.

(Courtesy of Intergraph

Corporation.)

R 9.5

ø 10

ø 14

11.1

R 7

3 X ø 5

R 9.5

Figure 8.15 Multiview Drawing

Multiview drawings produce true-size features, which can be used for dimensionally accurate representations.

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box become projection planes showing the six views.

(Figure 8.17) The six principal views are front, top, left

side, right side, bottom, and rear. To draw these views on

2-D media, that is, a piece of paper or a computer moni-

tor, imagine putting hinges on all sides of the front glass

plane and on one edge of the left profile plane. Then cut

along all the other corners, and flatten out the box to cre-

ate a six-view drawing, as shown in Figure 8.18.

The following descriptions are based on the X, Y,

and Z coordinate system. In CAD, width can be as-

signed the X axis, height assigned the Y axis, and

depth assigned the Z axis. This is not universally true

for all CAD systems but is used as a standard in this

text. CAD Reference 8.1

The front view is the one that shows the most fea-

tures or characteristics. All other views are based on

the orientation chosen for the front view. Also, all

other views, except the rear view, are formed by rotat-

384 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ing the lines of sight 90 degrees in an appropriate di-

rection from the front view. With CAD, the front view

is the one created by looking down the Z axis (in the

negative Z viewing direction), perpendicular to the X

and Y axes.

The top view shows what becomes the top of the ob-

ject once the position of the front view is established.

With CAD, the top view is created by looking down the

Y axis (in the negative Y viewing direction), perpendicu-

lar to the Z and X axes.

The right side view shows what becomes the right

side of the object once the position of the front view is

established. With CAD, the right side view is created by

looking down the X axis from the right (in the negative X

viewing direction), perpendicular to the Z and Y axes.

The left side view shows what becomes the left side

of the object once the position of the front view is estab-

lished. The left side view is a mirror image of the right

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT SIDE VIEW

PROFILE PLANE

FRONT VIEW

DEPTH

WIDTH

HEIGHT

Observer at

infinity

Multiple parallel

lines of sight

Figure 8.17 Object Suspended in a Glass Box, Producing the Six Principal Views

Each view is perpendicular to and aligned with the adjacent views.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 385

Frontal plane

R side view

Profile plane

Horizontal plane

Front view

DEPTH

IDTH

HEIGHT

Top view

Top

WIDTH

DEPTH

L sideRear

Bottom

R side

PFFPPF

Front

EQUAL EQUAL

DEPTH

HEIGHT

WIDTH

Figure 8.18 Unfolding the Glass Box to Produce a Six-View Drawing

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side view, except that hidden lines may be different.

With CAD, the left side view is created by looking down

the X axis from the left (in the positive X viewing direc-

tion), perpendicular to the Z and X axes.

The rear view shows what becomes the rear of the

object once the front view is established. The rear view is

at 90 degrees to the left side view and is a mirror image

of the front view, except that hidden lines may be differ-

ent. With CAD, the rear view is created by looking down

the Z axis from behind the object (in the positive Z view-

ing direction), perpendicular to the Y and X axes.

The bottom view shows what becomes the bottom of

the object once the front view is established. The bottom

view is a mirror image of the top view, except that hid-

den lines may be different. With CAD, the bottom view

is created by looking down the Y axis from below the ob-

ject (positive Y viewing direction), perpendicular to the

Z and X axes.

The concept of laying the views flat by “unfolding the

glass box,” as shown in Figure 8.18, forms the basis for

two important multiview drawing standards:

1. Alignment of views.

2. Fold lines.

The top, front, and bottom views are all aligned vertically

and share the same width dimension. The rear, left side,

front, and right side views are all aligned horizontally

and share the same height dimension.

Fold lines are the imaginary hinged edges of the glass

box. The fold line between the top and front views is la-

beled H/F, for horizontal/frontal projection planes; the

fold line between the front and each profile view is la-

beled F/P, for frontal/horizontal projection planes. The

distance from a point in a side view to the F/P fold line is

the same as the distance from the corresponding point in

the top view to the H/F fold line. Conceptually, then, the

fold lines are edge-on views of reference planes. Nor-

mally, fold lines or reference planes are not shown in en-

gineering drawings. However, they are very important

for auxiliary views and spatial geometry construction,

covered in Chapters 11 and 12. CAD Reference 8.2

386 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Practice Exercise 8.1

Hold an object at arm’s length or lay it on a flat surface.

Close one eye, then view the object such that your line of

sight is perpendicular to a major feature, such as a flat side.

Concentrate on the outside edges of the object and sketch

what you see. Move your line of sight 90 degrees, or rotate

the object 90 degrees, and sketch what you see. This

process will show you the basic procedure necessary to cre-

ate the six principal views.

8.4.1 Conventional View Placement

The three-view multiview drawing is the standard used in

engineering and technology, because many times the

other three principal views are mirror images and do not

add to the knowledge about the object. The standard

views used in a three-view drawing are the top, front, and

right side views, arranged as shown in Figure 8.19. The

width dimensions are aligned between the front and top

views, using vertical projection lines. The height dimen-

sions are aligned between the front and profile views,

using horizontal projection lines. Because of the relative

positioning of the three views, the depth dimension can-

not be aligned using projection lines. Instead, the depth

dimension is measured in either the top or right side view

and transferred to the other view, using either a scale,

miter line, compass, or dividers. (Figure 8.20)

The arrangement of the views may only vary as

shown in Figure 8.21. The right side view can be placed

adjacent to the top view because both views share the

depth dimension. Note that the side view is rotated so

that the depth dimension in the two views is aligned.

8.4.2 First- and Third-Angle Projection

Figure 8.22A shows the standard arrangement of all six

views of an object, as practiced in the United States and

Canada. The ANSI standard third-angle symbol shown

in the figure commonly appears on technical drawings

to denote that the drawing was done following third-

angle projection conventions. Europe uses the first-

angle projection and a different symbol, as shown in

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 387

Figure 8.22B. To understand the difference between

first- and third-angle projection, refer to Figure 8.23,

which shows the orthogonal planes. Orthographic pro-

jection can be described using these planes. If the first

quadrant is used for a multiview drawing, the results

will be very different from those of the third quadrant.

(Figure 8.24) Familiarity with both first- and third-

angle projection is valuable because of the global nature

of business in our era. As an example, Figure 8.25

shows an engineering drawing produced in the United

States for a German-owned company, using first-angle

projection.

(A) Scale (B) Dividers (C) Miter Line

MITER LINE

45°

Figure 8.20 Transferring Depth Dimensions from the Top View to the Right Side View, Using Dividers, a Scale, or a

45-Degree Triangle and a Miter Line

Central view

Related views

RIGHT SIDE

FRONT

TOP

DEPTH

Projection line

Figure 8.21 Alternate View Arrangement

In this view arrangement, the top view is considered the central

view.

WIDTH

(X)

DEPTH

(Z)

HEIGHT

(Y)

Projection line

DEPTH

(Z)

Multiple parallel

projectors

Figure 8.19 Three Space Dimensions

The three space dimensions are width, height, and depth. A

single view on a multiview drawing will only reveal two of the

three space dimensions. The 3-D CAD systems use X, Y, and Z

to represent the three dimensions.

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388 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

BOTTOM

RIGHT FRONT LEFT

TOP

REAR

(B) European Standard

(A) U.S. Standard

LEFT

BOTTOM

RIGHTFRONT

TOP

REAR

Figure 8.22 Standard Arrangement of the Six Principal Views for Third- and First-Angle Projection

Third- and first-angle drawings are designated by the standard symbol shown in the lower right corner of parts (A) and (B). The

symbol represents how the front and right-side views of a truncated cone would appear in each standard.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 389

8.4.3 Adjacent Views

Adjacent views are two orthographic views placed next

to each other such that the dimension they share in com-

mon is aligned, using parallel projectors. The top and

front views share the width dimension; therefore, the top

view is placed directly above the front view, and vertical

parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of the

shared width dimension. The right side and front views

share the height dimension; therefore, the right side view

is placed directly to the right of the front view, and hori-

zontal parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of

the shared height dimension.

The manner in which adjacent views are positioned

illustrates the first rule of orthographic projection:

Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a

parallel projector in any adjacent view. In Figure 8.26,

the hole in the block is an example of a feature shown

in one view and aligned on parallel projectors in the ad-

jacent view.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 1:

Alignment of Features

Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a

parallel projector in any adjacent view.

The distance between the views is not fixed, and it can

vary according to the space available on the paper and

the number of dimensions to be shown.

8.4.4 Related Views

Two views that are adjacent to the same view are called

related views; in related views, distances between com-

mon features are equal. In Figure 8.26, for example, the

distance between surface 1 and surface 2 is the same in

the top view as it is in the right side view; therefore, the

top and right side views are related views. The front and

right side views in the figure are also related views, rela-

tive to the top view.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 2:

Distances in Related Views

Distances between any two points of a feature in related views

must be equal.

8.4.5 Central View

The view from which adjacent views are aligned is the

central view. In Figure 8.26, the front view is the central

view. In Figure 8.21, the top view is the central view.

Distances and features are projected or measured from

the central view to the adjacent views.

8.4.6 Line Conventions

The alphabet of lines is discussed in detail in Chapter

3, Section 3.4, and illustrated in Figure 8.27. The tech-

niques for drawing lines are described in detail in Sec-

tion 3.5.

Because hidden lines and center lines are critical ele-

ments in multiview drawings, they are briefly discussed

again in the following sections. CAD Reference 8.3

PROFILE PLANE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

SECOND

QUADRANT

THIRD

QUADRANT

FOURTH

QUADRANT

FIRST

QUADRANT

FRONTAL PLANE

Figure 8.23 The Principal Projection Planes and

Quadrants Used to Create First- and Third-Angle

Projection Drawings

These planes are used to create the six principal views of first-

and third-angle projection drawings.

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390 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(A) Third-Angle Projection (B) First-Angle Projection

First-Angle Projection

( Europe )

2nd

1st

3rd

4th

RIZO

TAL PLANE

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT PROFILE

PLANE

Third-Angle Projection

( U.S. )

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT PROFILE

PLANE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

FRONT VIEW

TOP VIEW

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

FRONT VIEW

TOP VIEW

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

Figure 8.24 Pictorial Comparison between First- and Third-Angle Projection Techniques

Placing the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and the object. When placed in the first

quadrant, the object is between the viewer and the projection planes.

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Figure 8.25 First-Angle Projection

Engineering Drawing Produced in the United

States for a European Company

(Courtesy of Buehler Products, Inc.)

Vertical

parallel

projectors

Central view

Horizontal

parallel

projectors

Related views

Equal

RIGHT SIDEFRONT

TOP

Figure 8.26 Alignment of Views

Three-view drawings are aligned horizontally and vertically on

engineering drawings. In this view arrangement, the front view

is the central view. Also notice that surfaces 1 and 2 are the

same distance apart in the related views: top and right side.

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Hidden Lines In multiview drawings, hidden features

are represented as dashed lines, using ANSI standard line

types. (See Figure 8.27)

Dashed lines are used to represent such hidden fea-

tures as:

Holes—to locate the limiting elements.

Surfaces—to locate the edge view of the surface.

Change of planes—to locate the position of the

change of plane or corner.

