Rosalind Ragans, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Emerita
Georgia Southern University
Rosalind Ragans, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Emerita
Georgia Southern University
About the Author
Rosalind Ragans
Rosalind Ragans is the author of Glencoe’s senior high school art text, ArtTalk.
She served as senior author on the elementary program Art Connections for the SRA
division of McGraw-Hill, and was one of the authors of Glencoe’s middle school/junior
high art series, Introducing Art, Exploring Art, and Understanding Art. She received a
B.F.A. at Hunter College, CUNY, New York, and earned a M.Ed. in Elementary Educa-
tion at Georgia Southern University and a Ph.D. in Art Education at the University of
Georgia. Dr. Ragans was named National Art Educator of the Year for 1992.
About Artsource®
The materials provided in the Performing Arts Handbook are excerpted from
Artsource®: The Center’s Study Guide to the Performing Arts, a project of the
Music Center Education Division. The Music Center of Los Angeles County,
the largest performing arts center in the western United States, established
the Music Center Education Division in 1979 to provide opportunities for
lifelong learning in the arts, and especially to bring the performing and visual arts into
the classroom. The Education Division believes the arts enhance the quality of life for
all people, but are crucial to the development of every child. For additional informa-
tion visit our Web site at www.musiccenter.org/artsource.
Copyright © 2005 by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill companies.All rights reserved. Except
as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distrib-
uted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior written permission
of the publisher, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Printed in the United States of America.
Send all inquiries to:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
21600 Oxnard Street, Suite 500
Woodland Hills, CA 91367
ISBN 0-07-830599-3 (Student Edition)
23456789 027 09080706050403
Mark Slavkin
Vice President for Education
Music Center Education Division
The Music Center of Los Angeles County
Michael Solomon
Managing Director
Melinda Williams
Concept Originator and Project Director
Susan Cambigue-Tracey
Project Coordinator
Arts Discipline Writers:
Dance
Susan Cambigue-Tracey
Diana Cummins
Barbara Leonard
Carole Valleskey
Melinda Williams
Music
Ed Barguiarena
Rosemarie Cook-Glover
Connie Hood
Barbara Leonard
Theatre
Barbara Leonard
Performing Arts Handbook Contributors
Editorial Consultants
Cris E. Guenter, Ed.D.
Specialist, Portfolio and
Assessment
Professor, Arts
Education/Curriculum
and Instruction
California State University,
Chico
Chico, CA
Marianne Hudz
Director of Career Services
Otis College of Art and Design
Los Angeles, CA
Holle Humphries, Ph.D.
Editorial Consultant
Austin, TX
Gloria McCoy
Administrator for Art
Spring Branch ISD
Houston, TX
Faye Scannell
K–12 Art Instructor
Bellevue Public Schools
Bellevue, WA
Contributors/Reviewers
Randy Hayward Jolly
Art Instructor
Warren Central High School
Vicksburg, MS
Joan Maresh
Digital Art Instructor
G. W. Carver High School
Houston, TX
Jack Schriber
Supervisor of Fine Arts
Evansville-Vanderburgh
School Corporation
Evansville, IN
Nancy Shake
Art Instructor
Center Grove High School
Indianapolis, IN
Studio Project
Contributors/Consultants
Acknowledgements: The
author wishes to express her
gratitude to the following art
coordinators, teachers, and
specialists who wrote and field-
tested the Studio Projects and
Digital Studio Projects with
their students.
Jeanne P. Barefoot
Northwest School of the Arts
Charlotte, NC
Betsy Bridger
Albany High School
Albany, GA
Tina Burke
Providence High School
Charlotte, NC
Dorsey Chappell
Dr. Michael Krop Senior
High School
Miami, FL
Gregg A. Coats
Whitehaven High School
Memphis, TN
Susan Cunningham
Chillicothe High School
Chillicothe, OH
Dan DeFoor
Lithia Springs High School
Lithia Springs, GA
Libby DeVine
Roswell High School
Roswell, GA
Karen Edwards
Robert E. Lee High School
Baytown, TX
Danise Egan
Sheldon High School
Sacramento, CA
Cheryl Evans
Ross S. Sterling High School
Baytown, TX
Barbi Fisher
Westover High School
Albany, GA
Paula Flohr
Sheldon High School
Sacramento, CA
Deborah George
Sheldon High School
Sacramento, CA
Carolyn Holmes
Stratford Senior High School
Houston, TX
Cindy Klingberg
Butler High School
Matthews, NC
Ron Marstall
Riverwood High School
Atlanta, GA
Bunyan Morris
South Effingham High School
Guyton, GA
Connie B. Nowlin
Myers Park High School
Charlotte, NC
Ted Oliver
Campbell High School
Smyrna, GA
Nikki Pahl
Sheldon High School
Sacramento, CA
Lori Phillips
Chattahoochee High School
Alpharetta, GA
Barbara Rosenberg
Crestwood High School
Sumter, SC
Jana Stiffel
Stratford Senior High School
Houston, TX
Shawn P. Sullivan
Sheldon High School
Sacramento, CA
Rhonda Test
Central High School
Memphis, TN
Pam Wittfeld
Myers Park High School
Charlotte, NC
iii
Figure 4.25A, Ashley Sehorn,
Myers Park High School,
Charlotte, NC; Figure 4.26A,
Laura Beebe, Butler High
School, Matthews, NC; Figure
4.27, Jonelly Muñoz, South
Effingham High School,
Guyton, GA; Figure 4.28, Kari
Keziah, Butler High School,
Matthews, NC; Figure 4.29,
Leslie Canales, Dr. Michael
Krop Senior High, Miami, FL;
Figure 4.30, Cristina Ziegler,
Central High School, Memphis,
TN; Figure 4.31, Ryan
Lawrence, Dr. Michael Krop
Senior High, Miami, FL; Figure
5.35A, Travis Trentham,
Stratford Senior High, Houston,
TX; Figure 5.36A, Johnny
Lyons, Whitehaven High
School, Memphis, TN; Figure
5.37A, Aysha Shehim, Stratford
Senior High, Houston, TX;
Figure 5.38, Jomarcus Gipson,
Whitehaven High School,
Memphis, TN; Figure 5.39,
Chris Hibler, Whitehaven
High School, Memphis, TN;
Figure 5.40, Jessica Gibson,
Chattahoochee High School,
Alpharetta, GA; Figure 6.30A,
Christina Parkhurst,
Chattahoochee High School,
Alpharetta, GA; Figure 6.31A,
Yoon Hwa Jang, Westover High
School, Albany, GA; Figure
6.32A, Kevin Massoni, Sheldon
High School, Sacramento, CA;
Figure 6.33, Chloe Alexander,
Roswell High School, Fairburn,
GA; Figure 6.34, Wendy Rogers,
Sheldon High School,
Sacramento, CA; Figure 6.35,
Zasha Hankins, Central High
School, Memphis, TN; Figure
6.36, Michael Gonzalez, Dr.
Michael Krop Senior High,
Miami, FL; Figure 7.16A,
Meredith Curtin, Northwest
School of the Arts, Charlotte,
NC; Figure 7.17A, Elizabeth
Oyer, Chillicothe High School,
Chillicothe, OH; Figure 7.18A,
Kate Castor, Sheldon High
School, Sacramento, CA; Figure
7.19, Teasha Lockwood, Butler
High School, Matthews, NC;
Figure 7.20, Emily Spence,
Central High School, Memphis,
TN; Figure 7.21, Lorenzo
Lattimore, Northwest School of
the Arts, Charlotte, NC; Figure
7.22, Ariel Bérubé, Northwest
School of the Arts, Charlotte,
NC; Figure 8.21A, Haden
Springer, Myers Park High
School, Charlotte, NC; Figure
8.22A, Julie Kim, Riverwood
High School, Atlanta, GA;
Figure 8.23A, Eric Hann,
Sheldon High School,
Sacramento, CA; Figure 8.24,
Anna McCarley, Myers Park
High School, Charlotte, NC;
Figure 8.25, Cynthia Ulysse, Dr.
Michael Krop Senior High
School, Miami, FL; Figure 8.26,
Nkemjika Umenyiora, Roswell
High School, Roswell, GA;
Figure 8.27, Sherrie Williams,
East High School, Memphis, TN;
Figure 9.23A, Olivia Yun,
Sheldon High School,
Sacramento, CA; Figure 9.24A,
Jahaziel Minor, Robert E. Lee
High School, Baytown, TX;
Figure 9.25A, Feifei A. Cao,
Stratford Senior High School,
Houston, TX; Figure 9.26, Brian
Hatem, Myers Park High
School, Charlotte, NC; Figure
9.27, Ashley Noelle Stewart,
Sheldon High School,
Sacramento, CA; Figure 9.28,
Javier Rangel, Robert E. Lee
High School, Baytown, TX;
Figure 9.29, Andrew Albert,
Roswell High School, Roswell,
GA; Figure 10.28A, Jessica
Lamkin, Providence High
School, Charlotte, NC; Figure
10.29A, Anton Prosyannikov,
Dr. Michael Krop Senior High
School, Miami, FL; Figure
10.30A, Myranda DeFoor,
Lithia Springs High School,
Lithia Springs, GA; Figure
10.31, Jeana Raquel McMath,
Myers Park High School,
Charlotte, NC; Figure 10.32,
Nick Stevens, Providence High
School, Charlotte, NC; Figure
10.33, Danielle Hopkins, Dr.
Michael Krop Senior High
School, Miami, FL; Figure
10.34, Ashley Crowley,
Crestwood High School,
Sumter, SC; Figure 11.24A,
Christie Hartsfield, Albany High
School, Albany, GA; Figure
11.25A, Rebecca Brunet,
Campbell High School, Smyrna,
GA; Figure 11.26A, Darrel
Watson, Jr., Sheldon High
School, Sacramento, CA; Figure
11.27, Emily Antoszyk, Myers
Park High School, Charlotte,
NC; Figure 11.28, Joshua Walls,
East High School, Memphis, TN;
Figure 11.29, Debbie Lurry, East
High School, Memphis, TN;
Figure 11.30, Theresa Wilbanks,
Dr. Michael Krop Senior High
School, Miami, FL.
iv
Student Contributors
The following students contributed exemplary artworks for Studio Projects, Digital Studio
Projects, and the Student Art Portfolio features.
v
Chapter 1
Art in Your World
4
LESSON 1 What Is Art? 6
LESSON 2 Why Do Artists Create? 10
Meet the Artist: Grant Wood 12
LESSON 3 The Language of Art 16
Art Criticism in Action
100 Cans by Andy Warhol
20
TIME Art Scene Virtual Art Tours 22
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW 23
UNIT 1
The World of Art
Chapter 2
Art Criticism and
Aesthetic Judgment
24
LESSON 1 Art Criticism: Learning
from a Work of Art
26
Meet the Artist: Georgia O’Keeffe 30
LESSON 2 Aesthetics: Thinking
About a Work of Art
31
LESSON 3 Art History: Learning
About a Work of Art
34
Art Criticism in Action
Headdress for Epa Masquerade
by the Yoruba people
36
TIME Art Scene Friendly Art Rivals 38
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW 39
CREDIT ON PAGE 4.
CREDIT ON PAGE 24.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 4
Line
68
LESSON 1 The Element of Line 70
Looking Closely: Line Types
and Variations
75
LESSON 2 The Expressive
Qualities of Line
77
Meet the Artist: Jacob Lawrence 80
Studio Projects
4-1 Wire Jewelry 84
4-2 Nature Tapestry 86
4-3 Digital Image Using Line 88
Student Art Portfolio 90
Art Criticism in Action
Plum Garden at Kameido by Ando¯ Hiroshige
92
TIME Art Scene What’s My Line? 94
CHAPTER 4 REVIEW 95
vi
Chapter 3
The Media and Processes of Art
40
LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 42
Meet the Artist: Winslow Homer 46
LESSON 2 Three-Dimensional Media 50
LESSON 3 Technological Media 57
Art Criticism in Action
Mirrored Room by Lucas Samaras
62
TIME Art Scene The Art of Books 64
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW 65
UNIT 2
The Elements of Art
CREDIT ON PAGE 40.
CREDIT ON PAGE 68.
vii
Chapter 5
Shape, Form, and Space
96
LESSON 1 Shapes and Forms 98
LESSON 2 Space 103
Meet the Artist: M. C. Escher 105
LESSON 3 How We Perceive Shape,
Form, and Space
108
LESSON 4 How Artists Create
Shapes and Forms in Space
111
Looking Closely: Identifying
Perspective Techniques
116
LESSON 5 What Different Shapes,
Forms, and Spaces Express
117
Studio Projects
5-1 Free-Form Clay Sculpture 122
5-2 Contrast Drawing 124
5-3 Digital Genre Scene 126
Student Art Portfolio 128
Art Criticism in Action
Woodrow by Deborah Butterfield
130
TIME Art Scene Architectural Forms 132
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW 133
Chapter 6
Color
134
LESSON 1 Hue, Value, and Intensity 136
LESSON 2 Color Schemes 144
LESSON 3 Understanding the
Nature and Uses of Color
150
Meet the Artist: Elizabeth Murray 151
Looking Closely: Jumps in Color
Value Create Visual Movement
156
Studio Projects
6-1 Color Spectrum Star Book 158
6-2 Mood Painting 160
6-3 Digital Color Collage 162
Student Art Portfolio 164
Art Criticism in Action
Father and Daughter by Miriam Schapiro
166
TIME Art Scene Seeing Colors in Art 168
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW 169
CREDIT ON PAGE 96.
CREDIT ON PAGE 134.
viii
Chapter 7
Te xture
170
LESSON 1 Texture in Your Life 172
Looking Closely: Visual Texture
Combinations
176
LESSON 2 How Artists Use Texture 177
Meet the Artist: Edgar Degas 181
Studio Projects
7-1 Self-Portrait Collagraph 184
7-2 Papier-Mâché Sculpture 186
7-3 Layered Self-Portrait 188
Student Art Portfolio 190
Art Criticism in Action
Football Player by Duane Hanson
192
TIME Art Scene Textured Buildings 194
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW 195
UNIT 3
The Principles of Art
Chapter 8
Rhythm, Pattern,
and Movement
198
LESSON 1 Rhythm and Pattern 200
Meet the Artist: Rosa Bonheur 201
Looking Closely: Visual Rhythms
Create Visual Movement
203
LESSON 2
Types of Rhythm and Pattern 205
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Rhythm
to Create Movement
211
Studio Projects
8-1 Found Objects Jewelry
214
8-2 Rhythm and Movement Painting 216
8-3 Digital Rendering of Reflections 218
Student Art Portfolio 220
Art Criticism in Action
Nuestra Señora de la Selva by Alfredo Arreguin
222
TIME Art Scene Moving Art 224
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW 225
CREDIT ON PAGE 170.
CREDIT ON PAGE 198.
ix
Chapter 9
Balance
226
LESSON 1 Visual Balance 228
Meet the Artist: Diego Rivera 229
LESSON 2 Informal Balance 234
LESSON 3 The Expressive
Qualities of Balance
239
Looking Closely: Using Formal
Balance to Organize a Composition
239
Studio Projects
9-1 Ceramic Mask 242
9-2 Radial Balance Mandala 244
9-3 Asymmetrical Balance Painting 246
Student Art Portfolio 248
Art Criticism in Action
Dla’ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear Beneath Kolus.
by Arthur Shaughnessy
250
TIME Art Scene Tipping the Balance 252
CHAPTER 9 REVIEW 253
Chapter 10
Proportion
254
LESSON 1 The Golden Mean 256
Looking Closely: Using the Golden
Mean to Organize an Active Painting
258
LESSON 2 Scale 260
LESSON 3 How Artists Use
Proportion and Distortion
267
Meet the Artist: Pablo Picasso 270
Studio Projects
10-1 The Golden Mean and Mixed Media 274
10-2 Symbolic Self-Portrait
276
10-3 Digital Fantasy Creature 278
Student Art Portfolio 280
Art Criticism in Action
The Green Violinist by Marc Chagall
282
TIME Art Scene Art and Politics 284
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW 285
CREDIT ON PAGE 226.
CREDIT ON PAGE 254.
x
Chapter 11
Variety, Emphasis,
Harmony, and Unity
286
LESSON 1 Variety, Emphasis,
and Harmony
288
Looking Closely: Creating a Focal Point
293
LESSON 2
Unity 296
Meet the Artist: Allan Houser 299
Studio Projects
11-1 Decorated Found Object 304
11-2 Multimedia High-Relief Collage 306
11-3 Animation Movie Poster 308
Student Art Portfolio 310
Art Criticism in Action
Singing Their Songs, from For My People
by Elizabeth Catlett
312
TIME Art Scene Artistic Roots 314
CHAPTER 11 REVIEW 315
UNIT 4
Art Through the Ages
Chapter 12
Art Traditions from
Around the World
318
LESSON 1 Art of Earliest Times 320
LESSON 2 Art of Asia
and the Middle East
326
Meet the Artist: Katsushika Hokusai 330
LESSON 3 The Art of Africa 332
LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 339
Art Criticism in Action
Untitled by Jessie Oonark
346
TIME Art Scene Saving Africa’s Art 348
CHAPTER 12 REVIEW 349
CREDIT ON PAGE 286.
CREDIT ON PAGE 318.
xi
Chapter 13
Western Traditions in Art
350
LESSON 1 The Beginnings
of Western Art Traditions
352
LESSON 2 The Beginnings
of Modern Art Traditions
356
Meet the Artist:
Michelangelo Buonarroti
357
LESSON 3 The Nineteenth Century 366
LESSON 4 Early Twentieth Century 374
LESSON 5 Art After 1945 378
Art Criticism in Action
Paul by Chuck Close
384
TIME Art Scene Meet Maya Lin 386
CHAPTER 13 REVIEW 387
Chapter 14
Careers in Art
388
LESSON 1 Careers in
Two-Dimensional Art
390
LESSON 2 Careers in
Three-Dimensional Art and Education
398
Meet the Artist: I. M. Pei
399
Art Criticism in Action
Book cover for Duke Ellington:The Piano
Prince and His Orchestra by Brian Pinkney
406
TIME Art Scene Designing Artist 408
CHAPTER 14 REVIEW 409
CREDIT ON PAGE 350.