For example, Figure 8.28 shows dashed lines repre-

senting hidden features in the front and top views. The

392 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

dashed parallel lines in the top and front views represent

the limiting elements of the hole drilled through the ob-

ject but not visible in these views. The hole is visible in

the right side view. The single vertical dashed line in the

front view represents the hidden edge view of surface C.

Surface C is visible in the side view and is on edge in the

top and front views.

Most CAD systems may not follow a standard prac-

tice for representing hidden lines. The user must decide if

the drawn hidden lines effectively communicate the de-

sired information. CAD Reference 8.4

VISIBLE LINE

.6 mm

HIDDEN (DASHED) LINE

.3 mm

CENTER LINE

.3 mm

DIMENSION & EXTENSION LINES

1.25

.3 mm

PHANTOM LINE

.3 mm

CUTTING PLANE LINES

.6 mm

CONSTRUCTION LINE

.3 mm

SECTION LINES

.3 mm

Construction line

Hidden (dashed) line

Center line

Visible line

Cutting plane line

Extension line

Dimension line

.6 mm

Figure 8.27 Alphabet of Lines

ANSI standard lines used on technical drawings are of a specific type and thickness.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 393

Center Lines Center lines are alternating long and

short thin dashes and are used for the axes of symmetri-

cal parts and features, such as cylinders and drilled

holes (Figure 8.29), for bolt circles (Figure 8.30D), and

for paths of motion (Figure 8.30E). Center lines should

not terminate at another line or extend between views

(Figure 8.30C). Very short, unbroken center lines may

be used to represent the axes of very small holes (Fig-

ure 8.30C).

Some CAD systems have difficulty representing cen-

ter lines using standard practices. This is especially true

of the center lines for circles. Other CAD systems auto-

matically draw the center lines to standards. CAD

Reference 8.5

One- and Two-View Drawings Some objects can be ade-

quately described with only one view. (Figure 8.31) A

sphere can be drawn with one view because all views

will be a circle. A cylinder or cube can be described

with one view if a note is added to describe the missing

feature or dimension. Other applications include a thin

gasket or a printed circuit board. One-view drawings are

used in electrical, civil, and construction engineering.

CAD Reference 8.6

Other objects can be adequately described with

two views. Cylindrical, conical, and pyramidal shapes

are examples of such objects. For example, a cone

can be described with a front and a top view. A

profile view would be the same as the front view. (Figure

8.32) CAD Reference 8.7

Three-View Drawings The majority of objects require

three views to completely describe the objects. The fol-

lowing steps describe the basics for setting up and devel-

oping a three-view multiview drawing of a simple part.

Creating a Three-View Drawing

Step 1. In Figure 8.33, the isometric view of the part repre-

sents the part in its natural position; it appears to be rest-

ing on its largest surface area. The front, right side, and

top views are selected such that the fewest hidden lines

would appear on the views.

Step 2. The spacing of the views is determined by the total

width, height, and depth of the object. Views are carefully

spaced to center the drawing within the working area of

the drawing sheet. Also, the distance between views can

vary, but enough space should be left so that dimensions

can be placed between the views. A good rule of thumb

is to allow about 1.5′′ (36 mm) between views. For this

example, use an object with a width of 4′′, height of 3′′,

and a depth of 3′′. To determine the total amount of

space necessary to draw the front and side views in

SURFACE

Figure 8.28 Hidden Features

The dashed lines on this drawing indicate hidden features. The

vertical dashed line in the front view shows the location of

plane C. The horizontal dashed lines in the front and top views

show the location of the hole.

Small dashes

cross at the

center

Extends past

edge of object

8mm or 3/8"

Figure 8.29 Center Lines

Center lines are used for symmetrical objects, such as

cylinders. Center lines should extend past the edge of the

object by 8 mm or c′′.

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394 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

PATH OF MOTION

(E)

SPACE

CENTER LINE IN

LONGITUDINAL

VIEW FOR HOLES

(A) (B)

NO SPACE

SPACE

BOLT CIRCLE

TOO SMALL TO

BREAK THE

CENTER LINE

SPACE

Figure 8.30 Standard Center Line Drawing Practices for Various Applications

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 395

PC BoardBushing Sphere Plot PlanWasher

THK

O.D. I.D.

O.D.

I.D.

LENGTH

DIAMETER

WIDTH

LENGTH

THICKNESS=X.X

Figure 8.31 One-View Drawings

Applications for one-view drawings include some simple cylindrical shapes, spheres, thin parts, and map drawings.

Cylindrical parts Cams

Conical parts

I.D.O.D.

ø1

Figure 8.32 Two-View Drawings

Applications for two-view drawings include cylindrical and conical shapes.

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alignment, add the width (4′′) of the front view and the

depth (3′′) of the side view. Then add 1.5′′ to give 8.5′′ as

the total amount of space needed for the front and side

views and the space between. If the horizontal space on

the paper is 10′′, subtract 8.5′′ to get 1.5′′; divide the re-

sult by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the space left on either

side of the two views together. These distances are

marked across the paper, as shown in Figure 8.34A.

In a similar manner, the vertical positioning is deter-

mined by adding the height of the front view (3′′)

to the depth of the top view (3′′) and then adding

1.5′′ for the space between the views. The result is

7.5′′. The 7.5′′ is subtracted from the working area of

9′′; the result is divided by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the

distance across the top and bottom of the sheet. (Fig-

ure 8.34B)

Step 3. Using techniques described previously in this text,

locate the center lines in each view, and lightly draw the

arc and circles. (Figure 8.34C)

Step 4. Locate other details, and lightly draw horizontal,

vertical, and inclined lines in each view. Normally, the

front view is constructed first because it has the most de-

tails. These details are then projected to the other views

396 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

using construction lines. Details that cannot be projected

directly must be measured and transferred or projected

using a miter line. For example, dividers can be used to

measure and transfer details from the top view to the

right side view. (Figure 8.34D) A miter line can also be

constructed by drawing a 45-degree line from the inter-

section of the top and side view and drawing the projec-

tion lines as shown in Figure 8.34C.

Step 5. Locate and lightly draw hidden lines in each view.

For this example, hidden lines are used to represent the

limiting elements of the holes.

Step 6. Following the alphabet of lines, darken all object

lines by doing all horizontal, then all vertical, and finally

all inclined lines, in that order. Darken all hidden and

center lines. Lighten or erase any construction lines that

can be easily seen when the drawing is held at arm’s

length. The same basic procedures can be used with 2-D

CAD. However, construction lines do not have to be

erased. Instead, they can be placed on a separate layer,

then turned off. CAD Reference 8.8

8.4.7 Multiviews from 3-D CAD Models

The computer screen can be used as a projection plane

displaying the 2-D image of a 3-D CAD model. The user

can control the line of sight and the type of projection

(parallel or perspective). Most 3-D CAD software pro-

grams have automated the task of creating multiview

drawings from 3-D models. With these CAD systems,

the 3-D model of the object is created first. (See Figure

8.33.) Most CAD programs have predefined viewpoints

that correspond to the six principal views. (Figure 8.35)

The views that will best represent the object in multiview

are selected, the viewpoint is changed, a CAD command

converts the projection of the 3-D model into a 2-D

drawing, and the first view is created. (Figure 8.36) This

view is then saved as a block or symbol. The second

view is created by changing the viewpoint again and then

converting the new projection to a 2-D drawing of the

object. (Figure 8.37) These steps are repeated for as

many views as are necessary for the multiview drawing.

After the required number of 2-D views are created,

the views are arranged on a new drawing by retrieving

the blocks or symbols created earlier. Care must be taken

RIGHT

SIDE

TOP

FRO

Figure 8.33 Selecting the Views for a Multiview Drawing

The object should be oriented in its natural position, and views

chosen should best describe the features.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 397

10.00

.75

4.00

1.50

3.00

TOP

VIEW

FRONT

VIEW

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

.75

3.00

1.50

9.00

3.00

Dividers used to transfer

depth dimensions

between the top and right

side views

(A) (B)

Miter

Line

Figure 8.34 Steps to Center and Create a Three-View Multiview Drawing on an A-Size Sheet

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398 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.35 Predefined Multiviews on a CAD System

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399

TITLE:

DRAWING NO.:

DATE:

DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

REVISIONS

Figure 8.37 Changing the Viewpoint on the 3-D Model to Create a Right Side View

This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line.

TITLE:

DRAWING NO.:

DATE:

DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

REVISIONS

Figure 8.36 Changing the Viewpoint on a 3-D CAD Model to Create a Front View

This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line.

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to bring the views in at the proper scale and correct align-

ment. The views must then be edited to change solid

lines to hidden lines and to add center lines. Other

changes may be required so that the views are drawn to

accepted standards. (Figure 8.38) CAD Reference 8.9

8.5 VIEW SELECTION

Before a multiview drawing is created, the views must be

selected. Four basic decisions must be made to determine

the best views:

1. Determine the best position of the object. The ob-

ject must be positioned within the imaginary glass

box such that the surfaces of major features are ei-

ther perpendicular or parallel to the glass planes.

400 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(Figure 8.39) This will create views with a mini-

mum number of hidden lines. Figure 8.40 shows

an example of poor positioning: the surfaces of

the object are not parallel to the glass planes, re-

sulting in many more hidden lines.

2. Define the front view. The front view should

show the object in its natural or assembled state

and be the most descriptive view. (Figure 8.41)

For example, the front view of an automobile

would show the automobile in its natural position,

on its wheels.

3. Determine the minimum number of views needed

to completely describe the object so it can be pro-

duced. For our example, three views are required

to completely describe the object. (Figure 8.42)

4. Once the front view is selected, determine

which other views will have the fewest number

TITLE:

DRAWING NO.:

DATE:

DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

REVISIONS

Figure 8.38 Creating a Multiview Drawing of the 3-D Model

The previously captured views are brought together with a standard border and title block to create the final drawing.

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401

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

ILE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW

Figure 8.39 Good Orientation

Suspend the object in the glass box such that major surfaces are parallel or perpendicular to the sides of the box (projection planes).

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

PROFILE PLANE

L P

FRONT VIEW

No!

Figure 8.40 Poor Orientation

Suspending the object in the glass box such that surfaces are not parallel to the sides produces views with many hidden lines.

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402 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

of hidden lines. In Figure 8.43, the right side

view is selected over the left side view because

it has fewer hidden lines.

Practice Exercise 8.2

Using any of the objects in Figure 8.94 in the back of this

chapter, generate three multiview sketches. Each sketch

should use a different view of the object as the front view.

What features of the object become hidden or visible as you

change the front view?

8.6 FUNDAMENTAL VIEWS

OF EDGES AND PLANES

In multiview drawings, there are fundamental views for

edges and planes. These fundamental views show the

edges or planes in true size, not foreshortened, so that true

measurements of distances, angles, and areas can be made.

NO!

Figure 8.42 Minimum Number of Views

Select the minimum number of views needed to completely describe an object. Eliminate views that are mirror images of other views.

Natural Position

Unnatural Position

No!

Figure 8.41 Natural Position

Always attempt to draw objects in their natural position.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 403

8.6.1 Edges (Lines)

An edge is the intersection of two planes and is repre-

sented as a line on multiview drawings. A normal line,

or true-length line, is an edge that is parallel to a plane

of projection and thus perpendicular to the line of sight.

In Figure 8.44, edge 1–2 in the top and right side views is

a normal edge.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 3:

True Length and Size

Features are true length or true size when the lines of sight

are perpendicular to the feature.