CREDIT ON PAGE 388.
xii
Artsource®
Performing Arts Handbook
412
Chapter 1 (Theatre)
Faustwork Mask Theater
413
Chapter 2 (Dance)
Martha Graham
414
Chapter 3 (Dance)
Merce Cunningham Dance Company
415
Chapter 4 (Dance/Music)
Ballet Folklorico de Mexico
416
Chapter 5 (Dance)
Lewitzky Dance Company
417
Chapter 6 (Theatre)
Joanna Featherstone
418
Chapter 7 (Music)
Paul Winter
419
Chapter 8 (Music/Dance)
African American Dance Ensemble
420
Chapter 9 (Theatre)
Eth-Noh-Tec
421
Chapter 10 (Music)
Eugene Friesen
422
Chapter 11 (Music)
Vocalworks
423
Chapter 12 (Music/Dance)
Korean Classical Music and
Dance Company
424
Chapter 13 (Dance/Theatre)
Kurt Jooss
425
Chapter 14 (Music)
John Ramirez
426
UNIT 5
Handbooks
Technique Tips Handbook 427
Drawing Tips
1. Making Contour Drawings
428
2. Making Gesture Drawings 428
3. Drawing Calligraphic Lines with a Brush
428
4. Using Shading Techniques
429
5. Using Sighting Techniques
429
6. Using a Viewing Frame
430
7. Using a Ruler 430
8. Making a Grid for Enlarging 431
9. Measuring Rectangles 431
Painting Tips
10. Mixing Paint to Change the Value of Color
431
11. Making Natural Earth Pigment Paints
432
12. Working with Watercolors 432
13. Cleaning a Paint Brush 432
Printmaking Tip
14. Making a Stamp Print
433
Sculpting Tips
15. Working with Clay
433
16. Joining Clay
433
17. Making a Pinch Pot 434
18. Using the Coil Technique 434
19. Papier-Mâché
434
20. Making a Paper Sculpture 435
Other Tips
21. Making Paper
435
22. Basic Embroidery Stitches 436
23. Weaving Techniques
437
24. Making a Coiled Basket 439
25. Making a Tissue Paper Collage 440
Display Tips
26. Making a Mat
441
27. Mounting a Two-Dimensional Work 442
28. Working with Glue 442
CREDIT ON PAGE 414.
xiii
Safety in the Art Room 443
Digital Media Handbook 445
Scanners 446
Digital Cameras 447
Graphics Tablets
448
Paint Software 449
Draw Software 450
3-D Graphics Software 451
Frame Animation Software 452
Multimedia Presentation Software 453
Page Layout Software 454
Artists and Their Works 455
Chronology of Artworks 460
Glossary 466
Glosario 474
Index 484
Photography Credits 496
xiv
FEATURES
1 Virtual Art Tours 22
2 Friendly Art Rivals 38
3 The Art of Books 64
4 What’s My Line? 94
5 Architectural Forms 132
6 Seeing Colors in Art 168
7 Textured Buildings 194
8 Moving Art 224
9 Tipping the Balance 252
10 Art and Politics 284
11 Artistic Roots 314
12 Saving Africa’s Art 348
13 Meet Maya Lin 386
14 Designing Artist 408
CHAPTER
CREDIT ON PAGE 203.
22
38
64
94
132
168
194
224
252
284
314
348
386
408
4 Line Types and Variations 75
5 Identifying Perspective Techniques 116
6 Jumps in Color Value Create Visual Movement 156
7 Visual Texture Combinations 176
8 Visual Rhythms Create Visual Movement 203
9 Using Formal Balance to Organize a Composition 239
10 Using the Golden Mean to Organize an Active Painting 258
11 Creating a Focal Point 293
LOOKING
CLOSELY
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
1 100 Cans by Andy Warhol 20
2 Headdress for Epa Masquerade by the Yoruba people 36
3 Mirrored Room by Lucas Samaras 62
4 Plum Garden at Kameido by Ando¯ Hiroshige 92
5 Woodrow by Deborah Butterfield 130
6 Father and Daughter by Miriam Schapiro 166
7 Football Player by Duane Hanson 192
8 Nuestra Señora de la Selva by Alfredo Arreguin 222
9 Dla’ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear Beneath Kolus.
by Arthur Shaughnessy 250
10 The Green Violinist by Marc Chagall 282
11 Singing Their Songs, from For My People by Elizabeth Catlett 312
12 Untitled by Jessie Oonark 346
13 Paul by Chuck Close 384
14 Book cover for Duke Ellington:The Piano Prince and His Orchestra
by Brian Pinkney 406
xv
1 Grant Wood 12
Andy Warhol 21
2 Georgia O’Keeffe 30
The Yoruba People 37
3 Winslow Homer 46
Lucas Samaras 63
4 Jacob Lawrence 80
Ando¯ Hiroshige 93
5 M. C. Escher 105
Deborah Butterfield 131
6 Elizabeth Murray 151
Miriam Schapiro 167
7 Edgar Degas 181
Duane Hanson 193
CHAPTER
8 Rosa Bonheur 201
Alfredo Arreguin 223
9 Diego Rivera 229
Arthur Shaughnessy 251
10 Pablo Picasso 270
Marc Chagall 283
11 Allan Houser 299
Elizabeth Catlett 313
12 Katsushika Hokusai 330
Jessie Oonark 347
13 Michelangelo Buonarroti 357
Chuck Close 385
14 I. M. Pei 399
Brian Pinkney 407
CHAPTER
CREDIT ON PAGE 181.
Chapter 1
Learning to Perceive 7
Keeping a Sketchbook 15
Create a Symbol 16
Using Credit Line Information 19
Chapter 2
Aesthetic Theories 33
Chapter 3
Experimenting with Watercolor 47
Making a Printing Plate 49
Redesigning a Familiar Building 54
Traditional and Digital Media 60
Chapter 4
Analyzing Lines in Artworks 73
Using Line to Create Value 76
Using Imagination to Draw
Lines Expressively 78
Contour Line Drawings 81
Creating Gesture Drawings 82
Calligraphic Lines 83
Chapter 5
Geometric and Free-Form Shapes 100
Creating Forms 102
Experimenting with Space 104
Using Three Dimensions 107
Shape and Point of View 108
Using Shading 112
Creating Depth 115
Active and Static Shapes 120
Chapter 6
Creating Values 142
Working with Intensity 143
Using Color Schemes 149
Mixing Colors 152
Using Color for Effect 157
Chapter 7
Creating Textures 174
Creating Contrasting Textures 175
Imagining Textures 183
Chapter 8
Analyzing Motifs and Patterns 204
Using Random Rhythm 206
Alternating Pattern 208
Progressive Rhythm 210
Chapter 9
Using Symmetry 231
Creating Radial Balance 233
Using Informal Balance 238
Identifying Balance 241
Chapter 10
Experimenting with Scale 261
Human Proportions 264
Drawing the Head 266
Distorting Proportions 273
Chapter 11
Variety and Contrast 289
Using Emphasis 295
Creating Unity 302
Chapter 12
Analyzing Ancient Art 325
Constructing a Mask 338
Sketching an Event 345
Chapter 13
Analyzing Architecture 353
The Gothic Style 355
Analyzing an Artwork 365
Analyzing a Style 373
Describing General Characteristics 381
Chapter 14
Practicing Logo Design 392
Critiquing Animation 396
Using Design for Display 400
Art in Your Life 405
xvi
ACTIVITIES
Clay
Free-Form Clay Sculpture 122
Ceramic Mask 242
Digital Technology
Digital Image Using Line 88
Digital Genre Scene 126
Digital Color Collage 162
Layered Self-Portrait 188
Digital Rendering of Reflections 218
Asymmetrical Balance Painting 246
Digital Fantasy Creature 278
Animation Movie Poster 308
Fibers
Nature Tapestry 86
Mixed Media
Nature Tapestry 86
Color Spectrum Star Book 158
Papier-Mâché Sculpture 186
Found Objects Jewelry 214
The Golden Mean and Mixed Media 274
Decorated Found Object 304
Multimedia High-Relief Collage 306
Other
Wire Jewelry 84
Found Object Jewelry 214
Paint
Mood Painting 160
Rhythm and Movement Painting 216
Asymmetrical Balance Painting 246
Symbolic Self-Portrait 276
Multimedia High-Relief Collage 306
Paper
Color Spectrum Star Book 158
Papier-Mâché Sculpture 186
Pencil, Pen, Charcoal, and Markers
Contrast Drawing 124
Radial Balance Mandala 244
Symbolic Self-Portrait 276
Printmaking
Self-Portrait Collagraph 184
1
LISTING OF STUDIO PROJECTS BY MEDIA
2
Frederic Edwin Church. The Icebergs. 1861. Oil on canvas.
163.8 285.8 cm (64
1
2
112
1
2
). Dallas Museum of Art,
Dallas, Texas.
“Church’s content is idyllic and
majestic—you feel he has frozen
time at perfect moments, captured,
and at times orchestrated, Nature’s
best at the best moment”
—Carter B. Horsley
The World
of Art
Analyzing Context Clues. When
a word is unfamiliar, you can often use its
context—nearby words and phrases—to
guess its meaning. Using context clues, try
to determine the meaning of idyllic in the
above quote. Then restate the quote in your
own words.
3
UNIT
1
F
IGURE
1.1 Artists speak to us, the viewers, through their works. Sometimes, they tell a story.
At other times, as in this self-portrait, they express strong emotions. What emotion, or feeling, do
you “read” in this artist’s painting of herself? Does she appear happy? Sad? Explain your reaction.
Frida Kahlo. Self-Portrait with Monkey. 1938. Oil on Masonite. 40.6 30.5 cm (16 x 12). Albright-Knox Art Gallery,
Buffalo, New York. Bequest of A. Conger Goodyear, 1966.
4 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
Figure 1.1 is one of
many self-portraits
painted by the Mexican artist Frida Kahlo (1907–1954). Kahlo’s tragic
personal history was a driving force in her art. At the age of 6, she
was stricken with polio, a crippling disease.Twelve years later, a bus
accident broke nearly every bone in her body. She spent a year in a
full-body cast and underwent 30 operations. Her self-portraits, which
are highly expressive, seem to reflect a life of physical pain and emo-
tional difficulties. She never appears smiling but, rather, always wears
the expression appearing in Figure 1.1.
Compare and Contrast. Examine the work in Figure 4.23 on
page 82. It is also a self-portrait of a twentieth-century artist. List similari-
ties and differences in the subject and content between the two works.
T
he urge to create art is as old as humanity itself. Since
the dawn of history, people have used art to commu-
nicate information, tell stories, and record events. Art is
one of the deepest forms of personal expression.
In this chapter, you will:
Identify the purposes of art.
Compare and contrast sources to which artists
turn for inspiration.
Create visual solutions using direct observation
and imagination.
Compare and contrast the use of the elements of
art in artworks.
CHAPTER
1
Art in Your World
5
6 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
What Is Art?
A
n artwork is the visual expression of an idea or experience created with
skill. Visual art is more than paintings hanging on a wall. Visual art
includes drawing, printmaking, sculpture, architecture, photography, film-
making, crafts, graphic arts, industrial and commercial design, video, and
computer arts.
Art Is Communication
When you talk to someone or write a letter, you communicate. You share
your ideas and feelings by using words. You can also communicate through
the arts. Art is a language that artists use to express ideas and feelings that
everyday words cannot express. In order to experience art fully, you must do
more than simply look at it with your eyes; you must develop the ability to
perceive. To look is to merely notice and label an object with a name such as
“chair” or “house.” To perceive is to become deeply aware through the senses of
the special nature of a visual object. Perception is the result of perceiving. To
understand a work of art, you must train yourself to perceive. Try to perceive
what Meyer Straus is expressing in his painting, Bayou Teche (Figure 1.2). If
you concentrate on his image, you can feel the humid atmosphere of the
Louisiana swamps and hear the mosquitoes buzzing. You can understand
how it feels to be enclosed by branches dripping with Spanish moss. You can
almost hear the water lapping at the boat.
LESSON
1
F
IGURE
1.2 Straus captured the feel of the bayou by including details such as the flowers in the foreground and
the gray Spanish moss hanging from the limbs of the live oak trees. Look at the figures in the boat. The trees and
swamp overwhelm them. What do you think the figures are doing? What atmosphere does the painting capture?
Meyer Straus. Bayou Teche. 1870. Oil on canvas. 76.2 152.4 cm (30 60"). Morris Museum of Art, Augusta, Georgia.
Vocabulary
artwork
perceive
LESSON 1 What Is Art? 7
others to live each day as if it were
their last. That is what Munch is say-
ing with his striking image.
Social function. Artists may produce
art to reinforce and enhance the
shared sense of identity of those in a
family, community, or civilization
(Figure 12.17, page 332). That is why
many families commission or hire an
artist or photographer to produce a
family portrait. Art produced for this
purpose also may be used in celebra-
tions and displayed on festive occa-
sions. Think of the many forms of
visual art that might be seen in a
paradecostumes, band uniforms,
floats, and dances are all forms of
visual art that might be included in
the public celebration of a parade to
commemorate an important holiday
or event.
Spiritual function. Artists may
create art to express spiritual beliefs
about the destiny of life controlled by
the force of a higher power. Art pro-
duced for this purpose may reinforce
the shared beliefs of an individual or
F
IGURE
1.3 The child in the painting appears
pale and calm. She is not looking at her mother.
What is she staring at? Notice the exaggerated
drooping of the woman’s head. What has the artist
done to focus your attention on the sick child?
Edvard Munch. The Sick Child. 1907. Oil on canvas.
118.7 121 cm (46
3
4
47
2
3
). Tate Gallery, London,
England. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/BONO, Oslo
The Purposes of Art
People created art to record ideas and
feelings long before they had written
words. They used art then as we use it
today. The following are some of the
most common functions of art:
Personal functions. Artists create
art to express personal feelings.
Edvard Munch had a tragic child-
hood. His mother died when he was
very young, and one of his sisters
died when he was 14. His painting,
The Sick Child (Figure 1.3), shocked
viewers who were used to seeing
happy paintings with bright colors.
The work was meant to remind view-
ers of personal family tragedies. Per-
haps the artist wanted to tell them to
appreciate what they had. Often peo-
ple who have suffered a loss remind
Learning to
Perceive
Illustrating Ideas from Direct
Observation. Select an everyday object
such as one that might be found in the
classroom. Closely observe the object.
Allow yourself two or three minutes to
perceive the object.Then put the object
where you can’t see it and make a list of
all the attributes of the object that you
can think of. Look at the object again and
add at least three more attributes or
characteristics to your list. Use your list
and your observations to illustrate an
idea for an artwork.
8 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
a human community. In Pueblo Scene:
Corn Dancers and Church (Figure 1.4),
the artists have created a three-
dimensional representation of a reli-
gious festival that connects two
cultures and two religions. Works of
art have been created for religious
purposes throughout history. Many
experts believe that the prehistoric
cave paintings of animals had cere-
monial purposes, which means they
were more than simple records of
events. The Greek Temples were built
to honor the ancient gods. During the
Middle Ages in Europe, almost all art
was created for the Catholic Church.
Physical functions. Artists and
craftspeople constantly invent new
ways to create functional art. Indus-
trial designers discover new materials
that make cars lighter and stronger.
Architects employ new building
materials such as steel–reinforced
concrete to give buildings more inter-
esting forms. In Figure 1.5, notice
how the artist has combined a variety
of precious and semiprecious materi-
als to create a unique necklace.
Educational function. In the past,
many people could not read and art
was often created to provide visual
instruction. Artists produced art-
works, such as symbols painted on
signs, to impart information. Viewers
could learn from their artworks. In
the Middle Ages, artists created
stained-glass windows, sculptures,
paintings, and tapestries to illustrate
stories from the Bible or about rulers
of a kingdom.
F
IGURE
1.4 The figures and buildings for this scene were made by a family of artists. Look closely and
you will notice that some of the figures are made of painted clay, while others have hair made from yarn and
clothing made of fabric. What do the different figures appear to be doing? What does the procession in the
foreground seem to be about?
Vigil Family, Tesuque Pueblo, New Mexico. Pueblo Scene: Corn Dancers and Church. c. 1960. Painted earthenware. Girard
Foundation Collection at the Museum of International Folk Art, a unit of the Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
LESSON 1 What Is Art? 9
In addition, when we look at art from
the past, we learn from it. Art from other
places and other times can tell us what
people did. Paintings such as Anne of
Cleves (Figure 1.6) show us people from
the past, what they wore, and how they
looked.
Art as a Lifelong
Pursuit
Art can be a part of your lifelong
learning. You may choose to pursue a
career in art or to explore art as an avo-
cation, or hobby. Avocational opportu-
nities in art include making art or craft
projects at home, taking classes for per-
sonal enjoyment, and getting involved
in community art programs.
In this book you will learn to analyze
and evaluate artworks. You’ll also find
many opportunities to create artworks
and discover the tools, materials, and
techniques of various art media. There
are many ways to make art a part of
your life and education.
F
IGURE
1.5 This necklace is unusual because
each unit is different. The repetition of rectangles
and the repetition of materials and shapes on the
different rectangles create a unified work.
Earl Pardon. Necklace 1057. 1988. Sterling silver, 14k gold,
ebony, ivory, enamel, mother of pearl, ruby, garnet, blue
topaz, amethyst, spinel, and rhodolite. 43.1 2.8 .3 cm
(17
1
4
1
1
8
1
8"). National Museum of American Art,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Renwick collection.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What does it mean to perceive?
2. Name the five purposes of art.
3. Describe two of the purposes of art.
F
IGURE
1.6 This portrait of Anne of Cleves, one of the wives of
Henry VIII, shows what a royal person in the sixteenth century might have
worn for special occasions. The portrait was created before the wedding
because King Henry wanted to know what his intended wife looked like.
He had never met her. Notice the unusual jewelry on her hat and the rich
fabrics of her dress. How many different fabrics can you identify? How
does her clothing indicate her social position?
Hans Holbein. Anne of Cleves. 1539. Tempera and oil on parchment. 65.1 48 cm
(25
5
8
18
7
8
"). The Louvre, Paris, France.
10 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
Vocabulary
folk artists
artists
action painting
LESSON
2
Why Do Artists Create?
T
he urge to create is universal. Artists are driven by their sense of
wonder and curiosity. The creative impulse is often suppressed if one
becomes afraid of making mistakes. Artists exhibit the courage to take
risks. They are able to see their surroundings in new and unusual ways.
They are willing to work intensely for long periods of time to achieve
their goals. Artists who are self-taught and therefore have had little or no formal
schooling in artistic methods are called folk artists. Most artists learn skills
and techniques from other artists. Eventually artists develop their own
unique styles.
The impulses that drive artists to create vary. Both Leo Twiggs and Roger
Brown created art in response to a devastating natural catastrophe: Hurri-
cane Hugo. Twiggs, who lives in South Carolina and witnessed the hurri-
cane, used strong lines to represent the force of the winds (Figure 1.7).
Brown, who lives in Chicago, responded to the same tragedy in a different
way. He illustrated only the aftermath of the hurricane. He turned the event
into a giant postcard in which he depicted the fury of the storm by showing
the trees in neat rows, broken off at exactly the same level (Figure 1.8).
F
IGURE
1.7 Identify the door named
in the title. Look at the dark shape near
the center of the painting. How many
figures are standing in the door? What
part of this work tells you about the
destructive force of the hurricane?
Leo F. Twiggs. East Wind Suite: Door. Hugo Series.
1989. Batik: Dyes and wax resist on cotton. 61
51 cm (24 20). Private Collection.
LESSON 2 Why Do Artists Create? 11
Where Do Artists
Get Ideas?
Artists are creative individuals who use
imagination and skill to communicate in
visual form. They use the materials of art
to solve visual problems. Artists look to
many sources for inspiration. Some
look outward to their natural and cul-
tural environment for ideas. Others
look within themselves for creative
motivation.
Nature
Sometimes artists look to their natural
surroundings and record them. The first
group of landscape artists in the United
States was called the Hudson River
School because most of them lived near
that river in New York. They painted the
world around them, paying meticulous
attention to realistic detail. One Hudson
River School artist, George Inness, lived
in Newburgh, New York. His early work
depicted the vast American landscape in
a romantic manner (Figure 1.9).
F
IGURE
1.8 This painting
depicts the same event as shown
in Figure 1.7. The two artists
represent the hurricane in very
different ways. What does this
painting remind you of? Does it
resemble an advertisement or a
postcard? Why do you think the
artist chose humor to present
such a devastating event?
Roger Brown. Hurricane Hugo. 1990.
Oil on canvas. 121.9 182.9 cm
(48 72). Morris Museum of Art,
Augusta, Georgia.
F
IGURE
1.9 This painting
celebrates nature and industry,
although the two are not
necessarily compatible. If you
look carefully, you can see the
town of Scranton, Pennsylvania,
accurately depicted in the
distance. Why do you think
the artist has included
all the tree stumps in this
painting? What symbols of
industrialization has he used?
George Inness. The Lackawanna Valley.
c. 1856. Oil on canvas. 86 127.6 cm
(33
7
8
50
1
4
). National Gallery of
Art, Washington, D.C. © 1998 Board
of Trustees. Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
Huttleston Rogers.
12 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
People and
Real World Events
Another artist, Grant Wood, captured
the essence of the Midwestern Ameri-
can spirit during the Great Depression in
his work, American Gothic (Figure 1.10).
The stern, small town citizens posed
before their house. The couple’s deter-
mination was meant to reassure those
shaken by the stock market crash during
the Great Depression.
F
IGURE
1.10 This painting has been
used and parodied countless times. Because
of this, it can be easy to overlook the
message Wood intended. Symbols tell a
story: the Gothic window represents the
couple’s European heritage, and the
pitchfork stands for their determination.
Can you identify other symbols in the
painting and tell what they might mean?
Grant Wood. American Gothic. 1930. Oil on
beaverboard. 74.3 62.2 cm (29
1
4
24
1
2
).
Friends of the American Art Collection. All rights
reserved by the Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago,
Illinois and VAGA, New York, New York.
(1930.934).
Grant Wood grew up on a farm and drew with whatever materials could be
spared. Often he used charcoal from the wood fire to sketch on a leftover piece
of brown paper. He was only ten when his father died, and his mother moved
the family to Cedar Rapids, Iowa, where Wood went to school. He studied
part-time at the State University of Iowa and attended night classes at the Art
Institute of Chicago. When he was 32, he went to Paris to study at the
Académie Julian. In 1927, he traveled to Munich, Germany, where some of
the most accomplished artists of the period were working. While there, he saw
German and Flemish artworks that influenced him greatly, especially the work
of Jan van Eyck. After that trip, his style changed to reflect the realism of those
painters.
MEET THE
ARTIST
GRANT WOOD
American, 1892–1942
Grant Wood. Self-Portrait. 1932.
Oil on Masonite panel. 37.5
31.4 cm (14
3
4
12
3
8
). Collection
of The Davenport Museum of Art,
Davenport, Iowa. © Grant Wood/
Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
Myths and Legends
Some artists borrow ideas from
famous works of literature. Romare
Bearden interpreted one part of an
ancient Greek legend, The Odyssey, in his
painting Return of Ulysses (Figure 1.11).
The Greek legend, written by the poet
Homer, describes the adventures that
befall a hero returning home from war.
Bearden used his unique style to portray
an important scene from this story.
LESSON 2 Why Do Artists Create? 13
Spiritual and
Religious Beliefs
Visual artists in every culture use
their skills to create objects and images
to be used to express spiritual beliefs.
Many non-Western cultures do not
even have a word for “art.” Those who
create objects do the best work they can
because it is important. The mask in
Figure 1.12 was made to be worn dur-
ing ceremonial winter dances by the
Yup’ik people who lived in northwest-
ern Alaska.
Creative Techniques
Many artists founded new art move-
ments and developed new techniques to
create art. Jackson Pollock was a leader
of the Abstract Expressionist movement.
He studied painting in the 1930s with
Thomas Hart Benton as his teacher.
Benton was an American regionalist
who painted realistic paintings and
murals that celebrated American life
(Figure 13.29, page 376). Pollock’s earli-
est works were in the realistic style of
his teacher. After 1947, he developed
action painting, the technique of drip-
ping and splashing paint onto a canvas
stretched on the floor (Figure 1.13 on page
14). The idea for this style of painting,
which influenced many who came after
him, came from within himself.
F
IGURE
1.12 This bird mask was created for
a dance ceremony. Notice how the artist has used
natural earth pigments to color the wood, plus
natural materials like feathers and sinew to
decorate it.
Yup’ik. Bird Mask. 1988. Wood, feathers. Height: 64.7 cm
(25
1
2
). Robert H. Lowie Museum, University of California,
Berkeley, California.
F
IGURE
1.11 This print is
the last in a series of serigraphs
illustrating the story of Ulysses, a
legendary Greek hero. Bearden has
simplified shapes and used unusual
colors but you can still recognize
people and objects in the work.
Describe three things you
recognize in this scene
.
Romare Bearden. Return of Ulysses. 1976.
Serigraph on paper. 47 57.1 cm
(18
1
2
22
1
2
). Copyright restricted.
National Museum of American Art,
Washington, D.C. Gift of the Brandywine
Graphic Workshop. © Romare Bearden
Foundation/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
14 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
Artists of the Past
Art is not made in a vacuum. Artists
of a particular time period often influ-
ence each other. Artists also learn from
and build on the work of artists who
came before them. Pablo Picasso based
his 1957 painting, Las Meninas (after
Velázquez) (Figure 1.14), on Las Meninas
(The Maids of Honor) by Diego Velázquez
(Figure 1.15), which was painted in 1656.
Although Picasso changed the colors
and used his own Cubist style, you can
recognize some of the figures and
objects that are in the realistic Velázquez
painting. How many figures and objects
can you find that appear in both works?
F
IGURE
1.14 This painting is based on Diego Velázquez’s Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor)
(Figure 1.15). Similar figures and objects are present in both paintingsthe artist, the easel with the
unfinished painting, the child who appears to be the subject of the artwork in progress, the dog, and
the figure in the door. Compare these objects with the ones depicted in Velázquez’s work. What has
Picasso done to make the work uniquely his own? Do you think he was exhibiting a sense of humor
?
Pablo Picasso. Las Meninas (after Velázquez). 1957. Oil on canvas. 2 2.6 m (6' 6
3
4
" 8' 6
3
8
"). Museo Picasso,
Barcelona, Spain. © 2003 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
1.13 Pollock wanted
to express his personal feelings
when he created his art. He
allowed his feelings to influence
his choice of colors and the
manner in which he applied them
to the canvas.
Jackson Pollock. Cathedral. 1947. Enamel
and aluminum paint on canvas. 181.6
89.1 cm (71
1
2
35
1
16
). Dallas
Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas. Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Bernard J. Reis. © 2003
Pollock-Krasner Foundation/Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Keeping a
Sketchbook
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Artists develop
perception and artistic skills by con-
stantly sketching the world around them.
Begin keeping a sketchbook of your own.
Choose a notebook with unlined paper.
Practice using direct observation to
draw anything that catches your eye.The
more you draw, the better you will “see”
objects. Make written notes about your
sketches, such as the quality of light or
the colors you notice.
Ideas Commissioned by
Employers
Many artists are hired by individuals
or companies to create works of art.
Graphic designers create corporate
logos, brochures, and many other print
materials. They may also design menus
for restaurants. Fine artists, like sculp-
tors and painters, are often commis-
sioned to create artworks for display in
public spaces and buildings.
Ideas for Your Own
Artwork
In the coming chapters, you will
need to come up with ideas of your
own for original works of art. Like all
other artists, you may at times find
yourself at a loss for ideas. You can
look to the sources listed in this lesson
for inspiration. The work of your peers
can also inspire you. See the Student
Art Portfolio features in Chapters 4–11
of this book for a showcase of student
artworks and visual art journal ideas.
You will find that keeping a visual art
journal or sketchbook can be an enor-
mous help. In addition to recording
images, you may jot down ideas that
come to you after participating in other
art events such as concerts, movies,
and theatre productions. You will also
find that a sketchbook can be used to
practice skills and techniques you learn
in class.
LESSON 2 Why Do Artists Create? 15
F
IGURE
1.15 This painting was interpreted by
Picasso, another Spanish artist, three centuries after
Velázquez completed it. Explain what is happening in
the painting. The princess, in white, has a regal
bearing. She is clearly the center of attention. Do
you see the king and queen in the picture? Who is
the person in the doorway? Can you describe the
roles of the other people in the painting?
Diego Velázquez. Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor). 1656.
Oil on canvas. 3.18 2.8 m (10'5
1
4
 9'
3
4
). Museo del
Prado, Madrid, Spain.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define the word artist.
2. Identify four different sources for
artistic ideas.
3. Why do artists keep sketchbooks?
LESSON
3
The Language of Art
P
eople throughout the world speak many different languages. Spanish,
Swahili, Japanese, Hindi, French, English, and Apache are just a few of
the 3,000 different languages that are spoken. Each language has its own
system of words and rules of grammar. To learn a new language, you need
to learn new words and a new set of rules for putting those words together.
The language of visual art has its own system. All that you see in a work
of art is made up of certain common elements. They are arranged according
to basic principles. As you learn these basic elements and principles, you
will learn the language of art. Being able to use the language of visual art
will help you in many ways. It will increase your ability to understand,
appreciate, and enjoy art. It will increase your ability to express yourself
clearly when discussing art. It will even help you improve your ability to
produce artworks.
The Elements of Art
A symbol is something that stands for, or represents, something else. In a spoken
language, words are symbols. The word chair stands for a piece of furniture
that has a seat, a back, legs, and sometimes arms. In the language of art, we
use visual symbols to communicate ideas.
The basic visual symbols in the language of art are known as the elements of
art. Just as there are basic kinds of wordssuch as nouns and verbsthere
are basic kinds of art elements. These are line, shape and form, space, color,
value, and texture. The elements are the visual building blocks that the artist
puts together to create a work of art. No matter how a work is made, it will
contain some or all of these elements.
When you look an image, it is difficult to separate one element from
another. For example, when you look at Figure 1.16, you see a shiny, round
bowl outlined with a thin yellow line filled with bumpy, red raspberries.
16 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
Vocabulary
symbol
elements of art
principles of art
subject
nonobjective art
composition
content
credit line
medium
Computer Option. Design a visual
symbol using a computer application.
Choose from the tools and menus to
represent this idea with line, shape, or
color. Hold down the Shift key when
making straight lines or restricting
shapes to circles or squares.Title, save,
print, and display your best example.
Include a short explanation about
your symbol.
Create a
Symbol
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Experiences. In visual art, symbols can
be concrete representations of abstract
ideas, such as a heart standing for love.
Create a visual symbol that represents
something important to you. Elaborate on
your experiences, such as an activity or
club you are involved with. Share your
symbol with your classmates. Can they
identify what it represents?
LESSON 3 The Language of Art 17
However, rather than seeing the ele-
ments of texture (shiny and bumpy),
color (red), shape (round), and line
(thin and yellow) separately, you see
the bowl of raspberries as a whole. You
visually “read” the elements together.
Sometimes the differences between
the elements are not clear-cut. A line
may be so wide that it looks like a
shape, or an artist may manipulate light
and dark values to indicate different
surface textures. Look at the variety of
textures Janet Fish has created in
Raspberries and Goldfish (Figure 1.16).
When you first learned to read, you
did not begin with a full-length novel.
You learned by reading one word at a
time. That is how you will start to read
the language of art: one art element
at a time.
The Principles of Art
After you have learned to recognize
the elements of art, you will learn the
ways in which the elements can be
organized for different effects. When
you learn a language, you learn the
F
IGURE
1.16
Notice how the
artist has used color
and texture to
direct the viewer’s
eye through this
artwork. Look at
the number of
different surfaces
she depicts. How
many different
textures can you
identify? Although
the shiny surfaces
catch your attention,
notice the matte, or
dull, surfaces as well.
Janet Fish. Raspberries
and Goldfish. 1981. Oil
on canvas. 182.9
162.6 cm (72 64).
The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New
York, New York.
Purchase. The Cape
Branch Foundation
and Lila Acheson
Wallace Gifts, 1983.
(1983.171) © Janet
Fish/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
18 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
rules of grammar by which words are
organized into sentences. Without these
rules, people would find it difficult to
communicate.
Visual images are also organized
according to rules. The rules that govern
how artists organize the elements of art are
called the principles of art. They also
help artists organize the art elements for
specific effects. The principles you will
learn about are rhythm, movement, pat-
tern, balance, proportion, variety, emphasis,
and harmony. When the elements and
principles of art work together to create
a sense of wholeness, unity is achieved.
The elements and principles of art are
often referred to as the formal qualities in
artworks.
The Work of Art
In art, it is important to understand
the three basic properties, or features, of
an artwork. These are subject, composition,
and content.
The Subject
The subject is the image viewers can
easily identify in a work of art. The subject
may be one person or many people. It
may be a thing, such as a boat. It may be
an event, such as a dance. What are the
subjects in Gabriele Münter’s painting,
Breakfast of the Birds (Figure 1.17)?
Some artists choose to create nonob-
jective artwork. Nonobjective art is
art that has no recognizable subject matter
(Figure 1.13, page 14). In these types of
works, the elements of art themselves
become the subject matter.
The Composition
The second property of a work of art
is the composition of the work. The
composition is the way the principles
of art are used to organize the elements of
art. Notice how Münter has used the
reds to separate indoors from outdoors,
yet she ties the woman to the birds by
using related colors. The woman is
F
IGURE
1.17
Gabriele Münter was
one of the founders of
modern German Abstract
Expressionism. In 1911 she
joined with other radical
artists to form the group
known as Der Blaue Reiter
(The Blue Rider). She
stayed in Germany through
World War II but was
forced to work in secret
during the Nazi era, when
German Expressionism was
outlawed. Since this was
painted in 1934, it is one
of her “secret” paintings.
Gabriele Münter. Breakfast of the
Birds. 1934. Oil on board. 45.7
55.2 cm (18 21
3
4
). The
National Museum of Women in
the Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift
of Wallace and Wilhelmina
Holladay.
LESSON 3 The Language of Art 19
placed with her back toward the
viewer, so that the viewer looks in the
same direction as the woman, toward
the birds. As you learn more about the
elements and principles of art, you will
discover how to control the composi-
tion of your artwork.
The Content
The third property of a work of art is
the content. The content is the message
the work communicates. The message may
be an idea or a theme, such as patrio-
tism or family togetherness. It may be
an emotion, such as pride, love, or lone-
liness. Sometimes you know what the
intention of an artist might have been
when he or she created the work, there-
fore the meaning of the work may be
clear. However, at other times, you may
not be certain of what the work might
mean, and you have to consider all pos-
sibilities. Many artists can paint the
same subject, a woman looking out a
window, but each painting may have a
different message. What do you think is
the content of Münter’s painting?
The Credit Line
Look at Figure 1.17. The credit line
appears beneath the caption. A credit
line is a list of important facts about a work
of art. Every artwork in this book has a
credit line.
Most credit lines contain at least six
facts. They are as follows:
Name of the artist.
Title of the work. This always
appears in italics.
Year the work was created. Some-
times, in the case of older works, “c.”
appears before the year. This is an
abbreviation for circa, a Latin word
meaning “about” or “around.”
Medium used by the artist. This is the
material used to make art. If more than
one medium is used, the credit line
may read “mixed media.”
Size of the work. The first number is
always the height, the second num-
ber is the width, and if the work is
three-dimensional, the third number
indicates the depth.
Location of the work. The location
names the gallery, museum, or collec-
tion in which the work is housed and
the city, state, and country. The
names of the donors may also be
included.
Check Your
Understanding
1. List the elements and principles
of art.
2. Compare and contrast the use of the
elements of art in Figure 1.16 on
page 17.
3. How do subject and composition
differ?
4. Name the six facts most credit lines
include.
Using Credit Line
Information
Applying Your Skills. Who is the artist
of the work in Figure 1.9 on page 11?
What is the title of the painting by Frida
Kahlo (Figure 1.1, page 4)? Which work
in this chapter was completed most
recently? Which is the largest work in
this chapter? Which works in this chapter
are not housed in the United States?