An edge appears as a point in a plane of projection to

which it is perpendicular. Edge 1–2 is a point in the

front view of Figure 8.44. The edge appears as a point

because it is parallel to the line of sight used to create

the front view.

An inclined line is parallel to a plane of projection

but inclined to the adjacent planes, and it appears fore-

shortened in the adjacent planes. In Figure 8.44, line 3–4

is inclined and foreshortened in the top and right side

view, but is true length in the front view because it is

parallel to the frontal plane of projection.

An oblique line is not parallel to any principal plane

of projection; therefore, it never appears as a point or in

true length in any of the six principal views. Instead, an

oblique edge will be foreshortened in every view and will

always appear as an inclined line. Line 1–2 in Figure

8.45 is an oblique edge.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 4:

Foreshortening

Features are foreshortened when the lines of sight are not

perpendicular to the feature.

8.6.2 Principal Planes

A principal plane is parallel to one of the principal

planes of projection and is therefore perpendicular to

the line of sight. A principal plane or surface will be

No!

Figure 8.43 Most Descriptive Views

Select those views which are the most descriptive and have the fewest hidden lines. In this example, the right side view has fewer

hidden lines than the left side view.

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true size and shape in the view where it is parallel to the

projection plane and will appear as a horizontal or verti-

cal line in the adjacent views. In Figure 8.46, surface A

is parallel to the frontal projection plane and is there-

fore a principal plane. Because surface A appears true

size and shape in the front view, it is sometimes re-

ferred to as a normal plane. In this figure, surface A

appears as a horizontal edge in the top view and as a

vertical edge in the right side view. This edge represen-

404 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

tation is an important characteristic in multiview draw-

ings. Principal planes are categorized by the view in

which the plane appears true size and shape: frontal,

horizontal, or profile.

A frontal plane is parallel to the front plane of pro-

jection and is true size and shape in the front view. A

frontal plane appears as a horizontal edge in the top view

and a vertical edge in the profile views. In Figure 8.46,

surface A is a frontal plane.

TOP VIEW

FRONTAL PLANE

PROFILE PLANE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

RIGHT SIDE VIEW

Top View

Line of sight

perpendicular to

line 1–2

Front View

Line of sight

parallel to line

1–2

TOP

FRONT

RIGHT SIDE

1,2

Figure 8.44 Fundamental Views of Edges

Determine the fundamental views of edges on a multiview drawing by the position of the object relative to the current line of sight

and the relationship of the object to the planes of the glass box.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 405

A horizontal plane is parallel to the horizontal planes

of projection and is true size and shape in the top (and

bottom) view. A horizontal plane appears as a horizontal

edge in the front and side views. In Figure 8.46, surface

B is a horizontal plane.

A profile plane is parallel to the profile (right or left

side) planes of projection and is true size and shape in the

profile views. A profile plane appears as a vertical edge

in the front and top views. In Figure 8.46, surface C is a

profile plane.

8.6.3 Inclined Planes

An inclined plane is perpendicular to one plane of pro-

jection and inclined to adjacent planes and cannot be

viewed in true size and shape in any of the principal

views. An inclined plane appears as an edge in the view

where it is perpendicular to the projection plane and as a

foreshortened surface in the adjacent views. In Figure

8.46, plane D is an inclined surface. To view an inclined

plane in its true size and shape, create an auxiliary view,

as described in Chapter 11.

FRONTAL PLANE

PRO

FILE PLANE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

Figure 8.45 Oblique Line

Oblique line 1–2 is not parallel to any of the principal planes of projection of the glass box.

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406 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

FRONTAL PLANE

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

PROFILE PLANE

FRONT VIEW

RIGHT SIDEFRONT

Edge

View

of A

Edge View of B

Edge View of D

TOP

Edge View of B

Edge View of A

Edge View of C

Figure 8.46 Fundamental Views of Surfaces

Surface A is parallel to the frontal plane of projection. Surface B is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection. Surface C is parallel

to the profile plane of projection. Surface D is an inclined plane and is on edge in one of the principal views (the front view). Surface

E is an oblique plane and is neither parallel nor on edge in any of the principal planes of projection.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 407

8.6.4 Oblique Planes

An oblique plane is not parallel to all the principal

planes of projection. In Figure 8.46, plane E is an oblique

surface. An oblique surface does not appear in its true

size and shape, or as an edge, in any of the principal

views; instead, an oblique plane always appears as a fore-

shortened plane in the principal views. A secondary aux-

iliary view must be constructed, or the object must be ro-

tated, in order to create a normal view of an oblique

plane. (See Chapter 12.)

Practice Exercise 8.3

Using stiff cardboard, cut out the following shapes:

• Rectangle.

• Circle.

• Trapezoid.

• Irregular shape with at least six sides, at least two of which

are parallel to each other.

Sketch the following multiviews of each shape:

• The line of sight perpendicular to the face.

• Rotated 45 degrees about the vertical axis.

• Rotated 90 degrees about the vertical axis.

• Rotated 45 degrees about the horizontal axis.

• Rotated 90 degrees about the horizontal axis.

• Rotated 45 degrees about both the vertical and horizontal

axes.

Which views represent true-size projections of the surface?

In what views is the surface inclined, oblique, or on edge?

What is the shape of a circle when it is foreshortened? For

the inclined projections, how many primary dimensions of

the surface appear smaller than they are in true-size projec-

tion? What is the relationship between the foreshortened di-

mension and the axis of rotation? Identify the parallel edges

of the surface in the true-size projection. Do these edges

stay parallel in the other views? Are these edges always

seen in true length?

8.7 MULTIVIEW REPRESENTATIONS

Three-dimensional solid objects are represented on 2-D

media as points, lines, and planes. The solid geometric

primitives are transformed into 2-D geometric

primitives. Being able to identify 2-D primitives and the

3-D primitive solids they represent is important in visual-

izing and creating multiview drawings. Figure 8.47

shows multiview drawings of common geometric solids.

8.7.1 Points

A point represents a specific position in space and has no

width, height, or depth. A point can represent

The end view of a line.

The intersection of two lines.

A specific position in space.

Even though a point does not have width, height, or

depth, its position must still be marked. On technical

drawings, a point marker is a small symmetrical cross.

(See Chapter 6.)

8.7.2 Planes

A plane can be viewed from an infinite number of van-

tage points. A plane surface will always project as either

a line or an area. Areas are represented in true size or are

foreshortened and will always be similar in configuration

(same number of vertices and edges) from one view to

another, unless viewed as an edge. For example, surface

B in Figure 8.48 is always an irregular four-sided poly-

gon with two parallel sides (a trapezoid), in all the princi-

pal views. Since surface B is seen as a foreshortened area

in the three views, it is an oblique plane.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 5:

Configuration of Planes

Areas that are the same feature will always be similar in

configuration from one view to the next, unless viewed on

edge.

In contrast, area C in Figure 8.48 is similar in shape in

two of the orthographic views and is on edge in the third.

Surface C is a regular rectangle, with parallel sides la-

beled 3, 4, 5, and 6. Sides 3–6 and 4–5 are parallel in

both the top view and the right side view. Also, lines 3–4

and 5–6 are parallel in both views. Parallel features will

always be parallel, regardless of the viewpoint.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 6:

Parallel Features

Parallel features will always appear parallel in all views.

A plane appears as an edge view or line when it is par-

allel to the line of sight in the current view. In the front

view of Figure 8.48, surfaces A and D are shown as edges.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 7:

Edge Views

Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight will appear on

edge and are represented as a line.

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408 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Rectangular prism Cone Sphere

Pyramid Cylinder

Truncated cone Partial sphere

Prism and cube

Prism and partial cylinder

Prism and cylinder

Prism and negative

cylinder (hole)

Figure 8.47 Multiview Drawings of Solid Primitive Shapes

Understanding and recognizing these shapes will help you understand their application in technical drawings. Notice that the cone,

sphere, and cylinder are adequately represented with fewer than three views.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 409

A foreshortened plane is neither parallel nor perpen-

dicular to the line of sight. There are two types of fore-

shortened planes, oblique and inclined, as described in

Sections 8.6.3 and 8.6.4. Surface B is foreshortened in all

views of Figure 8.48.

Practice Exercise 8.4

Hold an object that has at least one flat surface (plane) at

arm’s length. Close one eye, and rotate the object so that

your line of sight is perpendicular to the flat surface. What

you see is a true-size view of the plane. Slowly rotate the ob-

ject while focusing on the flat plane. Notice that the flat plane

begins to foreshorten. As you continue to rotate the object

slowly, the plane will become more foreshortened until it dis-

appears from your line of sight and appears as a line or

edge. This exercise demonstrates how a flat plane can be

represented on paper in true size, foreshortened, or as a line.

8.7.3 Change of Planes (Corners)

A change of planes, or corner, occurs when two nonpar-

allel surfaces meet, forming a corner, line, or edge. (Fig-

ure 8.48 Line 3–4) Whenever there is a change in plane,

a line must be drawn to represent that change. The lines

are drawn as solid or continuous if visible in the current

view or dashed if they are hidden.

RIG

HT SID

VIEW

Front View

Line of sight

PARALLEL to

surface D

TOP

VIEW

FRONT

VIEW

Top View

Line of sight

INCLINED to

surface C

Front View

Line of sight

PARALLEL to

surface C

Top View

Line of sight

PERPENDICULAR to

surface D

5,4

1,2

6,3

6,1

TOP

FRONT

RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.48 Rule of Configuration of Planes

Surface B is an example of the Rule of Configuration of Planes. The edges of surface C, 3–4 and 5–6, are examples of the Rule of

Parallel Features.

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8.7.4 Angles

An angle is represented in true size when it is in a nor-

mal plane. If an angle is not in a normal plane, then

the angle will appear either larger or smaller than true

410 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

size. For example, in Figure 8.49A, the 135-degree

angle is measured as 135 degrees in the front view,

which is parallel to the plane containing the angle. In

Figure 8.49B, the angle is measured as less than true

size in the front view because the plane containing the

angle is not parallel to the frontal plane and is fore-

shortened. Right angles can be measured as 90° in a

foreshortened plane if one line is true length. (Figure

8.49C)

8.7.5 Curved Surfaces

Curved surfaces are used to round the ends of parts and

to show drilled holes and cylindrical features. Cones,

cylinders, and spheres are examples of geometric primi-

tives that are represented as curved surfaces on techni-

cal drawings.

Only the far outside boundary, or limiting ele-

ment, of a curved surface is represented in multiview

drawings. For example, the curved surfaces of the cone

and cylinder in Figure 8.50 are represented as lines in the

front and side views. Note that the bases of the cone and

cylinder are represented as circles when they are posi-

tioned perpendicular to the line of sight.

FORESHORTENED

SURFACE

TRUE

SIZE SURFACE

135°

(A) (B) (C)

NOT

TRUE

ANGLE

90°

Figure 8.49 Angles

Angles other than 90 degrees can only be measured in views

where the surface that contains the angle is perpendicular to the

line of sight. A 90-degree angle can be measured in a

foreshortened surface if one edge is true length.