20 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
F
IGURE
1.18
Andy Warhol. 100 Cans. 1962. Oil on canvas. 182.9 x 132.1 cm (72 x 52). Albright-Knox Art Gallery,
Buffalo, New York. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, 1963. © 2003 Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual
Arts/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/TM Licensed by Campbell’s Soup Co. All Rights Reserved.
Art Criticism in Action 21
Art criticism is a four-step process for using your perception
skills to get deeply involved in a work of art. You will learn
more about these four steps in Chapter 2.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
During this step, you will collect information about
the subject of this artwork.
List all the information from the credit line.
What is the subject of this work?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with the work’s composition or for-
mal qualities. In it, you note the art elements used as
well as the art principles that organize them.
How are the shapes arranged in this work?
What colors are used?
How large is each can? (Note: Refer to the credit line to
help you determine your answer.)
Are the cans evenly spaced throughout? Explain.
In what way is the bottom row of cans different from
the others?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
This step focuses on the content of the work. In
it, you make assumptions and guesses about the
meaning.
Why do you think the artist made the bottom row
different?
Why do you think the artist spaced the cans as he did?
Form a conclusion about the meaning of depicting
ordinary soup cans.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
In this step, you will tell whether you think the
artwork is successful or not.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not?
Andy Warhol was born in
McKeesport, Pennsylvania, just
outside of Pittsburgh. He began
his career as a commercial artist
in New York City. He was a
painter, movie director and
producer, and publisher. Warhol
was a leader of the Pop art
movement, an art style that
celebrated images from contem-
porary culture, such as comic
book characters and everyday
objects, helping viewers to see
them in a whole new light.
Warhol’s favorite subjects
included celebrities and product
packaging, as in Figure 1.18.
When asked why he chose soup
cans as his subject, he explained
that he had soup for lunch every
day for 20 years.
Critiquing the Artwork
Andy Warhol. Self-Portrait. 1986. Acrylic
screenprint on canvas. © 2003 Andy Warhol
Foundation for the Visual Arts/Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York.
Andy Warhol
1928–87
Museum Web sites offer interactive
art experiences.
magine peeling back the layers of paint on a
canvas to discover a “hidden” image underneath,
or hearing the words of one of your favorite artists.
You may not be able to do that on a visit to a museum.
However, you may be able to do that on a visit to a
museum’s Web site! With a click of the mouse you
can visit the “virtual” Louvre Museum in Paris, or
museums closer to home. Museum officials hope
that Web sites will get more people interested in art.
The interactivity of Internet technology allows
people to explore art in a new, exciting way. They
can get a taste of what the museum experience
offers. For example, the Web site of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York City lets users move
the cursor over the image of a piece of art. For each
spot highlighted, users get an explanation of that
feature’s importance—the symbolism of a specific
object in the painting, for example.
Visitors to the Web site of the Getty Museum
in Los Angeles go behind the scenes to learn about
research projects on some of the museum’s artworks.
The Frick Museum in New York City offers Web
browsers a virtual tour of its exhibits, complete
with audio histories of the paintings and the artists.
Of course, Web sites can’t duplicate the experience
of seeing artworks in person. But for many people,
it’s the next-best thing to being there!
22 CHAPTER 1 Art in Your World
TIME to Connect
Using a search engine, locate an art museum or art
gallery Web site that interests you. Analyze and evaluate
the site. Then write a one-page critical analysis of the site.
Analyze the features of the site. Which appeal to you?
Which don’t? How easy is it to navigate around the site?
Describe any parts of the site you would change or improve.
Evaluate the site’s overall design, visual representations,and
clarity of language.
Evaluate the credibility of information represented on the site.
I
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART
THE FRICK MUSEUM
TOP: A page from the New York Metropolitan
Museum of Art allows viewers to study a painting
in depth. ABOVE:The Internet offers an online
tour of the Frick Museum in New York City.
CHAPTER
1
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The visual expression of an idea or experi-
ence created with skill.
2. To become deeply aware through the
senses of the special nature of a visual
object.
3. Self-taught artists who have had little or
no formal schooling in artistic methods.
4. Something that stands for, or represents,
something else.
5. The basic visual symbols in the language
of art.
6. The rules that govern how artists organize
the elements of art.
7. Art that has no recognizable subject matter.
8. The way the principles of art are used to
organize the elements of art.
9. A list of important facts about a work
of art.
10. A material used to make art.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
11. Describe the five purposes of art.
12. Name and describe four sources of inspira-
tion for artists.
13. Explain the relationship between the ele-
ments of art and the principles of art.
14. Select a work of art in this chapter and
identify the subject.
15. Read the credit-line information of an art-
work from any chapter and list the figure
number, the title, the year the work was
created, and the medium.
Use the Performing Arts
Handbook to discover the art
of masks and the many ways
this art form has been created and worn
throughout the world’s cultures.Faustwork
Mask Theater presents the message of masks
on page 413.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Take a Web Museum
Tour of the National
Gallery of Art in
Washington, D.C.
Click on the link at art.glencoe.com.
Explore their online tour of still lifes to
appreciate why this art genre is still popular.
ART
Chapter 1 Review 23
Thinking Critically About Art
16. Compare and Contrast. Survey the avo-
cational opportunities in art mentioned on
page 9. Then research art classes and pro-
grams in your community. Compare and
contrast these avocational opportunities to
decide which one interests you the most.
Consider such factors as time required,
materials, training, and personal interest.
17. Compare and Contrast. Study Figures
1.14 on page 14 and 1.15 on page 15 to list
their similarities and differences. Are light
and dark values of colors used in the same
places in each work?
18. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 12.
Compare Grant Wood’s American Gothic
in Figure 1.10 to his self-portrait on the
same page. Can you identify the theme of
determination in each artwork? What else
do these works have in common? Where
does Grant Wood reveal part of his cultural
heritage in his self-portrait?
F
IGURE
2.1 The goal of some artists is to imitate life. Their works are lifelike, down to the smallest
detail. The goal of other artists is to create a mood or feeling. What do you think was the goal of the artist
who created this work? Explain your reaction.
Red Grooms. Ruckus Rodeo (detail). 1975–76. Wire, celastic, acrylic, canvas, and burlap. 442 1539.2 746.8 cm (174 606
294). Collection of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas. Museum purchase and commission with funds
from the National Endowment for the Arts and The Benjamin J. Tillar Memorial Trust, 1976.1.P.S. © 2003 Red Grooms/Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
24 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
25
In the second half of the
twentieth century, a new
form of three-dimensional art emerged on the scene. It was the
installation. Installations are artworks made not to be walked around
but walked through as one walks through a room. The installation in
Figure 2.1 is one of a series of creations by American Pop artist
Red Grooms (b. 1937). Pop art is a style of art that explores everyday
subjects and objects from contemporary culture. In Grooms’s “Ruckus”
series, the artist created life-sized environments such as Manhattan
or a Texas rodeo and inhabited these fun, offbeat environments with
cartoonlike characters.
Identify. Compare and contrast the contemporary styles in Figure 2.1
and Figure 2.6 on page 32 to identify the general themes of the works.
Note that a theme could be revealed in the subject matter or as a
concept communicated by the work.
H
ave you ever seen—or skipped—a movie based on a
friend’s recommendation? We all make judgments
about music, television, and other forms of culture. We share
with others what we like and what we don’t like. Making
such aesthetic judgments about art is called art criticism.
In this chapter, you will:
Learn the purpose of art criticism.
Select and analyze artworks using the steps of art
criticism to form precise conclusions.
Explain the three aesthetic theories of art.
Compare and contrast contemporary and
historical styles, identifying themes and trends.
CHAPTER
2
Art Criticism and
Aesthetic Judgment
LESSON
1
Art Criticism: Learning
from a Work of Art
T
here are professional critics who appear on television or write reviews
about new movies, plays, television shows, videos, books, art exhibits,
and music. These critics describe their responses to various forms of art, and
give you their assessment of the merits of the works. You may not always
agree with their opinions because your criteria, or standards of judgment,
may be very different from those of the professional critic. In this chapter you
will learn about aesthetics (es-thet-iks), the philosophy or study of the nature
and value of art. This will allow you to form your own intelligent opinions
about works of art. You will also learn about art criticism. Art criticism is
an organized approach for studying a work of art.
Why Study Art Criticism?
What do you think of when you hear the word criticism? Do you think it
means saying something negative? This is not true. A criticism can be a posi-
tive statement. For example, when you shop for clothes, you try on many
things. You act as a critic using personal
criteria to determine which pieces of
clothing look good on you and which
pieces do not suit you. You have devel-
oped your own criteria for choosing
clothing through personal experience.
When you look at Alma Thomas’s
painting, Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and
Crocuses (Figure 2.2), you may experi-
ence confusion. You may not have had
enough experience to develop a set
of criteria to judge a work that has no
recognizable subject. If you are like
most people who are new to art, you
may not know what to say.
Vocabulary
criteria
aesthetics
art criticism
aesthetic experience
description
analysis
interpretation
judgment
26 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
F
IGURE
2.2 At first glance, this painting
appears to consist of simple shapes and bright
colors. The title of the work, however, should help
you understand what the dabs of color represent.
Notice how large the painting is. How big does that
make each dab of color? Can you imagine the
garden these flowers would grow in?
Alma Thomas. Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and Crocuses. 1969. Acrylic
on canvas. 152.4 127 cm (60 50). The National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift of
Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay.
LESSON 1 Art Criticism: Learning from a Work of Art 27
within the work. Your job is to find the
message and solve the mystery.
In this chapter you will learn a special
four-step approach that will help you
find the hidden meanings in art. The
four steps, which must be taken in
order, are description, analysis, interpreta-
tion, and judgment. By following these
steps you will be able to answer the fol-
lowing questions:
What do I see? (description)
How is the work organized?
(analysis)
What message does this artwork
communicate? (interpretation)
Is this a successful work of art?
(judgment)
As you go through the steps of
description and analysis, you will collect
facts and clues. When you get to inter-
pretation, you will make guesses about
what message you think the artwork
is communicating. Finally, during judg-
ment, you will make your own decisions
about the artistic merit of the work.
Step One: Description
(What do I see?)
In the first step of art criticism,
description, you carefully make a list of
all the things you see in the work. These
include the following:
The size of the work, the medium
used, and the process used.
The subject, object, and details.
The elements of art used in the work.
During the description step, notice the
size of the work and the medium used.
You will find these facts in the credit line.
This information will help you visualize
the real size and look of the work. Notice
that Figure 2.4 on page 29 and Figure 2.6
on page 32 are about the same size as
reproduced in this book. Read both credit
lines and notice the difference in the
actual size of each work.
Art criticism is not difficult. In fact, it
can be a lot of fun. At the very least, it
can make the study of art less mysteri-
ous and more logical. Art criticism is a
sequential approach for looking at and
talking about art.
Your own life experiences may also
help you understand the meaning of
each work of art. No one has done or
seen exactly the same things you have,
so no one will see exactly what you see
in a work of art. No one can think
exactly the way you think. You may see
ideas in a work of art that were never
dreamed of by the artist. This does not
mean that you are wrong; it simply
means that the work of art is so power-
ful that it has a special meaning for
everybody.
Learning art criticism will help you
interpret works of art. It will give you
the confidence to discuss works of art
without worrying about what other
people might think. It will help you to
organize your thoughts. You will
develop the courage to speak your mind
and make sound aesthetic judgments.
As you learn the language of art, you
will be able to “dig deeper” into the
layers of meaning of each art object.
The deeper you dig, the more impor-
tant your feelings for that work of art
will become. This will make your aes-
thetic experience, or your personal
interaction with a work of art, more
meaningful and memorable. The work
will then become a permanent part of
your memory.
The Steps of
Art Criticism
When you become involved in the
process of art criticism, you learn from
the work of art. Critiquing an artwork is
like playing detective. You must assume
the artist has a secret message hidden
28 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
Look at the painting by José Clemente
Orozco called Barricade (Figure 2.3).
Notice that the work is 55 inches tall.
How does that compare to your own
height? If this artwork were standing on
the floor, would the figures be larger or
smaller than you? What materials were
used to create this work?
During the description step, you must
be objective. In describing Orozco's
painting, you can say that you see five
people. You could not say they are all
men. That would be a guess. You can
describe the person crouched on the
ground as wearing a blue shirt and
holding a large knife. You can describe
the tense muscles that are bulging on
the other four figures, but at this point
in the criticism process, you should not
try to guess why they are tense.
Look again at Figure 2.3. Line and
color are two of the art elements that
play an important part in this work. Can
you identify the other art elements used?
Look at Figure 2.2 on page 26. This is
a nonobjective work. In nonobjective
works, the art elements become the
subject matter.
Step Two: Analysis (How is
the work organized?)
During this step, you are still collect-
ing facts about the elements and princi-
ples of art that are used in the artwork.
In analysis you discover how the principles
of art are used to organize the art elements
of line, color, value, shape, form, space, and
texture. You will learn how the artist has
used these formal qualities to create the
content of the art, which is known as
the theme or the message. Look at The
Piper by Hughie Lee-Smith (Figure 2.4).
Notice the horizontal line that passes
behind the boy’s shoulders. Where are
the darkest colors? Where are the
lightest colors? Is the texture of the
bricks on the wall the same as the tex-
ture of the plaster? As you learn more
about the elements and principles, you
will be able to collect more clues that
you can use to interpret each work.
F
IGURE
2.3 Orozco was one of the Mexican
muralists who combined the solid forms of ancient
Mexican art with the powerful colors of European
Expressionism. This work depicts the peasants
fighting for freedom during the Mexican Revolution
in 1910. What could you do to find out more about
the event this painting depicts?
José Clemente Orozco. Barricade. 1931. Oil on canvas.
139.7 114.3 cm (55 45). The Museum of Modern Art,
New York, New York. Given anonymously. © Estate of José
Clemente Orozco/SOMAAP, Mexico/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
crumbling wall. He is playing a musical
instrument. What is the meaning of the
boy and his instrument? What message
does this work communicate to you?
Step Four: Judgment (Is this
a successful work of art?)
In this step you will judge whether or
not the work is successful. In judgment
you determine the degree of artistic merit.
This is the time to make your own deci-
sions. There are two levels of judgment
to be made. The first is personal. Do you
like the work? No one can ever tell you
what to like or dislike. You must make
up your own mind. To make a fair judg-
ment, you must be honest with your-
self. Only you know why you feel the
way you do. Otherwise, you may close
yourself off from experiencing different
kinds of art. The second level of judg-
ment you must make is also subjective,
but it is somewhat different. At this
point, you use aesthetics to help you
decide whether the work is successful.
A work can be very successful aestheti-
cally, but you might not want to live
with it.
LESSON 1 Art Criticism: Learning from a Work of Art 29
Step Three: Interpretation
(What message does this
artwork communicate to
you?)
During this step, you will answer the
question, “What message does this art-
work communicate to me?” In inter-
pretation you will explain or tell the
meaning or mood of the work. It is here
that you can make guesses about the
artwork, as long as they appear to be
supported by what you see in the work.
Use your intelligence, imagination, and
courage. Don’t be afraid to make an
interpretation that is different from
someone else’s. After all, you are differ-
ent from other people. Your interpreta-
tion will be influenced by what you
have experienced and seen in your life.
Your interpretation can be based on
your feelings, but your feelings must be
backed up by the visual facts and clues
you collected during the first two steps.
When you look at Figure 2.4, you see
a crumbling wall with the shadow of a
neatly shaped modern building falling
on it. Then you notice the boy standing
between the modern building and the
F
IGURE
2.4 Your
interpretation of this
work will depend on
the clues you have
collected during the
first two steps of art
criticismdescription
and analysisplus
your personal life
experiences. People
have different
experiences which
will produce a variety
of interpretations, all
of which could be
acceptable.
Hughie Lee-Smith. The
Piper. 1953. Oil on canvas.
55.9 89.5 cm. (22
35
1
4
). Detroit Institute
of Arts, Detroit, Michigan.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
Stanley J. Winkelman.
© Hughie Lee-
Smith/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
30 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
To make a judgment, you must take
your time. Figure 2.5 is a painting by
Georgia O’Keeffe. To judge this painting,
first think about how you would
describe the subject of the painting.
Then consider how the artist has
arranged the art elements according to
the art principles in order to create the
composition. Notice how she has used
shading to make the skull look solid and
the drapery look like a hanging banner.
However, she has painted the red bor-
ders and the black shape behind the
skull flat. Then, think about the feeling
the painting gives you. By taking time to
look at and describe, analyze, and inter-
pret what you think the meaning of the
painting might be, you will be able to
make an intelligent judgment. Ask your-
self, is this a work of artistic merit? Is it
successful?
From the time she was a child, Georgia O’Keeffe knew she was going to be an
artist. She studied with several teachers. At age 29, she decided to focus totally
on nature and she burned her earlier works in order to start fresh, emphasizing
shapes and forms. The flower paintings that made her famous were begun at
this time. She painted her flowers big so that they would take viewers by sur-
prise. She continued following her own vision throughout her long life, never
being pulled into any of the many movements that have dominated the Ameri-
can art scene during the twentieth century.
O'Keeffe loved to see “connections” in the shapes of ordinary things. After
painting a shell and shingle many times, she painted a mountain. It was only
later that she realized that she had given the mountain the same shape as the
shell and the shingle. She saw beautiful forms everywhere, even in the most
unusual places, such as the vast desert spaces and parched bones found near her
home in New Mexico.
MEET THE
ARTIST
GEORGIA
O’KEEFFE
American, 1887–1986
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is aesthetics?
2. Name and describe the four steps of
art criticism in order.
F
IGURE
2.5 Georgia O’Keeffe loved the West. She
shocked the public with paintings of objects from her
environment that people were not used to seeing hanging on
a wall. She painted Cow’s Skull: Red, White, and Blue because
she wanted to create something uniquely American. Do you
think she succeeded?
Georgia O’Keeffe. Cow’s Skull: Red, White, and Blue. 1931. Oil on canvas.
101.3 91.1 cm (39
7
8
35
7
8
). The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, New York. The Alfred Stieglitz Collection, 1952. (52.203).
© 2003 The Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
A
esthetics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and
value of art. Physical beauty was once the only criterion for judging
the quality of art. Today, artwork is judged by a different set of criteria and
instead of being called “beautiful,” a good work of art is called “successful.”
Some successful works of art may not look pretty, but they may be well-
organized, and/or elicit emotional responses from viewers.
Aesthetic Theories and the Quality of Art
The aesthetic qualities that are discussed most often by aestheticians
(specialists in aesthetics) are the literal qualities, the formal qualities, and
the expressive qualities. These are directly related to the properties of art dis-
cussed in Chapter 1 on pages 18 and 19: subject, composition, and content.
The literal qualities are the realistic qualities that appear in the subject of the
work. For instance, if the artist depicts a realistic figure of a man on a horse,
the literal qualities of the work are the images of a man on a horse. The for-
mal qualities, or the organization of the elements of art by the principles of art, are
found when you look at the composition of the work. Does it look balanced?
Is there a rhythmic quality? Is there variety? Has the artist made a unified
work of art? These are the types of questions one must ask to determine
how well-organized a work is. The expressive qualities, or those qualities
that convey ideas and moods, are those you notice when you study the content
of a work. Is there something in the work that makes you feel a certain
emotion or conveys an idea to you?
The three aesthetic theories of art criticism are most commonly referred to
as Imitationalism, Formalism, and Emotionalism.
Imitationalism and Literal Qualities
Some critics think that the most important thing about a work of art is the
realistic presentation of subject matter. It is their opinion that a work is suc-
cessful if it looks like and reminds the viewer of what he or she sees in the
real world. People with this point of view feel that an artwork should imitate
life, that it should look lifelike, before it can be considered successful. This
aesthetic theory, called Imitationalism, focuses on realistic representation.
Formalism and Formal Qualities
Other critics think that composition is the most important factor in a work
of art. This aesthetic theory, called Formalism, places emphasis on the formal
qualities, the arrangement of the elements of art using the principles of art.
LESSON
2
LESSON 2 Aesthetics: Thinking About a Work of Art 31
Aesthetics: Thinking About
a Work of Art
Vocabulary
literal qualities
formal qualities
expressive qualities
Imitationalism
Formalism
Emotionalism
32 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
Emotionalism and Expressive
Qualities
This theory is concerned with the
content of the work of art. Some critics
claim that no object can be considered
art if it fails to arouse an emotional
response in the viewer. The expressive
qualities are the most important to
them. Their theory, called Emotional-
ism, requires that a work of art must arouse
a response of feelings, moods, or emotions in
the viewer.
Look at Papiamento by Julio Larraz
(Figure 2.6). You may use the theory of
Imitationalism to judge this work as
successful because the artist has painted
everything very accurately. You can rec-
ognize the texture of the freshly
pressed, white cotton dress, the light
flickering on the large, tropical leaves,
the texture of the trunk of the palm
tree, the palm fronds, the yellow sand of
the beach, and the beautiful blue of the
Caribbean waters. Someone else may
choose the theory of Formalism to judge
the work as successful because the artist
has arranged the objects so that the
foreground is in shadow and the back-
ground glows brightly with sunshine. A
third person may choose the theory of
Emotionalism because of the mysterious
mood created by hiding the woman in
the shadow of the tree, or because the
painting may arouse in the viewer emo-
tional associations with memories of a
vacation on a Caribbean island.
You can judge art using just one aes-
thetic theory or more than one, depend-
ing on the type of art and your own
purposes. If you limit yourself to using
only one theory, however, you may
miss some exciting discoveries in a
work. Perhaps the best method is to
use all three. Then you will be able to
discover as much as possible about a
particular piece of art.
F
IGURE
2.6 Notice how the artist has blended the woman into the painting. You don’t see her until
you look carefully. What may have been the artist’s reasons for doing this? The title of this work, Papiamento,
is the name of a language spoken in the Antilles. What else could you find out about the work and its artist
that might help you to understand it better?
Julio Larraz. Papiamento. 1987. Oil on canvas. 143.5 209.5 cm (56
1
2
82
1
2
). Courtesy of Nohra Haime Gallery, New York,
New York.
LESSON 2 Aesthetics: Thinking About a Work of Art 33
Judging Functional Objects
You can use art criticism to make
aesthetic judgments about functional
objects such as cars, shoes, or fine china.
The objects in Figure 2.7 are an exam-
ple. In criticizing functional objects, you
follow the first two steps of art criti-
cism—description and analysis—
as described earlier. However, during
the third step, interpretation, you must
consider the purpose of the object as its
meaning. In the last step, judgment, you
must consider if the object works when
it is used. That is, does it look like it will
function properly? A chair may look
beautiful, but if it is not comfortable to
sit in, then it does not function properly.
It is unsuccessful.
When you study a ceremonial object
from a culture you are not familiar with,
refer to the title and your observations
during the first two steps of art criticism.
During interpretation, you must imag-
ine the function of the object and then
judge it using one of the three aesthetic
theories. Finally, research the object
using the art history operations in the
next lesson and refine your interpreta-
tion and judgment.
Aesthetic
Theories
Applying Your Skills. Select one large
work of art in this book. Show the pic-
ture to at least three people outside of
class. Ask them whether they like the
work.Then ask them to tell you why they
like or dislike the work. Classify their
answers according to the three aesthetic
theories of art: Imitationalism, Formalism,
or Emotionalism.
F
IGURE
2.7 These chairs are appealing to the eye, but are they
successful as functional objects? To find out, you will have to apply
the steps of art criticism. Do they appear to be the right height for
sitting? Would they provide enough back support? Is the padding
thick enough for comfort?
John Dunnigan. Slipper Chairs. 1990. Purpleheart wood with silk upholstery.
Left: 67.9 64.8 58.4 cm (26
3
4
25
1
2
23). Right: 110.5 66.7 61 cm
(43
1
2
26
1
4
24). © John Dunnigan. Renwick Gallery, National Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What are the three aesthetic qualities
most often discussed by art critics?
2. What is Imitationalism?
3. Compare and contrast Formalism
and Emotionalism.
4. How does judging functional objects
differ from judging fine art?
Judging Your Own Artwork
Art criticism will help you use critical
thinking to analyze your own works of
art. The four steps of art criticism will
help you be as honest and unbiased as
possible. When you apply all four of the
steps of art criticism to your work, you
should find out why your work either
needs improvement or is a success.
LESSON
3
Art History: Learning
About a Work of Art
Y
ou can develop your appreciation for a work of art by gathering informa-
tion about the artist and the time period in which the work was created.
This is the historical and cultural context of the work. The art history oper-
ations are a four-step approach for organizing the way you gather information about
a work of art. The names for the four steps of art history operations are the
same as the four steps for art criticism: description, analysis, interpretation, and
judgment. For art history operations, however, there are different definitions
for the terms and different questions to be answered.
Description. When, where, and by whom was the work done?
Analysis. What is the style of the work and can the work be associated
with an art movement?
Interpretation. How did time and place affect the artist’s style, in terms
of subject matter, composition, and content?
Judgment. Is the work considered to be significant in the history of art?
Step One:
Description
During this step you will look for
information about the work of art.
You want to know who did it, when,
and where it was done. If you were
looking at an original work of art, you
would look for the artist's signature
and the date on the work itself. In
this book, because the works have
been reduced to fit on the page, you
will probably not be able to see the
artist’s signature or the date on the
work. You will find that information
in the credit line, however. If you
look at the credit line for Figure 2.8,
you will discover that this painting
was created by the same artist who
painted Figure 2.9, Ernst Ludwig
Kirchner. Figure 2.9 was painted in
1907. Compare that date to Figure 2.8.
Vocabulary
art history operations
individual style
34 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
F
IGURE
2.8 The objects in this work are easy to recognizetrees,
mountains, and night skybut the colors are not what you might expect.
Why do you think the artist used these colors? What does he appear to
be saying?
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. Winter Landscape in Moonlight. 1919. Oil on canvas. 120.7
120.7 cm (47
1
2
47
1
2
). Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan. Gift of Curt
Valentin in memory of the occasion of Dr. William R. Valentiner’s 60th birthday.
LESSON 3 Art History: Learning About a Work of Art 35
Which was painted earlier? To learn
more about Kirchner, such as where
and when he lived, you would need to
do some further research.
Step Two: Analysis
During analysis, you examine the
work and look for information about
the artist’s style. Style is like handwrit-
ing. No two people have exactly the
same handwriting and no two artists
have exactly the same style. Individual
style is the artist’s personal way of using
the elements and principles of art to express
feelings and ideas. To analyze the style of
one artist, you will need to see several
works by the same artist. When you
look at Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9, you
can easily see the unique aspects of the
artist’s style: his unusual use of color
and his exaggeration of shapes for
expressive effect.
Step Three:
Interpretation
In order to find the answers for this
step you will have to do some research.
You will discover that the artist was
active in a group of young, adventurous
artists in Germany who called them-
selves Die Brücke (The Bridge) and that
their work was part of a larger move-
ment known as German Expressionism.
In order to interpret his work, you would
need to find out what other artists influ-
enced him, details about his life, and
information about his surroundings.
Step Four: Judgment
Once again you must research to find
out the importance of this work in the
history of art. You must discover what
different art historians have to say about
Kirchner and use their assessments to
help you shape your own. You can also
discover if Kirchner influenced other
artists, which would help you judge his
importance.
As you study the information in this
book and learn more about the language
of art, you will begin to acquire informa-
tion from works of art. You will learn
more about the artists who created the
works. In Chapters 12 and 13, you will
find a brief overview of art history. Refer
to these chapters to learn more about art
movements and time periods as you
encounter them throughout the book.
F
IGURE
2.9 Spend a few moments describing this work. What is
its most unusual feature? What is the subject matter? Then compare it
to Figure 2.8, also by the same artist. What are the similarities and
differences between the artworks? Can you draw any conclusions about
Kirchner’s individual style?
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. Seated Woman. 1907. Oil on canvas. 80.6 91.1 cm (31
3
4
35
7
8
). The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, Minnesota. The John R. Van
Derlip Fund.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What are the art history operations?
2. Describe each of the steps of art his-
tory operations.
3. What is individual style?
36 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
F
IGURE
2.10
Yoruba people, Nigeria, Ekiti, Osi-llorin area. Headdress for Epa Masquerade. First half of the
twentieth century. Carved wood and pigment. 127 50.8 45.7 cm (50 20 18).
Collection of the Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Alabama.
Art Criticism in Action 37
Figure 2.10 is a mask-headdress. When it is worn, the
performer’s body is covered with fresh palm fronds.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
Read the credit line for information about this work.
List the information from the credit line.
Do you recognize any objects or figures? Describe them.
Based on its size and the materials used, do you think
the work is heavy or light? Explain.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with the formal qualities. It is a clue-
collecting step.You will note the art elements used
as well as the art principles that organize them.
What shape is repeated on the horse’s platform?
Where do you find the same repeated shapes?
What proportion of this sculpture is the helmet-mask?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
The third step is concerned with content.This is
where you make guesses about the meaning of the
work. Remember that you do not need to know what
the artist meant. Instead, decide what this headdress
communicates to you.
From the measurements given in the credit line, do
you think the helmet section is a hat or a mask?
Why is this work decorated with painted patterns?
On what type of occasion would you imagine the
headdress is worn? By whom is it worn? Explain.
What do you think it would feel like to have your body
covered with palm fronds and the headdress on your
head? How would you want to move?
What do you think this headdress communicates?
Write a brief story or poem about this mask-headdress.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgment.
Do you think this is a successful ceremonial work of
art? Use one or more of the three aesthetic theories
explained in this chapter to defend your judgment.
The Yoruba people, who
number over 12 million, live in
southwest Nigeria and southern
Benin.They are the most urban of
all African groups.Their founding
city, Ile-Ife, was the center of a
successful city-state in the
eleventh century. The masquer-
ade, for which headdresses like
this one are designed, is a multi-
media event. It involves costumes,
music, dance, drama, and poetry.
The audience participates in it.
This complex headdress is, thus,
meant not only to be seen in a
static setting but also to be worn
in a performance. Imagine the
play of light and shadow as a
performer covered with palm
fronds wears this headdress and
moves in time with the music and
the storytelling.
Critiquing the Artwork
Court drummers of the Timi of Ede. Yoruba.
Ede, southwestern Nigeria. Werner Forman
Archive/Art Resource, NY.
The Yoruba People
Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse did not
always judge each other’s work kindly.
ablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, two leaders of
the twentieth-century art world, were rivals.
Each thought he was the better painter. Each was
jealous of the other’s fame. The two, however,
respected and influenced each other’s work. Picasso
showed his respect for Matisse in a painting he
created a year after Matisse’s death in 1954. Like
Matisse’s Red Interior Still Life on a Blue Table, Picasso’s
Studio of “La Californie” shows the artist’s workplace.
But unlike Matisse’s happy, colorful space, Picasso’s
studio is bleak and dark, with no bright colors.
These two paintings were part of an exhibit at
the Tate Modern Museum in London that brought
Picasso and Matisse “together” by hanging their
canvases side by side. Visitors got a chance to
compare similarities in the artists’ styles. Both were
interested in African art. Both were fascinated with
collage, and with the female form. While Matisse
was known for using bold colors and simple, yet
energetic lines, he sometimes painted in the style
of Cubism, a complex style invented by Picasso.
Sometimes Picasso used bright colors and painted
unusually dressed women. These characteristics are
typically associated with Matisse.
Hanging the artists’ works next to each other
was an idea that would have made sense to Picasso.
He said at the end of his life, “You’ve got to be able
to picture side by side everything Matisse and I
were doing at the time.” Picasso added, “No one
has looked at Matisse’s paintings more carefully
than I; and no one has looked at mine more
carefully than him.”
TIME to Connect
Matisse and Picasso sometimes inspired each other in
their work—even if it was in the form of competition.
Write a personal narrative describing who inspires you to
achieve your goals and to do your best. Be sure to include a
brief character sketch of that person, supporting your story
with specific examples of how the person inspired you.
38 CHAPTER 2 Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
MUSÉE D’ART MODERNE,PARIS
TOP: Henri Matisse’s Red Interior Still Life
on a Blue Table. ABOVE: Pablo Picasso’s Studio
of “La Californie.
P
KUNSTSAMMLUNG NORDRHEIN-WESTFALEN, DÜSSELDORF
© 2003, SUCCESSION H. MATISSE, PARIS/ARTISTS RIGHTS SOCIETY (ARS), NEW YORK
Dance pioneer Martha
Graham uses the aesthetic
qualities in the development
of her modern dances. See how Graham uses
literal qualities, design qualities, and expressive
qualities through the use of body movement
on page 414.
CHAPTER
2
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. Standards of judgment.
2. An organized approach for studying a work
of art.
3. The art criticism step in which you make a
list of all the things you see in a work of art.
4. The art criticism step in which you discover
how the principles of art are used to orga-
nize the art elements of line, color, shape,
form, space, and texture.
5. The art criticism step in which you explain
or tell the meaning or mood of the work.
6. The art criticism step in which you deter-
mine the degree of artistic merit of the work.
7. The aesthetic theory that focuses on realistic
representation.
8. The aesthetic theory that places emphasis on
the formal qualities.
9. The aesthetic theory that requires that a
work of art must arouse a response of feel-
ings, moods, or emotions in the viewer.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
10. What will learning the steps of art criticism
help you develop?
11. Define the four steps of art criticism.
12. Describe the three aesthetic theories.
13. If the organization of an artwork is most
important to an art critic, which aesthetic
theory would he or she hold?
14. When criticizing functional objects, what
must you consider during interpretation
besides beauty?
15. In what ways are the steps of art criticism
different from the steps of art history oper-
ations? In what ways are they similar?
Museum curators
need to be skilled in
art criticism to
select, analyze, and
write about artworks for exhibitions.Visit
art.glencoe.com to compare and contrast
career opportunities in art.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
16. Apply. Select something from your home
that is used solely for aesthetic purposes.
Critique it using the four steps of art criti-
cism. When you are finished, ask yourself
if the object seems different than it did
before. Has your opinion of the object
changed?
17. Analyze. Find a movie critic’s review of a
current film in a newspaper or magazine.
Read it carefully. Try to find statements that
fit each of the four steps of art criticism.
18. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Learn
about Georgia O’Keeffe’s exploration of
nature and natural objects in the Meet the
Artist feature on page 30. Nature was a
major theme in O’Keeffe’s work. Compare
and contrast her depiction of nature in the
artwork on pages 316–317 with Ernst
Kirchner’s depiction of a similar scene in
Figure 2.8 on page 34.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 2 Review 39
40 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
F
IGURE
3.1 This artist has developed new ways to use the process of glassblowing to create
large sculptures and installations. He calls the objects in this window installation “flowers.” Compare
and contrast these glass flowers to the flowers painted by van Gogh in Figure 7.8 on page 178.
Dale Chihuly. Malina Window (detail). 1993. Handblown glass and steel. 4.87 4.87 m (16 16). Detroit, Michigan.
Traditionally, glass has
been a medium of the
craftsperson used to make small, decorative works of art.American
artist Dale Chihuly (b. 1941) has revolutionized the process of glass-
blowing to create monumental forms. His works appear in some
200 museums worldwide. His creations have been grouped into series.
These include handblown glass baskets, sea forms, flowers, chandeliers,
and huge installations, which include the 16-foot-square window in
Figure 3.1. The window graces the lobby of a corporate headquar-
ters. Its purpose, according to the artist, was to make “a difficult view
beautiful.What do you think he meant by this statement? In other
words, what do you think is the view outside this window?
Compare and Contrast. Examine Figure 6.2 on page 136. Like
Figure 3.1, these windows were created by an artist renowned for his
inventive and beautiful glass designs. Compare the work of Chihuly and
Chagall to identify the general trend or style each work shows.
A
rtists communicate with viewers through a variety
of materials, tools, and techniques. Some artists
“speak” with paint, others with marble. The artist respon-
sible for the artwork in Figure 3.1 communicates with
handblown glass. What do the see-through forms, colors,
and patterns of this artwork communicate to you?
In this chapter, you will:
Compare and contrast the media used in
drawing, painting, printmaking, and sculpting.
Describe the media of crafts and architecture.
Demonstrate the effective use of art media and
tools in original works.