Cone Cylinder

Area

Limiting

elements

Axis

(Center line)

Area

Limiting

elements

Axis

(Center line)

Area

Figure 8.50 Limiting Elements

In technical drawings, a cone is represented as a circle in one view and a triangle in the other. The sides of the triangle represent

limiting elements of the cone. A cylinder is represented as a circle in one view and a rectangle in the other.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 411

Practice Exercise 8.5

Hold a 12-ounce can of soda at arm’s length so that your

line of sight is perpendicular to the axis of the can. Close

one eye; the outline of the view should be a rectangle. The

two short sides are edge views of the circles representing

the top and bottom of the can. The two long sides represent

the limiting elements of the curved surface. Hold the can at

arm’s length such that your line of sight is perpendicular to

the top or bottom. Close one eye; the outline should look

like a circle.

Partial cylinders result in other types of multiview

representations. For example, the rounded end of the ob-

ject in Figure 8.51 is represented as an arc in the front

view. In the adjacent views, it is a rectangle because the

curve is tangent to the sides of the object. If the curve

were not tangent to the sides, then a line representing a

change of planes would be needed in the profile and top

views. (Figure 8.52)

An ellipse is used to represent a hole or circular fea-

ture that is viewed at an angle other than perpendicular

or parallel. Such features include handles, wheels,

clock faces, and ends of cans and bottles. Figure 8.53

shows the end of a cylinder, viewed first with a perpen-

dicular line of sight and then with a line of sight at 45

degrees. For the perpendicular view, the center lines

are true length, and the figure is represented as a circle.

(Figure 8.54) However, when the view is tilted, one of

the center lines is foreshortened and becomes the minor

axis of an ellipse. The center line that remains true

length becomes the major axis of the ellipse. As the

viewing angle relative to the circle increases, the length

of the minor axis is further foreshortened. (Figure 8.54)

Ellipses are also produced by planes intersecting right

circular cones and circular cylinders, as described in

Section 6.6.

FRONT

Line indicates no

tangency

Figure 8.52 Nontangent Partial Cylinder

When the transition of a rounded end to another feature is not

tangent, a line is used at the point of intersection.

True length

center lines

Ellipse

Minor axis

(foreshortened)

Major axis

(true length)

Cylinder viewed at

90° to its top

surface

Cylinder viewed at

45° to its top

surface

Figure 8.53 Elliptical Representation of a Circle

An elliptical view of a circle is created when the circle is

viewed at an oblique angle.

FRONT

No line

indicates

tangency

Figure 8.51 Tangent Partial Cylinder

A rounded-end, or partial, cylinder is represented as an arc when

the line of sight is parallel to the axis of the partial cylinder. No

line is drawn at the place where the partial cylinder becomes

tangent to another feature, such as the vertical face of the side.

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8.7.6 Holes

Figure 8.55 shows how to represent most types of ma-

chined holes. A through hole, that is, a hole that goes all

the way through an object, is represented in one view as

two parallel hidden lines for the limiting elements and is

shown as a circle in the adjacent view. (Figure 8.55A) A

blind hole, that is, one that is not drilled all the way

through the material, is represented as shown in Figure

8.55B. The bottom of a drilled hole is pointed because all

drills used to make such holes are pointed. The depth of

the blind hole is measured to the flat, as shown, then 30-

degree lines are added to represent the drill tip.

A drilled and counterbored hole is shown in Figure

8.55C. Counterbored holes are used to allow the

heads of bolts to be flush with or below the surface of

the part. A drilled and countersunk hole is shown in

Figure 8.55D. Countersunk holes are commonly used

for flathead fasteners. Normally, the countersink is rep-

resented by drawing 45-degree lines. A spotfaced hole

is shown in Figure 8.55E. A spotfaced hole provides a

place for the heads of fasteners to rest, to create a

smooth surface on cast parts. For countersunk, counter-

bored, and spotfaced holes, a line must be drawn to

represent the change of planes that occurs between the

412 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

large diameter and the small diameter of the hole. Fig-

ure 8.55F shows a threaded hole, with two hidden lines

in the front view and a solid and a hidden line in the

top view.

8.7.7 Fillets, Rounds, Finished Surfaces, and Chamfers

A fillet is a rounded interior corner, normally found on

cast, forged, or plastic parts. A round is a rounded exte-

rior corner, normally found on cast, forged, or plastic

parts. A fillet or round can indicate that both intersecting

surfaces are not machine finished. (Figure 8.56) A fillet

or round is shown as a small arc.

With CAD, corners are initially drawn square, then

fillets and rounds are added using a FILLET command.

CAD Reference 8.10

Fillets and rounds eliminate sharp corners on objects;

therefore, there is no true change of planes at these places

on the object. However, on technical drawings, only cor-

ners, edge views of planes, and limiting elements are rep-

resented. Therefore, at times it is necessary to add lines

to represent rounded corners for a clearer representation

of an object. (Figure 8.57) In adjacent views, lines are

added to the filleted and rounded corners by projecting

(D) What you see: ELLIPSE

Line of sight 30°

30°

Minor Diameter

Major Diameter

Fore-

shortened

Line of sight 45°

45°

Minor Diameter

Major Diameter

Fore-

shortened

(B) What you see: ELLIPSE

Line of sight 80°

80°

Minor Diameter

Major Diameter

Foreshortened

(A) What you see: TRUE SIZE

Edge of circle

Line of sight 90°

Figure 8.54 Viewing Angles for Ellipses

The size or exposure of an ellipse is determined by the angle of the line of sight relative to the circle.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 413

22.17

22.23

(G) No! (H) No!

(A) Through hole (B) Blind hole

(F) Threaded hole

(E) Drilled and spotfaced hole

(D) Drilled and countersunk hole

(Drill diameter)

(Counterbore diameter)

(Counterbore depth)

ø 19 (Diameter)

29 (Depth)

Dia.

S face dia.

Depth of

spotface

usually not

given

ø 16 (Drill diameter)

Drill diameter

Csk dia.

Dia

30°

Depth

Drill

diameter

C bore depth

C bore dia

ø .25 - 20 UNC 2B

Thread note

ø 14

Vø 29

82°

(Drill diameter)

(Countersink

diameter an

angle drawn

at 90°)

ø 32 (Spotface diameter)

ø 29

(Diameter)

Missing

Lines

Figure 8.55 Representation of Various Types of Machined Holes

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414 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Removed rough

surface

Finished

Sharp

corner

Rough

Round

Rough

Removed rough

surface

Finished

Sharp

corner

Fillet

Round

Rough

Fillet

Rough

Figure 8.56 Representation of Fillets and Rounds

Fillets and rounds indicate that surfaces of metal objects have not been machine finished; therefore, there are rounded corners.

Projected to

adjacent view to

locate line

Figure 8.57 Representing Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines tangent to a fillet or round are constructed and then extended, to create a sharp corner. The location of the sharp corner is

projected to the adjacent view to determine where to place representative lines indicating a change of planes.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 415

from the place where the two surfaces would intersect if

the fillets or rounds were not used. (Figure 8.58) This is a

conventional practice used to give more realistic repre-

sentation of the object in a multiview drawing.

When a surface is to be machined to a finish, a finish

mark in the form of a small v is drawn on the edge view

of the surface to be machined, that is, the finished sur-

face. Figure 8.59 shows different methods of represent-

ing finish marks and the dimensions used to draw them.

A chamfer is a beveled corner used on the openings

of holes and the ends of cylindrical parts, to eliminate

sharp corners. (Figure 8.60) Chamfers are represented as

lines or circles to show the change of plane. Chamfers

can be internal or external and are specified by a linear

and an angular dimension. With CAD, chamfers are

added automatically to square corners using a CHAM-

FER command. CAD Reference 8.11

8.7.8 Runouts

A runout is a special method of representing filleted sur-

faces that are tangent to cylinders. (Figure 8.61) A runout

is drawn starting at the point of tangency, using a radius

equal to that of the filleted surface with a curvature of ap-

proximately one-eighth the circumference of a circle. Ex-

amples of runout uses in technical drawings are shown in

No!

Yes!

Figure 8.58 Examples of Representations of Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines are added to parts with fillets and rounds, for clarity. Lines are used in the top views of these parts to represent changes of

planes that have fillets or rounds at the corners.

Edge view of

finished surface

Finish marks

60°

Figure 8.59 Finish Mark Symbols

Finish marks are placed on engineering drawings to indicate machine-finished surfaces.

No!

Yes!

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416 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.62. If a very small round intersects a cylindrical

surface, the runouts curve away from each other. (Figure

8.62A) If a large round intersects a cylindrical surface,

the runouts curve toward each other. (Figure 8.62C)

CAD Reference 8.12

8.7.9 Elliptical Surfaces

If a right circular cylinder is cut at an acute angle to the

axis, an ellipse is created in one of the multiviews. (Fig-

ure 8.63) The major and minor diameters can be pro-

jected into the view that shows the top of the cylinder as

an ellipse. The ellipse can then be constructed using the

methods described in Section 6.6.3. (Figure 8.64)

Internal Chamfer

External Chamfer

Figure 8.60 Examples of Internal and External Chamfers

Chamfers are used to break sharp corners on ends of cylinders and holes.

Point of

tangency

Detail A

Fillets

No fillets

Runout

Fillets

No fillets

Line

No line

Fillets

No fillets

Fillets

No fillets

Runout

Figure 8.61 Runouts

Runouts are used to represent corners with fillets that intersect cylinders. Notice the difference in the point of tangency with and

without the fillets.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 417

(E) (F) (G)

Flat

Rounded

Flat

(H) (I) (J) (K) (L)

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Flat

Flat Rounded Rounded

Figure 8.62 Examples of Runouts in Multiview Drawings

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8.7.10 Irregular or Space Curves

Irregular or space curves are drawn by plotting points

along the curve in one view and then transferring or

projecting those points to the adjacent views. (Figure

8.65) The intersections of projected points locate the

path of the space curve, which is drawn using an irregu-

lar curve. With CAD, a SPLINE command is used to

draw the curve.

8.7.11 Intersecting Cylinders

When two dissimilar shapes meet, a line of intersec-

tion usually results. The conventional practices for

representing intersecting surfaces on multiview draw-

ings are demonstrated in Figure 8.66, which shows

two cylinders intersecting. When one of the intersect-

ing cylinders is small, true projection is disregarded.

(Figure 8.66A) When one cylinder is slightly smaller

than the other, some construction is required. (Figure

8.66B) When both cylinders are of the same diameter,

the intersecting surface is drawn as straight lines. (Fig-

ure 8.66C)

418 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

MAJOR

DIAMETER

MINOR

DIAMETER

Figure 8.63 Right Circular Cylinder Cut to Create an

Ellipse

An ellipse is created when a cylinder is cut at an acute angle to

the axis.

Figure 8.64 Creating an Ellipse by Plotting Points

One method of drawing an ellipse is to plot points on the curve

and transfer those points to the adjacent views.

Figure 8.65 Plotting Points to Create a Space Curve

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 419

8.7.12 Cylinders Intersecting Prisms and Holes

Figure 8.67 shows cylinders intersecting with prisms.

Large prisms are represented using true projection (Fig-

ure 8.67B and C); small prisms are not (Figure 8.67A).

Figure 8.68 shows cylinders intersected with piercing

holes. Large holes and slots are represented using true

projection (Figure 8.68B and D); small holes and slots

are not (Figure 8.68A and C).