Identify technological media.
CHAPTER
3
The Media and
Processes of Art
41
LESSON
1
Tw o-Dimensional Media
J
ackson Pollock dripped paint onto canvas in Figure 1.13 on page 14. Leo
Twiggs used dyes and wax resist on cotton in Figure 1.7 on page 10. Each
of these artists created a two-dimensional work of art using different materi-
als. Any material used to create art is called a medium. The plural form of
medium is media. A medium can be something as ordinary as a graphite pen-
cil or as exotic as gold leaf gilding. In two-dimensional works, such as drawing
and painting, artists use media such as crayons, paints, pastels, and pencils.
Drawing
In baseball, a pitcher throws warm-up
pitches before facing a batter. Musicians
tune their instruments or warm up their
voices before a performance. Artists
must also prepare before creating art.
By drawing, artists become better at per-
ceiving, or carefully noticing, the lines,
shapes, and forms of an object.
Many artists use sketchbooks to
record their surroundings and to pro-
duce studies of objects. Artists also
record ideas for later use. The Renais-
sance artist Leonardo da Vinci filled
more than 100 sketchbooks with his
drawings and ideas. His sketchbooks
included everything from perceptions
of people, to his notations on the move-
ment of water (Figure 3.2), to his plans
for flying machines.
Drawing is usually the first step in
producing artworks. Rough sketches,
or studies, are often done before creat-
ing a work in another medium such as
paint or clay. Fashion designers draw
their ideas for new styles long before
any fabric is cut. Stage designers,
graphic designers, and architects must
42 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
F
IGURE
3.2 Da Vinci’s observations of moving water were confirmed
as accurate in this century when fast cameras could photographically freeze
the action of the water. Da Vinci filled his notebooks with observational
sketches and notes. His writing was backward and could only be read
when held up to a mirror.
Leonardo da Vinci. Page from his sketchbook showing movement of water. Royal
Library, Windsor Castle, London, England. The Royal Collection 1993, Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II.
Vocabulary
medium/media
shading
printmaking
print
reproduction
edition
LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 43
show presentation drawings for a
client’s approval. Figure 3.3 is a cos-
tume design for a comic ballet, The
Devil’s Holiday. The designer modeled
the costumes and stage designs based
on the eighteenth-century paintings of
Venice by the artist Canaletto.
Although drawings are often used as
guides for other artworks, sometimes an
artist’s drawing is the finished artwork.
One example of a drawing as a work of
art is Canaletto’s Ascension Day Festival at
Venice (Figure 3.4).
Drawing Media
Drawing is the process of moving
an instrument over a smooth surface
to leave a mark, called a line. In draw-
ing, line is the most important element
of art. The characteristics of a line are
determined, in part, by the medium
used to draw it. The most popular
drawing media are graphite pencils,
colored pencils, crayons, colored mark-
ers, pens, pastels, and chalk. Pen and
ink, pen and brush, and brushes with
watercolors are also used to make
drawings.
F
IGURE
3.3 How does this sketch let you know that this
character is in a comedy? What makes him look humorous?
Eugene Berman. Vendeur de Chapeaux. 1939. Gouache on paper. 31.8
24.8 cm (12
1
2
9
3
4
). Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. James T. Soby. 1939.697.
F
IGURE
3.4 Look
closely at this meticulous
drawing. Can you tell what
city is depicted in this work?
What helped you decide?
Canaletto. Ascension Day Festival at
Venice. 1766. Pen and brown ink
with gray wash, heightened with
white, over graphite on laid
paper. 38.6 55.2 cm (15
3
16
21
3
4
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington D.C. © 1998 Board
of Trustees. Samuel H. Kress
Collection.
F
IGURE
3.6 Shading techniques.
44 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Look at the drawing in Figure 3.7.
Isabel Bishop used three different draw-
ing media to create a drawing that has
the look of three dimensions. The artist
accomplished this through shading.
Which shading technique was used in
Figure 3.4 on page 43?
Painting
Painting is the process of applying
color to a surface using tools such as a
brush, a painting knife, a roller, or even
your fingers. The surface is the material
to which the paint is applied. Canvas,
paper, and wood are frequently used as
surface materials.
F
IGURE
3.5 Drawing media.
Shading Techniques
Shading is the use of light and dark
values to create the illusion of form. There
are four main shading techniques:
Hatching. This technique consists
of drawing thin lines that run in the
same direction. Find the forms in
Figure 3.6 that use hatching.
Crosshatching. Shading created
using crisscrossing lines is called
crosshatching. Look at the forms in
Figure 3.6 that demonstrate this
technique.
Blending. Artists perform blending
by changing the color value little by
little. Find the forms in Figure 3.6
that are shaded using blending.
Stippling. Shading that creates
dark values by means of a dot pat-
tern is referred to as stippling.
Locate the forms in Figure 3.6 that
show stippling.
Each drawing medium has its own
qualities. Chalk and crayon, for exam-
ple, produce rough lines. Pens, by con-
trast, make smooth lines. Figure 3.5
shows lines made with different draw-
ing media.
LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 45
All paints have three basic ingredients:
Pigments. Pigments are finely
ground colored powders. Pigments
come from natural or synthetic mate-
rials. Natural pigments include indigo,
a vegetable, and the cochineal beetle,
an insect. Natural pigments can also
be made from minerals or clay. Syn-
thetic pigments are artificially made
from chemicals.
Binder. A binder is a material that
holds together the grains of pigment.
The binder allows the pigment to
stick to the painting surface. Egg
F
IGURE
3.7 Look at this
drawing and identify the shading
techniques Bishop used.
Isabel Bishop. Head #5. No date.
Graphite, crayon, and chalk on paper.
29.8 22.4 cm (11
3
4
8
13
16
).
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford,
Connecticut. Gift of Henry
Schnakenberg. 1953.217.
yolks mixed with water have long
been used as a strong binder for pro-
fessional artist’s tempera paints.
Other binders are linseed oil and wax.
Solvent. A solvent is a liquid that
controls the thickness or the thinness
of the paint. Different painting effects
require different thicknesses of paint.
Using thin watercolor paint gives a
light, washed-out appearance; using
thick watercolor paint produces a
more intense appearance. Solvents
are also used to clean paintbrushes
and other applicators.
46 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Winslow Homer is considered one of the artists who has captured the
true feelings of the United States in his works. Homer developed an appre-
ciation and love for the outdoors while growing up with his two brothers
in Cambridge, Massachusetts. By the age of ten, his interest in art began
and his talent for drawing became obvious. When he was 19, Homer was
accepted as an apprentice at a large printing firm in Boston, even though
he had little formal art training.
When his apprenticeship was over, Homer worked as a draftsman, spe-
cializing in woodblock engraving. Soon he began illustrating magazines.
By the 1860s he was contributing regularly to Harper’s Weekly magazine as
an illustrator of events occurring in the Civil War. After the Civil War
ended, Homer traveled to Europe. There, he was influenced by the works
of French artists Édouard Manet and Gustave Courbet.
By the 1880s, Homer had begun painting the subject that was to
become his trademarkthe sea. He loved nature and spent hours out-
doors. He felt at home on the sea although he knew its dangers as well.
Because he was able to capture the elemental forces of nature, Homer is
considered a Realist. His unique talent enabled him, as few others have
done before him, to express the reality of the United States.
MEET THE
ARTIST
WINSLOW
HOMER
American, 1836–1910
F
IGURES
3.8
AND
3.9 One
of these paintings was a sketch
made at the scene, and the other
was done in the studio based on
the first work.
F
IGURE
3.9
Winslow Homer. Hound and
Hunter. 1892. Oil on canvas.
71.8 122.6 cm (28
1
4
48
1
4
). National Gallery of
Art, Washington, D.C. ©
1998 Board of Trustees. Gift
of Stephen C. Clark.
F
IGURE
3.8
Winslow Homer. Sketch for ‘Hound and
Hunter.’ 1892. Watercolor. 35.4 50.8 cm
(13
15
16
20"). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. ©1998 Board of Trustees.
Gift of Ruth K. Henschel in memory of her
husband, Charles R. Henschel.
The look of a finished painting
depends on the combination of media,
tools, and the surface the artist
chooses. In Figures 3.8 and 3.9, you
can see how Winslow Homer has
created two images that are almost
exactly alike. However, he has used
different media. Figure 3.8 is made
with thin, wet, flowing watercolor on
white paper. The white in this paint-
ing is the white of the paper showing
through. Figure 3.9 is painted with
thick, creamy oil paint on canvas.
The white in this painting is opaque
white paint.
Painting Media
As with drawing media, there
are many different kinds of paint-
ing media, each with its own
unique qualities. The artist chooses
the paint based on personal prefer-
ence and the purpose of the work.
Oil-Based Paint. First used in the
1400s, oil paint remains a popular
medium today. True to its name, oil
LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 47
paint uses linseed oil as its binder. Its
solvent is turpentine.
One advantage of oil paint is that it
dries slowly. This allows the artist to
blend colors right on the canvas. The
work in Figure 3.9 is an oil painting.
Notice how smoothly the colors blend.
Water-Soluble Paint.The most popular
of water-based painting media, water-
color takes its name from its solvent,
water. The binder is gum arabic. Com-
pare the watercolor in Figure 3.8 with
the oil painting in Figure 3.9. What dif-
ferences do you see?
Tempera is another water-based
paint. It dries more quickly than oil
paint, and it has a more opaque finish
than watercolor.
Acrylic paint, which first appeared in
the 1950s, uses an acrylic polymer as a
binder. The solvent used for acrylic
paint is also water. However, once pro-
fessional acrylic paint dries, it cannot be
dissolved. School acrylics have been
developed, however, that can be dis-
solved with soapy water after they dry.
Experimenting
with Watercolor
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Painting. Using
watercolor paint, choose one bright color
and paint several shapes on a dry sheet of
watercolor paper.Then thoroughly brush
water on both sides of a sheet of
watercolor paper and repeat the process.
If available, try using different types of
natural and synthetic watercolor brushes.
Share and compare your results with those
of classmates.
Computer Option. Drawing with color
on the computer is like drawing with
light. Light as the computer’s pigment
can vary in opacity from opaque, like
tempera paint, to transparent, like water-
colors. Find the menu in the application
you are using that controls opacity.
Explore the settings. Remember, these
qualities change as you paint on different
surfaces. If available, investigate rough,
smooth, or textured papers.
48 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Inking the plate. The artist applies
ink to the plate. This is done with a
brayer, a roller with a handle. For a
multicolor print, one plate must be
made for each color. The ink creates
the image on the print.
Transferring the image. The paper
or other material is pressed against
the inked plate, and the ink is trans-
ferred to the new surface. Sometimes
this is done by hand. Other times a
printing press is used.
Usually, more than one print is made
from a single plate. Together, all the prints
made from the same plate, or set of plates,
form an edition. Each print in an edition
is signed and numbered by the artist. The
printmaker signs the work in the bottom
margin and writes the title on each print
of an edition as well as the number of
each print. The number 10/200 indicates
the tenth of 200 prints.
Printmaking Techniques
There are four main techniques artists
use to make prints: relief, intaglio, litho-
graphy, and screen printing.
Relief printing. In this method, the
artist cuts away the sections of a sur-
face not meant to hold ink. As a
result, the image to be printed is
raised from the background. In Fig-
ure 3.10, Elizabeth Catlett has con-
trolled the light and dark areas of her
linoleum-cut relief print by the
amount she has cut away. Notice that
the white lines are wider in the very
light areas.
F
IGURE
3.10 Catlett has devoted her artistic
career to a socially conscious art that represents
the struggles of African Americans.
Elizabeth Catlett. Sharecropper. 1970. Linoleum cut on paper.
45.2 43 cm (17
13
16
16
15
16
). The National Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
© Elizabeth Catlett/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
Printmaking
Printmaking is a process in which an
artist repeatedly transfers an original
image from one prepared surface to
another. Paper is often the surface to
which the printed image is transferred.
The impression created on a surface by the
printing plate is called a print. A print
is not the same thing as a reproduc-
tion, although sometimes people con-
fuse the two. A print is an original
work of art. A reproduction, such as
the artwork shown in this book, is a
copy of a work of art.
The Basic Steps of
Printmaking
While prints may be made using
many different media, processes, and
surfaces, all require three basic steps.
Creating the printing plate. A
printing plate is the surface on which
the desired image is created. In
producing a printing plate, the artist
makes a mirror image of the final
print. Letters and numbers must be
made backward on the plate.
LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 49
Intaglio (in-tal-yo or in-tal-ee-o).
This name comes from the Italian
word meaning “to cut into.” Intaglio
is a process in which ink is forced into
lines that have been cut or etched on
a hard surface such as metal or wood.
Then the plate’s surface is wiped
clean and the prints are made. You
can actually feel the lines of raised ink
on an intaglio print.
Lithography. In lithography the
image to be printed is drawn on lime-
stone, zinc, or aluminum with a spe-
cial greasy crayon or pencil. Ink is
attracted to this material. When the
drawing is completed, the areas that
should remain blank are etched with
a special solution that repels ink. Then,
when the surface is inked, the greasy
area alone holds the ink. Because the
process is complicated, new materials
are being developed to make lithogra-
phy easier. There are kits for schools
that use paper instead of limestone or
zinc for the printing plate.
Screen printing. This is the newest
method for making prints. It uses a
stencil and screen as the printing
plate. The stencil is placed on a fabric
screen stretched across a frame. The
screen is placed flat on the printing
surface. Ink is pressed through the
fabric screen where it is not covered
by the stencil. If more than one color
is used, a separate screen is made for
each color. Another term for screen
printing is serigraphy.
Making a
Printing Plate
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Printmaking. Yo u
can make your own relief printing plate.
Begin by cutting a 4-inch square from a
sheet of cardboard. Cut a variety of
smaller geometric shapes from the same
sheet. Arrange these on the surface of
the square. Form an interesting design.
Glue the shapes in place. Let them dry
overnight. Apply printing ink to the surface
with a brayer. Lay a sheet of paper over
your inked plate. Apply pressure evenly.
Carefully peel back the print.
Computer Option. Explore the Shape
and Line tools in your application. Change
line thickness, color menus, gradients, and
opacities. Arrange several shapes to make
an interesting design. Print onto color
transfer paper that is made for your
printer. Remember to flip the image
before printing if necessary because
shapes and letters may be reversed. Fol-
low the instructions on the printing paper
package to transfer your design onto
paper, cloth, or another surface. (An iron
sets some transfer papers while others
require more elaborate equipment.)
Check Your
Understanding
1. Name four of the most popular
media used in drawing.
2. What are the three ingredients
found in every type of paint?
3. What are the three basic steps of
printmaking?
4. Compare and contrast the media
used in drawing, painting, and
printmaking.
LESSON
2
Three-Dimensional Media
H
ave you ever taken a lump of clay and formed it into a bowl or
an animal? If so, you were working with a three-dimensional medium.
These media make solid forms that have height, width, and depth.
Sculpture
Sculpture is a three-dimensional work of art. Sculpture is art that is made
to occupy space. This is one way in which sculpture is different from other
kinds of art. Although objects in a drawing or painting can look quite real,
the work is flat, or two-dimensional. Artists who create sculpture are called
sculptors.
The Media of Sculpture
Like other artists, sculptors use a wide variety of media in their work.
Sculpting media include clay, glass, plastics, wood, stone, and metal. No mat-
ter what medium is used, a sculpture will be one of two types: sculpture in
the round or relief sculpture.
Sculpture in the round. This type of sculp-
ture is surrounded on all sides by space. Another
name for sculpture in the round is freestanding
sculpture. You can walk around sculpture in
the round or turn it over in your hands to see
all sides. Sculptures in the round can be realistic
representations of people or objects (Figure
3.11). Not all freestanding sculptures have rec-
ognizable subjects, however. (See Figure 5.6 on
page 101).
Relief sculpture. This type of sculpture pro-
jects into space from a flat background. Relief
sculptures are designed to be viewed only from
one side. Figure 3.12 shows an example of a
relief sculpture attached to a smooth,
gently–rounded surface. You cannot see the
back of the figure. The figure protrudes out into
space from the smooth surface of the vase.
Sculpting Techniques
In addition to a wide array of media, sculptors
use a variety of processes. The processes include
modeling, carving, casting, and assembly.
50 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
F
IGURE
3.11 How do the
unusual colors and materials
affect the expressive quality of
this sculpture?
Luis Jimenez. Vaquero. Modeled 1980,
cast 1990. Fiberglass and epoxy.
Height: 5 m (166). The National
Museum of American Art,
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. ©
Luis Jimenez/Artists
Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
Vocabulary
sculpture
fine art
applied art
LESSON 2 Three-Dimensional Media 51
Modeling. In this process, a soft, pli-
able material is built up and shaped.
Media such as clay, wax, and plaster
are used in modeling. Because the
sculptor gradually adds more material
to build a form, modeling is referred
to as an additive process.
Carving. In carving, the sculptor
cuts, chips, or drills from a solid mass
of material to create a sculpture.
Material is removed until the sculp-
ture is completed. Carving is there-
fore called a subtractive process. Wood
and stone are the most common carv-
ing media.
Casting. In casting, molten metal or
another substance is poured into a
mold and allowed to harden. The
artist duplicates a form originally
molded with clay, wax, or plaster
using a more permanent material.
Just as in printmaking, an edition of
sculptures can be made from the same
F
IGURE
3.12 Al Qoyawayma adds an
architectural quality to his pottery by using relief
elements that are forced from inside the pottery wall.
He then carves details into the raised relief work.
Al Qoyawayma (Hopi). Blanketed Figure Vase. c. 1980. Clay
pottery. Height: 27.9 cm (11).
F
IGURE
3.13 Graves collected natural objects and cast them in
bronze at a metal foundry. She then selected certain cast objects from
her collection of thousands of objects and assembled them to make
her sculpture.
Nancy Graves. Zaga. 1983. Cast bronze with polychrome chemical patination.
182.9 124.5 81.3 cm (72 49 32). The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,
Kansas City, Missouri. Gift of the Friends of Art (F84–27). © Nancy Graves
Foundation/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
mold. Once the edition is complete,
the mold is destroyed. This prevents
the mold from being used again and
safeguards the monetary value of the
sculptures that were originally cast.
Assembling. In this process, also
called constructing, a variety of differ-
ent materials are gathered and joined
together to make a sculpture. One
assembly process involves welding
metal, but media can be glued, sewn,
or otherwise fitted together. Assem-
bling is sometimes used along with
other sculpting processes. A combina-
tion of casting and assembling was
used to create Zaga (Figure 3.13).
52 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Crafts
Before machines were invented, peo-
ple made everything by hand. Today,
artists are still creating one-of-a-kind
items. Some objects are created for
practical use, and others are made
purely for decorative purposes. Art made
to be experienced visually is called fine art.
Art made to be functional as well as visually
pleasing is called applied art. Today the
distinction between fine art and applied
art is fading.
Artists are currently creating both
functional and decorative craft objects.
Weavings are made from natural wool,
linen, silk, cotton, and manufactured
fibers. Quilts are stitched from fine fab-
rics to be hung on the wall like paint-
ings. Baskets are woven from natural
materials such as reeds and wood slats
(Figure 3.14), as well as manufactured
fibers. Pottery is made with clay from
the earth. Handmade glass objects are
formed by forcing air through a tube to
shape globs of melted glass. Jewelry is
crafted using expensive materials such
as precious stones and gold, but it can
also be made using paper. As wonderful
as technology has become, we still
appreciate having an object that is one-
of-a-kind and made by hand.
The Media of Crafts
The most commonly used craft media
are clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal.
Clay and glass can be used to make
plates and cups, vases, and jars. Wood
can be used to make furniture or con-
tainers. Fiber is used to weave cloth and
to make baskets. Metal is used to make
utensils and jewelry.
Each craft contains an almost unlim-
ited number of choices. An artist using
clay can choose stoneware, earthenware,
or porcelain. A weaver can select natural
F
IGURE
3.14 Imagine the
skill it took to make this basket
and lid perfectly round and to
make each twist of the warp just
the right size to create points in
proportion to the shape of the
basket. Notice that the points are
smaller at the top and bottom
and larger near the center.
Edith Bondie. Porkypine Basket.
c. 1975. Wood. 20 21.6 21.6 cm
(7
7
8
8
1
2
8
1
2
). The National
Museum of American Art, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
LESSON 2 Three-Dimensional Media 53
F
IGURE
3.15 This settee reminds us of an
Asante stool from Africa because it incorporates
animal totem forms into its structure.
Judy Kensley McKie. Monkey Settee. 1995. Walnut and
bronze. 90.2 182.2 61 cm (35
1
2
71
3
4
24).
Renwick Gallery, The National Museum of American
Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
fibers or synthetic fibers. A woodworker
can choose among oak, ash, mahogany,
rosewood, ebony, cedar, and pine.What
media were used to create Figure 3.15?
The Processes of Crafts
The techniques and processes a craft
artist uses depends on the media
selected. Clay, for example, can be mod-
eled, carved, and assembled. It can also
be thrown on a potter’s wheel. Clay is
finished by firing it in a kiln, a furnace
that reaches high temperatures.
Glass can be mold-made or blown.
Blown glass requires a process in which
the artist, using special tools, blows air
into molten glass in order to shape it.
Wood is worked using techniques such
as carving and assembling, turning, and
bending. In turning, a piece of wood is
rotated on a machine called a lathe. The
machine may have a fixed tool that
shapes the piece, or the artist may use a
special tool. Bending is another shaping
process. A piece of wood is soaked in
water or another liquid to make it pliable.
Then it is slowly manipulated into place.
Fiber can be woven into cloth or bas-
kets. It can be embroidered, sewn, or
quilted. Metal can be shaped in molds or
it can be cut with special shears. Pliable
metals can be hammered or filed into
shape. Pieces can be assembled by link-
ing them together or by soldering them
together. Soldering is a process using a
handheld tool called a soldering iron
that melts small areas of the metal.
When the metal cools, the pieces are
joined. Assembling larger pieces of
metal, a process called welding, requires
a larger, more powerful tool with an
open flame.
54 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Architecture
Of all the arts, architecture has the
greatest impact on our daily lives. The
quality of the architecture we use for
shelter, for gatherings, and for worship
affects the quality of our lives. Architec-
ture is the planning and creation of
buildings. Because a well-designed
building is a shelter as well as a work of
art, architecture is considered both an
applied art and a fine art. An artist who
works in the field of architecture is an
architect. To be certified, an architect
studies engineering because a structure
must be designed to hold its own
weight and withstand the physical
forces placed on it. An architect also
studies the visual arts in order to create
buildings that are well-proportioned
and pleasing to the eye. Architects
design for individuals as well as for the
public. The needs of each group must
be considered and met before a building
can be called a success.
The Media of Architecture
From the earliest times people have
been creating shelters from materials
found in their natural environment.
Huts constructed from sticks and bark
were covered with mud. Nomadic peo-
ple constructed movable shelters from
wood poles and covered them with ani-
mal skins. In the north, ice was cut and
formed to make shelters. In the tropics,
leaves and grasses were woven together.
Gradually, people developed skills to
make better use of available materials
for permanent structures that were used
for gathering as well as shelter. People
learned to make bricks by firing clay to
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Design. Architects
are often hired to renovate an old struc-
ture. Look for a building in your commu-
nity that you would like to see improved.
Study it by making sketches from different
points of view. Identify and list in your
sketchbook the media that were used in
the construction of the building you have
selected.Think about the media you have
just studied. List some that would harmo-
nize with the surrounding buildings and
the environment. Using pencil, draw one
face of the building. Include the existing
doors and windows.Then redesign the
look of that side using the media that
you believe will improve the look of the
building. Use watercolors to indicate the
colors of the new construction media.
Computer Option. Use a computer
application to redesign the façade of a
building in your community. Choose the
Grids and Rulers option to guide your
drawing so you can maintain scale and
proportion. Consider how you can
create harmony by repeating the materi-
als, colors, or architectural features of
other buildings in your community. Begin
by drawing the front view. Hold down
the Shift key to draw straight lines or
restrict shapes. Use the copy and paste
functions to make duplicates of features
such as doors and windows. Save and
title the line drawing.Then use your
choice of brushes, textures, and grad-
ients to simulate natural materials. Use
the Save As option to retitle and save.
Print and display your work.
Redesigning a
Familiar Building
arch had been extended into a full cir-
cle. Using more advanced construction
techniques architects developed a
pointed stone arch and supported it
with buttresses. This allowed large
openings to be made in the walls that
were filled with stained-glass windows.
Wood was always a popular material,
because it was plentiful. Balloon fram-
ing allowed builders to use heavy beams
of wood to support thin walls. The truss
supported a sloped roof. This technique
is still being used today.
Technology has given us steel and
reinforced concrete. Steel frames
enabled us to cover the outside of sky-
scrapers with glass. The development of
new materials has not eliminated the
use of the older materials. New ways of
LESSON 2 Three-Dimensional Media 55
make it hard. They stacked the bricks to
build walls. Stonecutters develop meth-
ods for cutting stone so smoothly that
one could be stacked on top of the next
without anything to hold them in place
(Figure 3.16). Others learned how to
balance one long stone on top of two
posts and developed the post-and-lintel
method of construction. Today this is
called post-and-beam construction
because architects use wood or steel
beams instead of stone lintels.
Later, architects learned to form an
arch with stone. The arch carried the
weight of walls and roofs without buck-
ling. Arches led to vaults, or arched
roofs that connect walls. Vaulted halls
enabled architects to create more open
space. A dome is a round roof, as if an
F
IGURE
3.16 The
builders of Tiwanaku in
present-day Bolivia were
excellent stone masons.
They cut the stones to fit
together so perfectly that
the buildings have survived
to this day without any
mortar to hold the stones
in place.
David Borsky. Wall from the
Sunken Courtyard of Tiwanaku,
Bolivia.
A
.
D
. 700. Photograph.
Courtesy of the artist.
56 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
using them are always being developed.
When Louis Sullivan built the Wain-
wright Building (Figure 3.17), he first
created a large frame, or cage, made
with steel beams. To cover the frame he
used brick, which blended in with the
surrounding buildings.
An architect is concerned with the
environment into which the structure
will be placed as well as the purpose of
the building. The success of a building is
the combination of the right media with
good design. The Guggenheim Museum
in Bilbao, Spain, by American architect
Frank Gehry (Figure 14.1, page 388) is
made of limestone, titanium, steel, and
F
IGURE
3.17 This
skyscraper echoes its internal
steel frame in its exterior
design. Sullivan emphasized
the height of the skyscraper
by stressing the vertical lines
that move the viewer’s eyes
upward, and underplaying the
horizontal elements in the
window area.
Louis Sullivan. Wainwright
Building. St. Louis, Missouri.
1890–91.
Check Your
Understanding
1 What are the two main types of
sculpture?
2. What are the four basic sculpting
methods?
3. Define crafts. Name three categories
of functional crafts.
4. Define architecture.
glass. The straight limestone blocks con-
trast with curved and bent titantium
panels giving the building the look of a
huge abstract sculpture.
LESSON 3 Technological Media 57
A
rtists try to communicate ideas through their art, and as they do so,
they constantly seek out new media. In recent times, technological
advances have allowed artists to create new and exciting forms of art. In
this lesson, you will learn about photography, film, video, and computer art.
Photography
Photography is the technique of captur-
ing optical images on light-sensitive surfaces.
Photographs are all around us. Newspa-
pers, magazines, and books are full of
them. Almost everyone has a collection
of snapshots that they’ve taken. It is
hard to imagine that photography
started out as an expensive, difficult
process only 150 years ago.
Although anyone can point a camera
and click the shutter, photography as art
requires more than simply recording
images. As photographic media and
processes have improved, some photog-
raphers have begun exploring photogra-
phy’s potential as art. They have gone
beyond simply taking pictures of inter-
esting images. Works by Dorothea
Lange (Figure 3.18) and other photog-
raphers are carefully composed just as a
painter composes an artwork. This artis-
tic composition makes photography a
fine art like painting or sculpting.
In recent years, some artists have
combined painting and photography to
create a new kind of visual expression.
Look closely at Figure 3.19 on page 58.
Notice how the artist has modified a
black-and-white photograph of an auto-
mobile in front of a house. The finished
work combines familiar images from
the real world altered according to the
photographer’s artistic vision.
Technological Media
LESSON
3
F
IGURE
3.18 Dorothea Lange did more than take a snapshot of
this family. By moving her camera to get just the right angle and
waiting for the right moment, her photograph reveals a lot about her
subjects. What does the expression on the mother’s face tell you?
What emotions do the children convey with their body language?
Dorothea Lange. Migrant Mother. 20.3 25.4 cm (8 10). Courtesy of the
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Vocabulary
photography
digital system
multimedia programs
58 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
The Media of Photography
The idea of capturing an image on
film is very old. Attempts to do so date
back to the Renaissance, but the first
permanent photograph was not made
until the nineteenth century. L. J. M.
Daguerre invented a process of creating
silvery, mirrorlike images on a copper
plate. This was called a daguerreotype.
Daguerreotype was a time-consuming
and very expensive process. In the
1850s, the wet plate method was
invented. It used glass coated with
chemicals to record the image, which
was then transferred to paper or card-
board. As with contemporary pho-
tographs, the wet plate photos used
negatives, the reverse image of the object
photographed. Today, newer and better
methods of making film have been
invented. The process is simpler and less
expensive. Photographers have many
media and processes available to affect
the look of a finished photograph.
Film
A movie, or motion picture, like any
work of art is created for others to enjoy.
However, when you watch a movie,
you may not be aware of all the work
that went into making it. Filmmaking
is a collaborative process involving
many different artistic and technical
professionals.
The Media of Film
Filmmaking only became possible
about 100 years ago, after photography
began to catch on with amateur hobby-
ists and professional artists. This encour-
aged the development of different types
of film and the invention of the film
camera. Unlike still cameras, motion pic-
ture, or film, cameras have a mechanism
that moves the film through the camera.
The film is stopped very briefly to be
exposed. Each frame of film is a still
image. The illusion of image motion is
created by a rapid succession of these
still images or photographs. Early films
suffered from jumpy action, flickering
light, and other flaws. As cameras, film,
film printers, and projectors improved,
so did the visual quality of movies.
Cinematographers—artists who use
movie cameras—now have the ability to
choose from many different film media
and production processes to create visu-
ally exciting artistic films.
F
IGURE
3.19 This work
is based on a black-and-white
photo taken by the artist.
After printing it, she covered
the areas she wished to stay
black-and-white with rubber
cement to protect them.Then
she dipped the photo into an
acid bath that changed the
unprotected portions into
tints and shades of brown.
The final step was the
addition of color, using paints
designed for use on
photographs.
Jessica Hines. Dream Series.
Hand-colored black-and-white
photograph. 40.6 x 50.8 cm
(16 20). Private Collection.
LESSON 3 Technological Media 59
now operate computer programs that
once required a computer the size of
your classroom! These powerful com-
puters are used by visual artists to create
digital art.
Using Computers to
Create Art
Computer programs, or software, are
designed to instruct the computer to
perform various functions. There are
numerous programs available for artists.
(For more information on software and
hardware used in the art classroom,
refer to the Digital Media Handbook,
pages 445–454.) With paint or draw
programs, artists can draw, paint,
manipulate, and design images. The
artwork in Figure 3.20 was created
with a software program. Other digital
technologies, such as digital cameras
and scanners, can be used with the
computer to provide even more
exciting ways to stimulate an artist’s
imagination.
When you use a computer to create
art, the art images can be stored as
files in the computer’s memory or on
different kinds of storage devices. Once
saved, they may be opened in a new
file and reworked. The advantage is
that, while the original art is saved, you
can try as many variations as you wish,
saving each as a new file. This prevents
you from losing the original work.
Video
Videotape records and stores images
and sounds as magnetic impulses. Pat-
terns of light beams and wavelengths of
sound are translated into electric waves,
which are then imprinted magnetically
on the videotape. Video technology,
however, is rapidly evolving. Today,
videotape is being replaced by digital
videotape and other digital systems. A
digital system is a system that processes
words and images directly as numbers, or
digits. This is improving not only the
flexibility of video but also the sound
and image quality.
The Media of Video
Video is a remarkable development
because, unlike film, it does not require
special processing or printing. With a
video camera, a person can record an
event and immediately view the results.
Video artists record the sights, sounds,
and scenes of nature; or they create
totally new environments with moving
and still images and sound. This tech-
nology allows an artist to create a visual
story or communicate a message, just
like an artist who paints on canvas.
Also, video can be combined with com-
puter software and systems to create
artwork never before possible. Amazing
artistic results can be achieved when
video images and sounds are edited and
manipulated using computers.
Computers
Thanks to advances in digital technol-
ogy, today’s computers are becoming
faster, smaller, and more versatile. Tiny
computers, called microprocessors, can
F
IGURE
3.20 This artist has used digital
technologies to combine several layers of images
into a unified artwork. What ideas do you think he
is expressing in this composition?
Jeff Brice. Untitled. Digital image.
60 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Drawing. Artists
use computers as sketchbooks, design
tools, and as painting and collage media
because they can store and retrieve art-
work quickly. Images can be easily com-
bined and altered,which allows the artist to
explore many ideas without wasting time
or materials. First, try this with traditional
media and tools such as drawing paper,
pencil, brush, and watercolor. Draw a large
rectangle or circle on the paper. Create a
design based on a mood or feeling using
the pencil and brush. Change length, thick-
ness, and texture of the lines to create
variety and make a pleasing composition.
Choose a color scheme and add color.
Computer Option. Now, repeat the
same activity using a computer paint
program. Select a Shape tool, and draw a
large open rectangle or circle on the page.
Explore the Pencil and Brush tools.
Consider a mood or feeling. Arrange a
variety of lines, changing length, thickness,
shape, and texture to match this mood.
Use the Eraser and Zoom tool, if available,
to eliminate unneeded marks.When you
are satisfied,title and save your project.
Now, choose a simple color scheme.
Apply color with the Fill or Brush tool.
Select the Save As command to retitle.
Add a number behind the original title
to indicate a new version.
Many computer applications exist to
make the tasks of the artist more effi-
cient. Some of these programs involve
desktop publishing, word processing,
image editing or manipulation, morph-
ing or transforming images, and 3-D
drawing and animation. To create digital
drawings and paintings, there are two
main types of programs: paint programs
and draw programs.
Paint programs. In paint programs,
images are stored as bitmaps or a
series of tiny dots called pixels. Images
are made by filling in the dots using a
variety of brush tools that imitate
other media and drawing tools. An
artist also has the ability to edit the
image pixel by pixel.
Draw programs. In draw programs,
each line or curve drawn is stored as a
separate object. An advantage of
draw programs over paint programs
are the crisp, sharp edges, which are
excellent for fonts and straight line
images. Because images are recog-
nized as objects rather than individual
pixels, they can be “resized”—made
larger or smaller—without distortion.
Recently, the differences between
paint and draw programs have begun to
blur. Many paint programs today do
jobs that were once performed only by
draw programs and vice versa.
Computer Art Tools
In computer art, the physical tools
that the artist actually handles are called
hardware. Hardware includes equipment
such as the monitor, keyboard, printer,
and mouse. Along with these pieces of
hardware, other external tools include
the following:
Digital camera. A digital camera
works like a regular camera except
that the images are recorded digitally.
The camera usually has a viewer that
allows you to see each picture you
have taken. Most cameras store pic-
tures on removable memory cards,
which can be downloaded onto a
computer. Pictures can then be
printed out or they can be manipu-
lated with special photo-editing soft-
ware. The digital images can be
altered and enhanced in unlimited
ways, and each version can be saved
as a separate file.
Traditional and
Digital Media
LESSON 3 Technological Media 61
computer software programs that help users
design, organize, and combine text, graphics,
video, and sound in one presentation. You
can make reports, presentations, and
art portfolios come alive. Multimedia art
combines different media to create a
new type of art. For example, an artist
might scan a photograph into the com-
puter to enhance it. The artist might
also add sounds that help evoke a feel-
ing. He or she could add text or quota-
tions to add meaning. The artist might
make the art appear to move (animate)
or take different forms (morph) as the
viewer watches. Multimedia art expands
the boundaries of art by including more
sensory experiences.