8.8 MULTIVIEW DRAWING VISUALIZATION

With sufficient practice, it is possible to learn to read

2-D engineering drawings, such as the multiview draw-

ings in Figure 8.69, and to develop mental 3-D images

of the objects. Reading a drawing means being able to

look at a two- or three-view multiview drawing and

form a clear mental image of the three-dimensional ob-

ject. A corollary skill is the ability to create a multiview

Tangent no

line

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.67 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Prism

Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a prism depends on the size of the prism relative to the cylinder.

No curve

r = R

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.66 Representing the Intersection of Two Cylinders

Representation of the intersection of two cylinders varies according to the relative sizes of the cylinders.

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drawing from a pictorial view of an object. Going from

pictorial to multiview and multiview to pictorial is an

important process performed every day by technologists.

The following sections describe various techniques for

improving your ability to visualize multiview drawings.

Additional information on visualizing 3-D objects is

found in Chapter 5.

8.8.1 Projection Studies

One technique that will improve multiview drawing visu-

alization skills is the study of completed multiviews of

various objects, such as those in Figure 8.69. Study each

object for orientation, view selection, projection of visi-

ble and hidden features, tangent features, holes and

rounded surfaces, inclined and oblique surfaces, and

dashed line usage.

8.8.2 Physical Model Construction

The creation of physical models can be useful in learning

to visualize objects in multiview drawings. Typically,

these models are created from modeling clay, wax, or

420 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Styrofoam. The two basic techniques for creating these

models are cutting the 3-D form out of a rectangular

shape (Figure 8.70) and using analysis of solids (Figure

8.71) to divide the object into its basic geometric primi-

tives and then combining these shapes. (See Section 8.8.8

for more information on analysis of solids.)

Practice Exercise 8.6

Figure 8.70 shows the steps for creating a physical model

from a rectangular block of modeling clay, based on a multi-

view drawing.

Step 1. Create a rectangular piece of clay that is propor-

tional to the width, height, and depth dimensions shown

on the multiview drawing.

Step 2. Score the surface of the clay with the point of the

knife to indicate the positions of the features.

Step 3. Remove the amount of clay necessary to leave the

required L-shape shown in the side view.

Step 4. Cut along the angled line to remove the last piece

of clay.

Step 5. Sketch a multiview drawing of the piece of clay.

Repeat these steps to create other 3-D geometric

forms.

(B) Large Hole(A) Small Hole

(D) Large Slot(C) Small Slot

Figure 8.68 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Hole

Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a hole or slot depends on the size of the hole or slot relative to the cylinder.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 421

(A) (C) (D)

(E)

(I)

(M)

(Q)

(U)

(F)

(J)

(N)

(R)

(V)

(G)

(K)

(O)

(S)

(W)

(H)

(L)

(P)

(T)

(X)

(B)

Figure 8.69 Examples of the Standard Representations of Various Geometric Forms

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422 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

8.8.3 Adjacent Areas

Given the top view of an object, as shown in Figure 8.72,

sketch isometric views of several possible 3-D forms.

Figure 8.73 shows just four of the solutions possible and

demonstrates the importance of understanding adjacent

areas when reading multiview drawings. Adjacent areas

are surfaces that reside next to each other. The boundary

between the surfaces is represented as a line indicating a

change in planes. No two adjacent areas can lie in the

same plane. Adjacent areas represent

1. Surfaces at different levels.

2. Inclined or oblique surfaces.

3. Cylindrical surfaces.

4. A combination of the above.

Orthographic (A) (B)

(E)

Figure 8.70 Creating a Real Model

Using Styrofoam or modeling clay and a knife, model simple 3-D objects to aid the visualization process.

Figure 8.71 Analysis of Solids

A complex object can be visualized by decomposing it into

simpler geometric forms.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 423

Going back to Figure 8.72, the lines separating sur-

faces A, B, and C represent three different surfaces at dif-

ferent heights. Surface A may be higher or lower than

surfaces B and C; surface A may also be inclined or

cylindrical. This ambiguity emphasizes the importance of

using more than one orthographic view to represent an

object clearly.

8.8.4 Similar Shapes

One visualization technique involves identifying those

views in which a surface has a similar configuration and

number of sides. (See Section 8.7.2, Rule 5, configura-

tion of planes, and Rule 6, parallel features.) Similar

shape or configuration is useful in visualizing or creating

multiview drawings of objects with inclined or oblique

surfaces. For example, if an inclined surface has four

edges with opposite edges parallel, then that surface will

appear with four sides with opposite edges parallel in any

orthographic view, unless viewing the surface on edge.

By remembering this rule you can visually check the ac-

curacy of an orthographic drawing by comparing the

configuration and number of sides of surfaces from view

to view. Figure 8.74 shows objects with shaded surfaces

that can be described by their shapes. In Figure 8.74A,

the shaded surface is L-shaped and appears similar in the

top and front views, but is an edge in the right side view.

In Figure 8.74B, the shaded surface is U-shaped and is

Top

Front Right side

Isometric

Figure 8.72 Adjacent Areas

Given the top view, make isometric sketches of possible 3-D

objects.

Figure 8.73 Possible Solutions to Figure 8.72

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Figure 8.74 Similar-Shaped Surfaces

Similar-shaped surfaces will retain their basic configuration in all views, unless viewed on edge. Notice that the number of edges of

a face remains constant in all the views and that edges parallel in one view will remain parallel in other views.

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424 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

configured similarly in the front and top views. In Figure

8.74C, the shaded surface is T-shaped in the top and

front views. In Figure 8.74D, the shaded surface has

eight sides in both the front and top views.

8.8.5 Surface Labeling

When multiview drawings are created from a given pic-

torial view, surfaces are labeled to check the accuracy of

the solution. The surfaces are labeled in the pictorial

view and then in each multiview, using the pictorial view

as a guide. Figure 8.75 is the pictorial view of an object,

with the visible surfaces labeled with a number; for ex-

ample, the inclined surface is number 5, the oblique sur-

face is number 8, and the hole is number 4. The multi-

view drawing is then created, the visible surfaces in each

view are labeled, and the results are checked against the

pictorial.

8.8.6 Missing Lines

Another way of becoming more proficient at reading and

drawing multiviews is by solving missing-line problems.

Figure 8.76 is a multiview drawing with at least one line

missing. Study each view, then add any missing lines to

the incomplete views. Lines may be missing in more than

one of the views. It may be helpful to create a rough iso-

metric sketch of the object when trying to determine the

location of missing lines.

Figure 8.75 Surface Labeling

To check the accuracy of multiview drawings, surfaces can be

labeled and compared with those in the pictorial view.

Completed multiview

Missing feature

Figure 8.76 Missing-Line Problems

One way to improve your proficiency is to solve missing-line problems. A combination of holistic visualization skills and

systematic analysis is used to identify missing features.

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 425

Locating Missing Lines in an

Incomplete Multiview Drawing

Step 1. Study the three given views in Figure 8.76.

Step 2. Use analysis by solids or analysis by surfaces, as

described earlier in this text, to create a mental image of

the 3-D form.

Step 3. If necessary, create a rough isometric sketch of the

object to determine the missing lines.

Step 4. From every corner of the object, sketch construc-

tion lines between the views. Because each projected

corner should align with a feature in the adjacent view,

this technique may reveal missing details. For the fig-

ure, corner A in the right side view does not align with

any feature in the front view, thus revealing the location

of the missing line.

8.8.7 Vertex Labeling

It is often helpful to label the vertices of the isometric

view as a check for the multiview drawing. In the isomet-

ric view in Figure 8.77, the vertices, including hidden

ones, are labeled with numbers, then the corresponding

vertices in the multiviews are numbered. In the multi-

views, hidden vertices are lettered to the right of the

numbered visible vertices. For example, the vertices of

surface A are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. In the front view,

surface A appears on edge, and vertices 1 and 4 are in

front of vertices 3 and 2. Therefore, in the front view, the

vertices of surface A are labeled 4, 3 and 1, 2.

8.8.8 Analysis by Solids

A common technique for analyzing multiview drawings

is analysis by solids, in which objects are decomposed

into solid geometric primitives such as cylinders, nega-

tive cylinders (holes), square and rectangular prisms,

cones, spheres, etc. These primitives are shown in Figure

8.47 earlier in this chapter. Their importance in the un-

derstanding and visualization of multiview drawings can-

not be overemphasized.

Figure 8.78 is a multiview drawing of a 3-D object.

Important features are labeled in each view. Planes are

labeled with a

P subscript, holes (negative cylinders) with

an H subscript, and cylinders (positive) with a

C subscript.

Analysis by Solids

Step 1. Examine all three views as a whole and then each

view in detail. In the top view is a rectangular shape la-

beled A

and three circles labeled G

, H

, and I

. On the

left end of the rectangular area are dashed lines repre-

senting hidden features. These hidden features are la-

beled D

, E

, and F

Step 2. In the front view is an L-shaped feature labeled B

At opposite ends of the L-shaped area are dashed lines

representing hidden features and labeled G

and F

. On

top of the L-shaped area is a rectangular feature with

dashed lines representing more hidden features. The

rectangular feature is labeled H

and the hidden feature

is labeled I

Step 3. In the right side view are two rectangular areas,

and a U-shaped area with a circular feature. The rectan-

gular feature adjacent to and above the U-shaped area is

labeled C

and has hidden lines labeled G

. The rectan-

gular feature above C

is labeled H

and contains dashed

lines labeled I

. The U-shaped area is labeled D

, and the

arc is labeled E

. The circular feature in the U-shaped

area is labeled F

Figure 8.77 Numbering the Isometric Pictorial and the

Multiviews to Help Visualize an Object

9,8 10,7

12 11

13,14 1,2 1,13 2,14

4,3

5,6

11,12

10,9 7,8

8,14 7,6 3,2

12,13 11,5 4,1

910

4,5 3,6

Top view

Front view

Right side

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This general examination of the views reveals some

important information about the 3-D form of the object.

Adjacent views are compared with each other, and paral-

lel projectors are drawn between adjacent views to help

further analysis of the object.

Step 4. In the top view, rectangular area A

extends the full

width of the drawing, can only be aligned with area B

the front view, and appears as an edge in the front and

right side views. Area B

in the front view is aligned with

area C

in the right side view. B

appears as a vertical

edge in the right side view and a horizontal edge in the

top view. The conclusion is that areas A

, B

, and C

are

top, front, and right side views, respectively, of a rectan-

gular prism, which is the main body of the part.

Step 5. Circular area G

in the top view is aligned with the

hidden lines labeled G

in the front view. Because these

hidden lines go from top to bottom in the front view, it is

concluded that the circle represents a hole. This can be

verified by the dashed lines G

in the right side view.

Step 6. In the front view, rectangular area H

projects

above the main body of the part; therefore, it should be

visible in the top view. This rectangular area is in align-

ment with circular area H

in the top view and with rectan-

gular area H

in the right side view. The conclusion is that

426 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

area H

is a cylinder because it appears as a circle in

one view and as a rectangle in the other two views.

Step 7. The circle I

in the top view is aligned with dashed

lines I

in the front view and is inside cylinder H

. This in-

dicates that circle I

in the top view is a negative cylinder

(hole) centered within cylinder H

. The dashed line la-

beled Z in the front and right side views shows the depth

of the negative cylinder I

Step 8. In the top view, the dashed lines at the left end of

rectangular area A

represent one or more feature(s)

below the main body of the part. Hidden line D

in the top

view is aligned with visible line D

in the front view, and

dashed lines F

in the top view are directly above dashed

lines F

in the front view. Area E

in the top view is

aligned with area E

in the front view. So the features hid-

den in the top view must be D

and E

in the front view.

and E

in the front view are aligned with D

and E

the right side view. The right side view appears to be the

most descriptive view of these features. In this view, area

is a partial cylinder represented by arc E

. The side

view also reveals that dashed lines F

in the top and front

views represent the diameter of hole F

. Therefore, area

and partial cylinder E

are a U-shaped feature with a

hole whose width is revealed in the front and top views.

Figure 8.78 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using Analysis by Solids

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 427

Analysis by solids should result in a clear mental image

of the 3-D form represented in a 2-D multiview drawing.

Figure 8.79 is a pictorial view of the object in the multi-

view drawing, and it should be similar to the mental image

created after following the preceding eight steps.

8.8.9 Analysis by Surfaces

Figure 8.79 lends itself to analysis by solids because

there are no inclined or oblique surfaces. With inclined

and oblique surfaces, such as those shown in Figure 8.80,

analysis by surfaces may be more useful.

Analysis by Surfaces

Step 1. Examine all three views in Figure 8.80. There are

no circular or elliptical features; therefore, all the areas

must be bounded by planar surfaces. In the top view,

areas A and B are separated by lines; therefore, they are

not in the same plane. The same is true for areas C and

D in the front view and areas E and F in the right side

view. The reason for this is that no two contiguous (adja-

cent) areas can lie in the same plane. If they were in the

same plane, a line would not be drawn to separate them.

This is an example of Rule 8.

Step 2. The lines of projection between the top and front

views indicate that area B corresponds to area D. Areas

B and D are also similar in shape in that they both have

six sides, thus reinforcing the possibility that areas B and

D are the same feature. Similarly, areas A and C are

aligned and are similar in shape, so they could be the

same feature. However, before accepting these two pos-

sibilities, the side view must be considered.

Step 3. Area D aligns with area F, but they are not similar

in shape; area F is three-sided and area D is six-sided.

Therefore, areas D and F are not the same feature. In the

right side view, area D must be represented as an edge

view separating areas E and F; therefore, area D is the in-

clined plane in the right side view. Area C aligns with

FRONT

VIEW

RIGHT SIDE

VIEW

TOP

VIEW

Figure 8.79 A Pictorial View of the Multiview Drawing in Figure 8.78, Revealing Its Three-Dimensional Form

Figure 8.80 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using

Analysis by Surfaces

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area E, but they are not similar in shape; area C is four-

sided, and area E is three-sided. In the right side view,

area C must be represented as an edge view and is the

vertical line on the left side of the view.

Step 4. Areas E and F are not represented in the top or

front views; therefore, areas E and F are edge views in

the front and top views. (Figure 8.81) Because areas E

and F are visible in the right side view, they are at the

right end of the front and top views. Therefore, they must

be located at the right end of the object.

Step 5. Based on alignment and similarity of shape, sur-

faces B and D must be the same surface.

Step 6. Area A in the top view is an edge view represented

as a horizontal line in the front and side views. Area C in

the front view is a horizontal edge view in the top view

and a vertical edge view in the right side view. Areas A

and C are therefore not the same.

Figure 8.82 is a pictorial view of the object. Areas B

and D are the same inclined plane, area A is a horizontal

plane, and areas C, E, and F are vertical planes.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 8:

Contiguous Areas

No two contiguous areas can lie in the same plane.

8.9 ANSI STANDARDS FOR

MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS

Standards form the common language used by engineers

and technologists for communicating information. The

standard view representations developed by ANSI for mul-

tiview drawings are described in the following paragraphs.

428 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

8.9.1 Partial Views

A partial view shows only what is necessary to com-

pletely describe the object. Partial views are used for sym-

metrical objects, for some types of auxiliary views, and

for saving time when creating some types of multiview

drawings. A break line (shown as a jagged line) or center

line for symmetrical objects may be used to limit the par-

tial view. (Figure 8.83) If a break line is used, it is placed

where it will not coincide with a visible or hidden line.

Partial views are used to eliminate excessive hidden

lines that would make reading and visualizing a drawing

difficult. At times it may be necessary to supplement a

partial view with another view. For example, in Figure

8.84, two partial profile views are used to describe the

object better. What has been left off in the profile views

are details located behind the views.

Figure 8.81 Conclusions Drawn about Figure 8.80

B = D

Figure 8.82 A Pictorial View of Figure 8.80, Revealing Its

Three-Dimensional Form

Center line Break line

Figure 8.83 A Partial View Used on a Symmetrical Object

The partial view is created along a center line or a break line.

B = D

D = B

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 429

8.9.2 Revolution Conventions

At times, a normal multiview drawing will result in

views that are difficult to visualize and read. This is espe-

cially true of objects with ribs, arms, or holes that are not

aligned with horizontal and vertical center lines. Figure

8.85 shows an object with ribs and holes that are equally

spaced, with the two bottom holes not aligned with the

center line of the object. True projection produces an

awkward profile view that is difficult to draw because all

but one rib are foreshortened. (Figure 8.85A) ANSI stan-

dard revolution conventions allow the profile view to be

drawn as shown in Figure 8.85B. You must visualize the

object as if the ribs are revolved into alignment with the

vertical center line in the front view. This will produce a

profile view that is easier to visualize and draw.

Revolution conventions can also be used on parts

that have bolt circles. Figure 8.86 shows the true pro-

jection of a plate with a bolt circle. Notice that the pro-

file view becomes difficult to read because of so many

hidden lines. As shown in Figure 8.86, revolution con-

ventions dictate that only two of the bolt circle holes

must be represented in the profile view. These two bolt

circle holes are aligned with the vertical center line in

the front view and are then represented in that position

in the profile view.

Figure 8.87 shows another example of revolution

conventions. The inclined arms in the figure result in a

foreshortened profile view, which is difficult and time

consuming to draw. Revolution conventions allow the

arms to be shown in alignment with the vertical center

line of the front view to create the profile view shown in

the figure.

Objects similar to those described in the preceding

paragraphs are frequently represented as section views.

When revolution techniques are used with section

views, the drawings are called aligned sections. (See

Chapter 14.)

Revolution conventions were developed before CAD.

With the advent of 3-D CAD and the ability to extract

views automatically, it is possible to create a true-projec-

tion view, such as that shown in Figure 8.87, quickly and

easily. You are cautioned that, even though a view can be

automatically produced by a CAD system, this does not

necessarily mean that the view will be easy to visualize

by the user.

Figure 8.84 Use of Two Partial Profile Views to Describe

an Object and Eliminate Hidden Lines

(A) True projection (B) Preferred

Figure 8.85 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the Representation of Ribs and Webs

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Practice Exercise 8.7

In Figures 8.85 through 8.87, a new revolved view was cre-

ated to replace a true projection in the profile view. This was

done in order to represent the features of the object more

clearly. Sketch new front views as if the new profile views

represented true projections.

8.9.3 Removed Views

At times, it is important to highlight or enlarge part of

a multiview. A new view is drawn that is not in align-

ment with one of the principal views, but is removed

and placed at a convenient location on the drawing

sheet. A removed view is a complete or partial ortho-

graphic view that shows some details more clearly. A

new viewing plane is used to define the line of sight

used to create the removed view, and both the viewing

plane and the removed view are labeled, as shown in

Figure 8.88.

8.10 SUMMARY

Multiview drawings are an important part of technical

graphics. Creating multiview drawings takes a high de-

gree of visualization skill and considerable practice. Mul-

tiview drawings are created by closely following ortho-

graphic projection techniques and ANSI standards. The

rules of orthographic projection are listed here for your

reference.

430 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Rule 1: Every point or feature in one view must be

aligned on a parallel projector in any adjacent

view.

Rule 2: Distances between any two points of a fea-

ture in related views must be equal.

Rule 3: Features are true length or true size when the

lines of sight are perpendicular to the feature.

Rule 4: Features are foreshortened when the lines of

sight are not perpendicular to the feature.

Rule 5: Areas that are the same feature will always

be similar in configuration from one view to the

next, unless viewed as an edge.

Rule 6: Parallel features will always appear parallel

in all views.

Rule 7: Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight

will appear as lines or edge views.

Rule 8: No two contiguous areas can lie in the same

plane.

PreferredTrue projection

Figure 8.86 Revolution Convention Used on Objects with

Bolt Circles to Eliminate Hidden Lines and Improve

Visualization

True projection

Preferred

Figure 8.87 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the

Representation of Arms

Scale - 4/1

View A

Figure 8.88 A Scaled Removed View (View A)

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 431

Questions for Review

1. Define orthographic projection.

2. How is orthographic projection different from

perspective projection? Use a sketch to highlight

the differences.

3. Define multiview drawings. Make a simple multi-

view sketch of an object.

4. Define frontal, horizontal, and profile planes.

5. List the six principal views.

6. Define fold lines.

7. List the space dimensions found on a front view,

top view, and profile view.

8. Define a normal plane.

9. Define an inclined plane.

10. Define an oblique plane.

11. List the eight rules of orthographic projection.

Problems

Integrated Design Communications Problem

Gear reducer assignment 6

Each member of the team will take his or her assigned part(s)

and the design sketches created earlier and will begin to cre-

ate multiview drawings of those parts, using hand tools or

CAD. If 3-D models were created earlier and the CAD soft-

ware is capable, extract the multiviews from the models, as

described in this chapter. When creating the multiviews, re-

member to choose the most descriptive views and to leave

enough space between the views to add dimensions later.

8.1 (Figure 8.89) Draw or sketch the front, top, and

right side views of the object shown in the pictor-

ial. Number each visible surface in each of the

multiviews to correspond to the numbers given in

the pictorial view.

8.2 (Figure 8.90) Draw or sketch the front, top, and

right side views of the object shown in the pictorial.

Number each visible surface in each of the multi-

views to correspond to the numbers given in the

pictorial view.

8.3 (Figure 8.91) Given the front view shown in the fig-

ure, design at least six different solutions. Sketch your

solutions in pictorial and in front and side views.

8.4 (Figure 8.92) Given the two views of a multiview

drawing of an object, sketch or draw the given

views, freehand or using instruments or CAD, and

then add the missing view. As an additional exer-

cise, create a pictorial sketch of the object.

8.5 (Figure 8.93) Given three incomplete views of a

multiview drawing of an object, sketch or draw the

given views, freehand or using instruments or

CAD, and then add the missing line or lines. As an

additional exercise, create a pictorial sketch of the

object.

Figure 8.89 Solid Object for Problems 8.1, 8.11, and 8.12

Figure 8.90 Solid Object for Problem 8.2

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8.6 (Figure 8.94) Sketch, or draw with instruments or

CAD, multiviews of the objects shown in the

pictorials.

8.7 (Figures 8.95 through 8.184) Sketch, draw with

instruments or CAD, or create 3-D CAD models

for the parts shown.

8.8 On square grid paper, sketch a series of multi-

views of a cube, at least eight squares on a side.

Visualize the following modifications to the cube

and draw the resulting multiviews:

a. Looking at the front view, drill a hole 3

squares in diameter and parallel to the line of

sight.

b. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 2

squares in diameter to the right of the first

hole.

c. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 3

squares in diameter above the first hole.

d. Take the result of (a) and drill a hole 5 squares

in diameter in the same location as the first

hole, but only half-way through the cube.

e. Instead of drilling a 3-square diameter hole

through the object, create a cylinder projecting

2 squares out of the cube and parallel to the

line of sight of the front view. Compare this

with the views in (a).

432 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

f. Same as (e), except raise the cylinder along the

line of sight of the top view.

g. Same as (a), except remove a square feature

rather than a round hole. Compare this with

the views in (a).

h. Same as (a), except place the center 2 squares

to the right. Enlarge the drill to a diameter of 5

squares; 7 squares; 9 squares.

i. Find the midpoints of the top and right side

edges of the front view. Draw a line connect-

ing these points and project it along the line

of sight for the front view to create a cutting

plane. Remove this corner of the cube.

j. Same as (i), except rotate the cutting plane to

be 15°, 30° , 60°, and 75° to the horizontal.

Compare the dimensions of the inclined sur-

face projections at each of these angles (in-

cluding the original 45° angle).

k. Same as (i), except move the cutting plane to-

ward the lower left corner of the front view, in

2-square increments. When is the inclined sur-

face the largest?

l. Same as (i), except the cutting plane is defined

by the midpoints of the top and right side

edges of the front view and the midpoint of the

top edge of the right side view.

m. Same as (l), except move the cutting plane in

2-square increments toward the opposite cor-

ner of the cube.

8.9 Same as 8.8 (a through k), except use a cylinder 8

squares in diameter, 8 squares deep, and seen in

its circular form in the front view.

8.10 Using any of the objects shown in the exercises in

the back of this chapter, decompose the objects

into primitive geometric shapes. Color code these

shapes to show whether they represent positive

material added to the object or negative material

removed from it. This can be done by:

• Drawing isometric pictorial sketches of the

objects.

• Overdrawing on top of photocopies of the

drawings.

• Tracing over the drawings.

EXAMPLE

Figure 8.91 Front View for Problem 8.3

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 433

(3)(2)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11)

(1)

(12)

Figure 8.92 Two-View Drawings of Several Objects for Problem 8.4

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434 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19)

(20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.92 Continued

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 435

(28) (29)

(30)

(26) (27)

(31)

(32)

(34)

(35)

(33)

(25)

(36)

Figure 8.92 Continued

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436 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11)

(1)

(12)

Figure 8.93 Three Incomplete Views of a Multiview Drawing of an Object for Problem 8.5

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 437

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22)

(23) (24)

Figure 8.93 Continued

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438 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(12)

(1)

(2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11)

Figure 8.94 Pictorials of Several Objects for Problems 8.6 and 8.13

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 439

(24)(23)

(13)

(14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22)

Figure 8.94 Continued

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440 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(33)

(25) (26) (27)

(28) (29) (30)

(31) (32)

(34) (35) (36)

Figure 8.94 Continued

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 441

8.11 Using either a photocopy or a tracing of the object

in Figure 8.89, color, number, or letter each face

(surface) of the object. Pick a surface that will be

seen in its true size and shape in the front view

and sketch its representation in the three primary

multiviews. Use projection lines to align the

surface in all three views. Label it the same as

you did in the pictorial. Then, pick another sur-

face that shares an edge with the one you just

sketched, and sketch the new surface in the three

views. Repeat the process until you have sketched

all the faces contiguous with the original one.

.75

.00

4.50

2.00

1.00

5.00

1.00

1.50

4.50

.50

Figure 8.95 Tool Block

2.00

1.00

.50

4.00

2.00

3.50

3.00

6.00

.50

Figure 8.96 Wedge Support

.25

1.00

.0918

Figure 8.97 Ratchet

.570

.125

40°

.160

R .340

R .560

.125

R .1875

Figure 8.98 Ratchet Stop

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442 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

How many of these faces are contiguous with

each other? How many are also seen in their true

size and shape in the front view? In other views?

8.12 Using the object in Figure 8.89, identify the nor-

mal, inclined, and oblique planar surfaces. Either

letter, number, or color code the surfaces on a

tracing paper copy or a photocopy of the pictorial.

a. Create a multiview of the object and identify

the same surfaces in all three views. In which

views are individual surfaces seen in their true

size and shape? In which views are individual

surfaces foreshortened? (Which dimension is

foreshortened?) In which views are individual

features seen as edges?

b. For the inclined surfaces, identify which edges

show up as normal or non-normal (angled)

edges on normal surfaces. How does the in-

clined surface appear in the view where a non-

normal edge is present?

c. For the oblique surfaces, are there any normal

edges? Is there any view in which any of these

surfaces are seen as edges?

d. Visualize a view which would allow an in-

clined or oblique surface to be seen in its true

size and shape, and try to sketch that view.

What happens to the surfaces which were nor-

mal in the principal views?

8.13 Using any of the objects from Figure 8.94, sketch

them on tracing paper or make a photocopy. Sketch

cutting planes which would divide all or part of

each object into symmetrical halves. Sketch multi-

views of each half of each object.

4.50

ø .313

.75

.062

.375

R .844

R .906

5°

1.000

.50

R 1.118

1.00

R .063

.375 THICK

Figure 8.99 Lever

.458

.750

.144

.255

.02 X 45°

.780

.630

.06

R .315

.25

R .59

.375

Figure 8.100 Coupling

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 443

4.00

2.00

1.50

5X .03 X 45

2.375

4.625

2.125

R .50

.70

Figure 8.101 Retainer

3.50

6.50

9.50

7.00

4.00

3.50

Figure 8.102 Half Pin

.750

1.000

.563

.250

.438

Figure 8.103 Timing Knob

R .125

NECK ø .447-MINIMUM

.406

.188

.625

.031 CHAMFER

.531

.063 X 45

.3125-18 TAP

.531

.018 Thick

Figure 8.104 Latch Nut

3.00

R .250

1.50

3.4375

3.00

.500

.75

108°

1.50

Figure 8.106 Snubber

6.00

R .750

.6250

2.250

2.00

.125

76°

1.500

.500

4.50

1.6425

.4034

5.00

.125

8.00

Figure 8.105 Top Bracket

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444 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

.5000

.4370

.3748

1.6250

.3750

1.0000

.125 x 45

.1457

.1875

.250

Figure 8.107 Dial Extension

2.250

.375

.0625 X 45

1.3123 X 0.0156

RAISED FACE

1.2498

Figure 8.108 Spacer

70.00

R 6.40

15.80

180.00

METRIC

Figure 8.109 Motor Plate

-2

.469

Figure 8.110 Handle

1.00

60°

.6250

R .2500

.3660

.500

R 1.00

R .8148

1.1250

1.8125

2.0000

2.3783

60°

Figure 8.111 Release

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 445

CENTRAL AXIS

CENTRAL AXIS TUBE

Central axis tube height = 11.000"

Central axis tube I.D. = 7.250"

Central axis tube O.D. = 8.000"

Central axis tube flange dia = 10.000"

Central axis tube flange width = .500"

All flange diameters = tube diameter + 1.5"

All flange widths = .500"

All tube I.D.'s = Tube diameter - .500"

Tube #

Elevation from base

(on the central axis)

4.000"

7.000"

4.000"

2.750"

9.125"

4.625"

4.500"

Azimuth angle from tube

#1 (around central axis)

0°

180°

110°

70°

310°

205°

230°

Offset distance from

central axis

0.000"

2.000"

0.500"

0.750"

0.125"

0.250"

Angle of elevation

from the base of

the part

0°

-45°

-10°

30°

0°

-30°

Length of tube from end of

flange to apparent intersection

with central axis

Outer diameter of

tube

3.000"

2.500"

3.500"

1.750"

0°

14.000"

11.000"

9.250"

9.500"

5.000"

5.500"

6.000"

7.500"

Figure 8.112 Evaporator

2.0625 OFFSET 60

AROUND CENTRAL AXIS

R .3125

-P

° C

.2813

Figure 8.113 Swivel

R .3750

5°

35°

.6188

.4544

.8688

.4801

.0168

.8438

.5244

.0312

.1092

1.5787

1.7399

.9732

.0781

.4062

.2171

.0312

SECTION A-A

1.9611

1.6917

.2191

9.5000

2.3594

8.7813

.3438

.4377

.5000

.75

.8567

.7409

.0592

.1250

R 1.7500

8.2482

1.2317

.808

1.9688

1.7134

R .2500

.8794

ø .300

.1362

.1639

Figure 8.114 L-Slide

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446 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

2.2

13.6

3.0

2.4

33.2

30.0

21.8

3.8

5°

1.6

4.8

2.2

.8 X 45°

5.0

3.6

3.2

2.4

4.8

ø 1.2

1.00

Figure 8.115 Manifold

.25

R .37

4.63

2.63

1.88

.63

1.50

2.25

.50

1.13

.88

1.25

115

3.25

.25

1.13

2.88

1.75

.75

2.00

6.88

7.38

Figure 8.116 Seat

136

15°

120°

120

8 X

5°

42 B.C.

METRIC

Figure 8.117 Propeller

3X R 22

2X R 30

R 16

150

METRIC

Figure 8.118 Cutoff

.50

1.13

.06

R .25

ø .19

.75

.25

1.25

.13

.62

.13

.19

.63

.75

1.25

1.38

1.63

2.06

2.81

3.00

3.38

.25

45°

.44

.13

Figure 8.119 Folder

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 447

.6250

.6249

.6250

.2500

.8750

.3750

.1758

.1250

1.3750

3.4375

1.5625

1.2500

.7578

.5000

R .1250

.2500

.1250

.2500

.4688

.6250

.0625

.3867

.2344

.0613

.4453

.3835

.6249

.7578

.5189

.3461

.4609

.5103

3.2500

.6494

.3477

.5000

.3750

.875

.035

NOTE: ALL CHAMFERED

EDGES .125 X 45° U.O.S.

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .0625

.4505

Figure 8.121 Sensor

.05 X 45

1.20

.20

1.70

2.30

Figure 8.122 Index

192

104

176

R 78

R 104

R 12

552

128

290

R 20

104

R 16

R 80

100

116

R 8

288

8 BLADES EQ

4 BLADES EQ SP

R .56

228

METRIC

Figure 8.123 Slinger

R 3.63

15.56

4.63

22X

.19

1.38

2.00

3.00

1.75

3.50

R 2.87

R 2.25

2.69

1.75

R 1.12

.38

R .38

R .96

Figure 8.124 Spray Arm

METRIC

120

R 36

55°

R 58

20°

35°

R 12

R 14

3X R 49

Figure 8.120 Spline Pilot

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448 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

METRIC

1.3

10.8

ø 14.8

R 9.2

R 1.8

18.4

5.2

11.0

3.6

R 2.6

ø 8.0

12.8

5.2

14.1

15.7

17.9

45.3

68.9

11.5

Figure 8.125 Arm Support

TAB ON BOTH SIDES

2.25

R .25

.38

R .31

.94

1.88

4.44

.25

.50

.88

4.31

2.63

.50

1.13

.44

.88

.25

12.38

.44

2.36

.94

.50

.25

2.38

.44

Figure 8.126 Control Back

METRIC

90°

R 5

R 112

R 4

Figure 8.127 Inlet

METRIC

Figure 8.128 Gear Index

1.63

2.26

.50

2.38

4.63

7.50

2.38

R 1.13

1.13

Figure 8.129 Speed Spacer

1.50

4.13

3.38

2.00

.63

1.25

.63

R .25

Figure 8.130 Shaft Support

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 449

METRIC

R 16

20°

R 15

R 9

R 2

15°

R 21

Figure 8.133 CNC Clamp

1.00

1.25

1.00

1.75

.63

1.38

2.50

1.50

R .25

R 2.25

.87 X

.30

3.75

.63

1.00

.50

1.13

1.00

2.00

2.25

1.6

1.63

2.00

1.13

.75

2.24

Figure 8.134 Pen Block

3.10

.50

.60

1.30

.80

.30

1.00

1.90

6.30

8.90

R .50

ø .60

2.10

2.50

5.00

ø .80

ø 1.80

.50

2.50

R 3.30

.40

R 1.50

1.60

.90

.40

1.10

2X ø .40

.75

Figure 8.135 Index Support

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

2.00

.88

.63

1.00

3.29

1.00

2.00

.75

1.00

.50

1.00

2.00

.94

1.75

2.00

1.13

1.75

3.25

.63

.88

Figure 8.136 Cover Guide

.50

1.00

Figure 8.131 Stop Base

.50

1.50

1.37

1.62

3.50

1.38

.50

Figure 8.132 Tool Holder

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450 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

30°

1.375

2.250

.625

4X R .25

3.000

.500

.50

.750

.938

.563

.875

.500

.750

.625

1.375

.313

.50

Figure 8.137 Dial Bracket

.188

.437

.188

.250

.375

R .375

1.50

.500

Figure 8.138 Bearing Block

.437

1.250

.375

R .937

.563

.250

3X R .250

.563

.625

.250

.2505

1.000

1.063

.313

1.813

R 1.438

1.000

.625

.563

Figure 8.139 Pulley Support

.56

1.07

1.05

4.26

1.26

.66

.49

.90

.30

.50

3.18

1.44

.41

.40

.10

1.26

.30

.90

.50

.53

.41

.12

2.21

.32

.43

.40

Figure 8.140 Centering Clip

METRIC

522

336

438

393

R 84

R 45

SR 48

111

195

189

R 30

174

R 237

R 153

120

R 21

6 BLADES EQ SP

Figure 8.141 Impeller

1.00

.50

R .50

2.50

1.00

4.00

.275

.25

2.00

.275

.25

1.125

R .375

.75

1.18

R .18

1.00

Figure 8.142 Adjustable Guide

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 451

.30

R 1.06

3.00

2.40

.95

.73

.30

.63

.48

.95 CENTERED

.63

1.75

.30

4X R .14

.325

.40

3.20

4.00

.50

1.40

2.40

R .50

1.45

1.20

R .50

TYP

.15

.60

2.30

.77

R .75

.48

.70

Figure 8.146 Dryer Clip

.70

2.80

.625

.54

.60

1.40

R .40

.71

.50

1.20

R .75

.53

2.00

R 1.5

2.00

4X R .125

5.00

.55

1.00

.20

.30 X 82°

R .56

R .60

1.48

3.80

.57

.20

20°

.50

.57

Figure 8.147 Blade Base

.51

R .25

.375

1.42

1.37

2.08

2.39

2.33

2.38

2.12

1.23

.87

.12

1.21

83°

.50

.45

2.11

1.08

1.42

1.25

2.37

2.71

.75

1.00

.31

.75

1.11

.50

11°

.50

2X R .50

R .50

Figure 8.145 Bar Hinge

.125

.690

.250

1.000

.094

.625

.750

.500

1.500

1.750

R .250

.375

1.750

1.625

1.060

.760

2.625

3.375

.375

.625

.750

2.000

1.625

.500

Figure 8.144 Pump Base

1.77

4.08

.50

R .75

.375

2X R .50

2.00

.67

2.40

.50

1.00

1.50

.45

2.74

3.74

2.00

2.45

.67

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

Figure 8.143 Auger Support

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452 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

.500

.250

8X 45

4.000

4.3578

R 1.000

R .550

5°

1.000

120°

.445

2.500

2.3107

4X R 1.750

4X R .250

1.50

.1250

.3750

4.8578

R 1.803

3.00

4.000

Figure 8.148 Dryer Tube

4.000

.500

120

R .875

.750

R 2.3029

R 1.1788

R 1.1117

.1218

1.4744

1.375

.250

43°

.250

2.2723

3.7022

40°

3.00

.750

.4913

.085

Figure 8.149 Index Adapter

(.52)

(2.23)

.18

.37

(R 1.11)

(R .70)

.76

R .09

VIEW A-A

R 1.29

.39

R .26

BOTH SIDES

58°

.67

NOTE: ALL FILLETS & ROUNDS

.09 U.O.S.

R .38

.46

2.23

RAISED .03

1.78

.04 X 45

2.23

.10

.75

.95

1.60

1.70

.36

2.18

2.78

.38

.10

2.40

1.91

.90

2.63

R 1.12

BOTH SIDES

3.01

R .56

BOTH SIDES

.19

.75

1.24

R .58

.95

1.57

.80

.20

.55

25°

.14

3.49

3.89

R 1.16

3.43

R 1.56

2.89

4.05

.52

R 1.11

R .70

R .13

5.74

.61

VIEW

Figure 8.150 Connecting Rod

.95

1.16

2.00

1.08

1.54

.44

4.36

.44

4X 90

ø 3.41 B.C.

.54

1.00

8°

Figure 8.151 Retaining Cap

.62

1.00

1.37

.50

2.00

1.00

.125

3.25

.50

2.00

1.50

.64

.75

3.00

.50

1.37

Figure 8.152 Locating Block

1.10

.71

1.03

1.35

1.60

.125

.50

.125

1.08

.31

.07

ø 2.25

.08

R .03

.66

Figure 8.153 Spin Drive

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 453

METRIC

422

378

PROFILE A

R 36

R 18

238

R 394

R 9

PROFILE A

206

Figure 8.157 Air Foil

1.56

3.06

1.53

.38

1.94

.72

.25

.44 X 82

2.50

2.00

1.13

.62

1.13

2X R .25

.25

1.25

125

51°

4.50

.38

.91

.88

2.69

.37

1.19

.25

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .06

1.25

Figure 8.158 Locating Base

Fillets and Rounds R .09

1.30

.26

1.43

.94

1.59

.80

.54

1.78

2.86

.56

1.31

3.47

4.59

R .38

.29

.56

.19

2.72

99°

.47

.38

Figure 8.159 Anchor Base

.65

1.43

1.63

R .53

.29

.98

.20

.57

.11

.33

.24

1.80

.90

.33

1.7

R .40

.49

.815

.57

.30

Figure 8.156 Tool Pad

.54

1.60

7.57

1.00

.125

1.50

1.12

8X R .25

8X 27

1.00

.50

Figure 8.154 Solar Mill

2.50

5.00

OFFSET 90

AROUND

CENTRAL AXIS

1.50

.0625 X 19

2.19

3.00

Figure 8.155 Spherical Spacer

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454 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

1.60

2.00

1.50

4°

.25

.19

.40

5.88

1.38

1.63

5°

.50

5.46

2.24

1.50

.66

1.74

4.44

3.48

2.11

1.60

1.99

.09

.88

.75

.37

.48

Figure 8.161 Dryer Gear

.74

.73

2X R 2.83

.25

.28

1.10

5.03

.25

32°

.59

6X 60

2.52 B.C.

R 2.00

.13

.62

4X ø .28

4X 90

ø 4.60 B.C.

Figure 8.160 Evaporator Cover

12X

.15

12X 30

ø 2.55 B.C.

.17

.68

.34

.84

.37 X .42 LG

4X 90

2.55 B.C.

15°

.17

3.37

2.90

.86

1.71

Figure 8.163 Relay Clip

45°

10°

4.10

1.43

3.45

.66

.87

.17

1.07

1.34

.44

3.48

.29

.59

.80

.72

108

R .31

2.61

4.75

5°

2.50

1.25

1.07

.32

Figure 8.162 Heater Clip

R 1.34

.39

R .16

.59

.73

R .39

.59

1.37

1.18

.10

1.35

.49

.79

2.56

1.36

1.00

R .25

Figure 8.165 Caster Mount

.375

1.500

.500

.375

1.50

.3125

.625

.0625

1.20

.125

120°

1.57

2.50

2.00

.500

1.00

Figure 8.164 Clip Release

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 455

.156

.250

.063

.375

2.500

.203

.250

.313

.125

.094

.375

.188

.313

.031

.125

.094

14°

.031

.062

.125

.188

.125

VIEW A

.020

.250

Figure 8.168 Lens Clip

21.00

50.50

1.50

13.00

5.00

12.00

25.00

18.50

3.5

5.00

10.00

1.50

12.00

4.00

R 7.50

3.50

4.00

METRIC

Figure 8.169 Strike Arm

127.00

147.00

4X R 10.00

9.90

10.00

9.15

8.30

25.00

4.00

8.30

96.00

63.50

METRIC

THICKNESS 4

Figure 8.170 Offset Plate

17.0

8.13°

43.0

89.0

102.0

41.0

8°

4X R 2.0

12.0

16.0

42.0

102.0

12.0

METRIC

21.0

Figure 8.171 Clamp Down

.625

.969

.313

1.250

R .625

2.250

.563

1.876

.750

.563

Figure 8.166 Slide Base

.688

.500

1.125

.500

3.500

4.000

.500

1.000

.938

2.380

1.375

2.000

.500

1.19

Figure 8.167 Retainer Clip

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456 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

1.5625

.1875

R .1878

.2969

.687

.125

.750

.5625

.0254

Figure 8.172 Shelf Stud

.500

.0486

.125

1.00

1.9722

3.8602

58°

1.9423

.9262

1.1304

.3741

.9565

4.2505

.500

.5557

.4374

R .300

1.250

.125

.100 THICK

.25

.4241

.7563

Figure 8.173 Manifold Plate

2.500

.1093

.1184

.250

.8604

.3525

R .1872

.4302

R .230

Figure 8.174 Switch Clip

.500

1.875

6.000

4.000

.250

R .500

R .250

.250

1.000

1.125

Figure 8.175 Protector

R .500

.500

.750

2.000

1.000

.25

3.000

1.000

5.500

2.500

R 1.000

.750

.500

Figure 8.176 Bearing Plate

.75

1.50

BEND RADIUS

.0625

8.00

2.125

R .625

.625

.125

7.00

.500

70°

.500

3.020

Figure 8.177 Angled Support

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CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 457

.250

1.00

.625

.500

.0625 X 45°

BOTH SIDES

.750

5.00

Figure 8.182 Grate

.2812

.3749

1.7818

.2812

.1266

.1535

.3750

.6633

.5482

.2812

Figure 8.183 Float Extension

.500

R 1.413

4.000

1.000

8.000

9.000

10.143

ø 1.250

1.661

.500 X .500 NECK

.625

2.206

ø 4.000

ø 4.500

Figure 8.180 Pump Base

.6966

.375

.0625 X 45

BOTH SIDES

R .0625

.1875

6.000

.5625

.4375

.750

1.125

.375

.500

Figure 8.181 Burner Cap

2.250

R .125

.500

1.250

.750

.250

1.375

1.625

2X R .625

.750

Figure 8.184 Drive Base

.460

.060 GROO

.025

.250

6-32UNC-2B

.276

0.10 X 45

.500

Figure 8.178 Diffuser Knob

.156

.1715

.188

.094

.563

.188

.031

.1095

.100

.144

.078

Figure 8.179 Drive Collar

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