Stylus and graphics tablet. A
stylus and graphics tablet is the
electronic equivalent of the pencil
and paper. The stylus responds to
pressure from the hand to make
thick and thin lines—much like a
real pencil, pen, or brush—and has
an eraser on the end. Recent models
are remote and programmable.
Scanner. A scanner is a device that
“reads” a printed image. It then
translates the image into a language
the computer can use to make an
image on the screen or print with a
printing device.
On-Screen Tools. These tools are located
on-screen on a toolbar or pull-down
menu. They mimic handheld tools used
by conventional artists. On-screen tools
include pencils, pens, assorted brushes,
and erasers, but they vary from program
to program. The table in Figure 3.21
shows some common on-screen tools
and the type of program in which each
is found.
Multimedia Art
Combining technologies on the com-
puter is made easier by the development
of multimedia programs. These are
F
IGURE
3.21
Common on-screen
tools. Can you guess
the purpose of the
tools by their icons?
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is photography?
2. How are motion picture cameras
different from still cameras?
3. What advantage does video have
over film?
4. Compare and contrast paint and
draw programs.
5. What is the advantage of a multi-
media program?
62 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
F
IGURE
3.22
Lucas Samaras. Mirrored Room. 1966. Mirrors attached to a plywood frame with screws covered by glass
balls. 243.8 243.8 304.8 cm (96 96 120). Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of
Seymour H. Knox, Jr., 1966.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
What do you see when you look at this object? This
is a clue-collecting step. If you are not sure of some-
thing, do not guess.
List all the information in the credit line.
Study the image carefully. Describe everything you see.
Hint: There are four objects in the room that are not
listed in the credit line. Two are solid, and two are
reflections.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with composition or the formal
qualities. In it, you will gather information about
how the work uses the elements and principles of
art. Even though you have not studied them yet,
there are some obvious questions you can answer.
What shapes make up the walls, floor, and ceiling of
this room? How often are these shapes repeated?
What other shapes can you find in the work?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
In this step, you tell what feeling or mood the work
creates.You make guesses about the meaning of
the work.
How do you think it would feel to sit or stand within
this room? Write a brief paragraph or a poem that
expresses how you would feel sitting on the mirrored
chair surrounded by infinite reflections.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgment
of the work.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theories
from Chapter 2 to defend your decision.
Lucas Samaras was born in
Kastoria, Greece. In 1948, he
moved to the United States with
his family. Samaras attended Rut-
gers University. His works use
unusual “art” materials such as
glass, aluminum foil, and alu-
minum paint. Samaras’s mirrored
room series, which includes the
installation in Figure 3.22, was
created in the 1960s.These
works, which are meant to be
walked through, are remarkable
for the precise positioning of the
mirrors.They reflect the objects
and viewer into infinity in all
directions.All of Samaras’s art-
works are concerned with the
distortion of visual space as seen
in the Mirrored Room. He also
creates distorted and decorated
chairs and manipulated Polaroid
photographs.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 63
Lucas Samaras
(b. 1936)
Lucas Samaras. Self-Portrait. 1993.
Reproduced courtesy of the artist and
Pace Wildenstein, New York. © Lucas
Samaras.
OSHIRO FOR TIME
Making your own books and
book covers is a growing trend.
he art of bookmaking is becoming an
increasingly popular craft and hobby.
In this age of digital technology, people
are looking back to the traditional arts of
bookbinding and papermaking.
Some of these new book artists
create their works from
scratch, including writing,
designing, and binding. One
book is made with fabric, paper,
and beads and folds out like
origami. Another one-of-a-kind
work is an eyeglass case that
holds a tale about Benjamin
Franklin, taking a cue from his
trademark glasses. Other bookmakers
simply take existing books and give them a
new look. They gut, paint, and design new
covers for books that are in print.
While bookmaking has been around for centuries,
current homemade works are straddling the line between
books and art. By using bright colors and unusual designs,
people are creating spines that will stand out on the shelf.
Part of the enjoyment for many bookmakers is finding unique
materials to make their books. This often leads to discoveries at
flea markets, in attics, and at yard sales.
If these creative designs spark your interest, you can enroll in
one of the many new workshops offered at craft stores and
community centers.
TIME to Connect
Design a book cover or interesting format for one of your
favorite books. Keep these criteria in mind as you plan your design:
What is the book about? How would your format and design
summarize the book’s theme, plot, or message?
What details from the book could you use in your design to
express the main theme?
What materials would you use to create the new version of
the book?
64 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art
T
MICHAEL L. ABRAHAMSON FOR TIME
ABOVE: A real accordion was
used to make this book of
accordion players.The artists
combined the instrument
with vintage photos.
LEFT: This colorful Mexican
Day of the Dead festival book
folds out.It is made of fabric
and paper.
Use the Performing Arts
Handbook, page 415, to see
how choreographer Merce
Cunningham uses the computer and
other technology to help him create his
renowned ballets.
CHAPTER
3
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. Any materials used to create art.
2. The use of light and dark values to create
the illusion of form.
3. A process in which an artist repeatedly
transfers an original image from one pre-
pared surface to another.
4. The impression created on a surface by a
printing plate.
5. A copy of a work of art.
6. All the prints made from the same plate or
set of plates.
7. A three-dimensional work of art.
8. The technique of capturing optical images
on light-sensitive surfaces.
9. A system that processes words and images
directly as numbers or digits.
10. Computer software programs that help
users design, organize, and combine
text, graphics, video, and sound in one
presentation.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
11. What is the difference between two- and
three-dimensional art?
12. Describe the four shading techniques.
13. Name and define the three main ingredi-
ents of paint.
14. What are the three basic steps of print-
making?
15. What is the difference between sculpture in
the round and relief sculpture?
16. Why are crafts called the applied arts?
17. How is videotape technology an improve-
ment over cinematography?
How would you
describe the differ-
ences between two-
and three-dimensional
media if you were blindfolded? Play this inter-
active game with your classmates after taking
the Web Museum Tour of the Walker Art
Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Just click on
the link at art.glencoe.com.
ART
18. What are the similarities and differences
between paint and draw programs?
Thinking Critically About Art
19. Compare and Contrast. Study Figures
3.13 (page 51), 3.14 (page 52) and 3.15
(page 53). List the similarities and differ-
ences you find in all three artworks. In
particular, compare and contrast the use
of form in each work. How would you
describe the form of each work?
20. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 46.
Winslow Homer was influenced by the art
trends of his time. Compare and contrast
Figures 3.8 and 3.9 on page 46 with the
work of another Realist, Édouard Manet in
Figure 13.20 on page 369. Why are both
artists considered Realists?
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 3 Review 65
66
Jacob Lawrence. Street to M’bari. 1964. Gouache with graphite on
wove paper. 56.5 78.4 cm (22
1
4
30
7
8
). National Gallery
of Art, Washington, D.C. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. James T. Dyke.
1993.18.1.
“My belief is that it is most
important for an artist to
develop an approach and phi-
losophy about life—if he has
developed this philosophy, he
does not put paint on canvas,
he puts himself on canvas.”
—Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000)
UNIT
The
Elements
of Art
Interpreting Text. Read and interpret
the above quote. What does the artist mean?
Write a brief interpretation of the quote in
your own words. What have you learned about
Jacob Lawrence from his painting and quote?
67
2
68 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.1 Richly decorated interior settings, lit by the bright sunlight in south France, were a favorite
theme of Henri Matisse. He transformed ordinary rooms into exotic settings full of energy. Matisse’s use of
line gives this painting a feeling of energy. Compare and contrast the variety of lines in this work.
Henri Matisse. Interior with Egyptian Curtain. 1948. Oil on canvas. 116.2 88.9 cm (45
3
4
35). The Phillips Collection,
Washington, D. C. © 2003 Succession H. Matisse, Paris/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Figure 4.1 was painted by
Henri Matisse (1869–1954)
in 1924. At this time, Matisse was well established in the European
art world. He experimented with different styles throughout his
long and varied career. Around the turn of the twentieth century,
Matisse and a group of young French artists were shown together
in a famous art exhibit. Their use of intense colors, bold designs, and
energetic brushwork inspired a critic to name them the Fauves, or
“Wild Beasts.” Notice how the energetic lines in Figure 4.1 dance
across the canvas and add decorative patterns to the fabrics and tree.
Compare and Contrast. This interior scene includes a still-life
arrangement on a table. Figure 4.13 on page 74, painted 50 years later,
also includes a still-life setup on a table. How are these works similar?
How are they different?
W
hen you, as a child, first picked up a crayon, a line
might have been the first mark you made. You use
lines to write numbers, symbols, and the letters of the
alphabet. The lines on a map help you find the best route
from one place to another. You use lines to draw pictures.
Lines are everywhere.
In this chapter, you will:
Compare and contrast the use of line in artworks.
Identify the different kinds of lines and the ways
lines can vary in appearance.
Demonstrate how lines are used to change values.
Analyze the expressive qualities or meanings of
different lines in works of art.
CHAPTER
4
Line
69
LESSON
1
The Element of Line
L
ines are everywhere. You can see lines in the grain of a piece of wood or
in the cracks on a sidewalk. Lines are used to create words, numbers, and
symbols. They are also used to create art. In drawing, line is an element of art
that is the path of a moving point through space.
What Is Line?
Artists use line to lead your
eyes through a work of art. This is
because it takes movement to
make a line. When you see a line,
your eyes usually follow its move-
ment. Lines can lead your eyes
into, around, and out of visual
images, as in the painting in
Figure 4.2. Notice how the artist
uses the line of the highway to
pull your eyes into the artwork.
A line has width as well as
length, but usually the width of
a line is very small compared with
its length. In fact, a line is thought
of as being one-dimensional. Its
one dimension is length. Dimen-
sion means the amount of space an
object takes up in one direction. Two-
dimensional objects have height
as well as width. A painting is
two-dimensional. Three-dimen-
sional objects have height, width,
and depth. A sculpture is three-
dimensional. You will learn more
about dimensions in the next
chapter when you study shape,
form, and space.
Artists create lines in many
ways. A line can be drawn on
paper with a pencil or scratched
into wet clay with a stick. Of
course, the world is full of lines
Vocabulary
line
dimension
outline
implied lines
value
crosshatching
70 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.2 The artist has used the line of the highway to pull your eyes into
and through this artwork. Compare and contrast the kinds of line the artist has
used in this painting. How do they convey movement and rhythm?
Yvonne Jacquette. Town of Skowhegan, Maine V. 1988. Oil on canvas. 198.6 163 cm (78
3
16
64
3
16
). Courtesy DC Moore Gallery, NYC.
LESSON 1 The Element of Line 71
F
IGURE
4.5 Student work. How have the edges
on this picture been created?
F
IGURE
4.4 What edges do you see?
that were not drawn with a tool. Some
thin, solid objects look like lines. Exam-
ples are tree trunks, yarn, spiderwebs,
and wires (Figure 4.3). These items
look like lines because length is their
most important dimension.
Some lines that we think we see in
nature really do not exist. For instance,
when you look at the edges of shapes,
you think of lines. In the photo of the
dogwood blossom (Figure 4.4), notice
that there are no black lines around the
outside of each petal. However, in a
drawing of that same blossom in Figure
4.5, lines are used to show the edges of
each shape. A line that shows or creates the
outer edges of a shape is an outline.
Implied lines are a series of points that
the viewer’s eyes automatically connect.
Implied lines are suggested rather than
real lines. A series of dots or dashes, a
line of machine stitches, or a trail of wet
footprints can create an implied line. A
group of shapes arranged in a row can
also create an implied line. In Figure
4.6 on page 72, Abrasha has created a
Hanukkah menorah that holds nine
cone-shaped candles. The round tops of
the cones create an implied line that
leads your eyes across the top of the
menorah.
F
IGURE
4.3 What
lines do you see around you?
72 CHAPTER 4 Line
Kinds of Lines
There are five basic kinds of lines:
vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved,
and zigzag.
Vertical lines (Figure 4.7) move
straight up and downthey do not lean
at all. A vertical line drawn on a piece of
paper is perpendicular to the bottom
edge of the paper. It is also perpendicular
to the horizon (the line where earth and
sky seem to meet). When you stand up
straight, your body forms a vertical line.
F
IGURE
4.6 The artist
has used implied line to create
a sense of movement. How
many sets of nine shapes can
you find that create implied
lines? Describe the lines.
Abrasha. Hanukkah Menorah. 1995.
Fabricated stainless steel, silver,
and gold. 17.5 43.8 7.3 cm
(6
7
8
17
1
4
2
7
8
). Renwick
Gallery, National Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
F
IGURE
4.7 Vertical lines move
straight up and down.
F
IGURE
4.8 Horizontal lines lie parallel to
the horizon.
F
IGURE
4.9 Diagonal lines slant.
Horizontal lines (Figure 4.8) are
parallel to the horizon. They do not
slant. When you lie flat on the floor,
your body forms a horizontal line.
Diagonal lines (Figure 4.9) slant. Diag-
onals are somewhere between a vertical
and a horizontal line. Diagonals look as
if they are either rising or falling. Imag-
ine you are standing straight up; then,
with your body stiff, you fall to the floor.
At any point during your fall, your body
forms a diagonal line.
Curved lines (Figure 4.11) change
direction gradually. When you draw
wiggly lines, you are putting together a
series of curves. Other kinds of curved
lines form spirals and circles.
Analyzing Lines
in Artworks
Applying Your Skills. Select and ana-
lyze one of the following paintings from
this chapter: Figure 4.1, 4.12, 4.16, 4.18,
or 4.19. Diagram the lines of the painting.
Use green for verticals, blue for horizon-
tals, red for diagonals, and violet for
curves. Place your diagram on display.
Can your classmates identify the painting
you represented by looking at the colors?
Computer Option. Use the Line tool
to create a series of drawings to illustrate
each of the five line types.Vary the widths
and lengths of your lines.You may also
choose to vary patterns and colors. Label
each drawing’s line type.
Line Variation
Lines vary in appearance in five
major ways:
Length. Lines can be long or short.
Width. Lines can be thick or thin.
Texture. Lines can be rough or
smooth.
Direction. Lines can move in any
direction, such as vertical, horizontal,
or diagonal.
Degree of curve. Lines can curve
gradually or not at all, become wavy,
or form spirals.
These five variations can be combined
in many, many ways. You can make
long, wide lines; rough, short lines; and
smooth, curved lines.
LESSON 1 The Element of Line 73
F
IGURE
4.10 Zigzag lines
are combinations of diagonals.
F
IGURE
4.11 Curved lines change
direction gradually.
Zigzag lines (Figure 4.10) are made
from a combination of diagonal lines.
The diagonals form angles and change
direction suddenly.
74 CHAPTER 4 Line
The media, tools, and surfaces used
to make lines affect the way a line looks.
As with the combination of various line
types, a multitude of possible effects can
be created. Some common materials
used by artists to make lines are
graphite, chalk, crayon, ink, and paint.
The mate-rial is applied by using a tool.
Some tools used for making lines
include pencils, markers, pens, brushes,
and scissors.
Artists use different tools and materi-
als to create different types of lines. For
example, a line drawn with chalk on a
chalkboard looks smoother than a line
drawn with chalk on a sidewalk. Some
artists have discovered very unusual
ways of using line, as shown in Figures
4.12 and 4.13. In Figure 4.14, the artist
has used many line types and variations.
F
IGURE
4.12 When Rouault was a
boy he was apprenticed to a maker of stained
glass.The thick black lines surrounding bright
colors in his paintings remind the viewer of
stained-glass windows.
Georges Rouault. The Italian Woman.1938. Oil on
panel. 79.4 63 cm (31
1
4
24
13
16
), Dallas Museum
of Art, Dallas, Texas. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Vladimir
Horowitz. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADAGP, Paris.
F
IGURE
4.13 Although this painting is called a
still life, it seems to have movement and activity. This is
because of the artist’s use of line. How many different
line directions and line variations can you find in this
painting? Describe them.
Alice Neel. Still Life, Rose of Sharon. 1973. Oil on canvas. 101.6
76.2 cm (40 30). Collection of the Whitney Museum of
American Art, New York, New York. Arthur M. Bullowa Bequest.
Line Types and Variations
LOOKING
CLOSELY
reflects little light. It has a light value if
it reflects a lot of light. Every time you
make a pencil mark on a piece of white
paper, you are creating a line with a
certain value. The harder you press, the
LESSON 1 The Element of Line 75
Line and Value
Value is the element of art that describes
the darkness or lightness of an object. Value
depends on how much light a surface
reflects. A surface has a dark value if it
F
IGURE
4.14
Dan Namingha. Blessing Rain Chant.
1992. Acrylic on canvas. 198
304.8 cm (78 120"). Niman Fine
Art, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
In this painting, the
artist has used five differ-
ent kinds of line and
many line variations. Can
you find other examples
of line and line variation
combinations?
Using Line to
Create Value
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Drawing. Fold a
sheet of white drawing paper into nine
squares. In each square use a different
combination of parallel or crosshatched
lines to create a different value.Try a vari-
ety of pencils, from hard 2H to soft 4B
lead.Try quill pens, ballpoint pens, and felt-
tip pens.Think of some other tools and
materials to use.
Computer Option. Use the Line tool to
draw three diagonal lines (that are not
parallel) from screen edge to screen edge.
This will divide your screen into six or
seven sections. Fill each section with lines.
Vary the spacing of the lines by placing
them close together in one section and
farther apart in another. Lines can be
crosshatched.You can choose the Pat-
terns palette and fill the sections by using
the Fill Bucket tool, or create your own
patterns. Use only black and white. Notice
that the value of the area darkens as lines
are placed close together and lightens
when lines are farther apart.
76 CHAPTER 4 Line
darker the value. A series of closely
placed lines can create areas of dark
value. The lines may be parallel or they
may cross one another. Crosshatching
is the technique of using crossed lines for
shading.
The values that line groups create
depend on four factors: the number of
lines, the size of the spaces between the
lines, the media, and the tools. A soft
pencil (2B, 4B) makes a wide, dark line.
A hard pencil (2H, 4H) makes a thin,
gray line. A crayon stroked over a rough
surface makes a broken line. A crayon
stroked over smooth paper makes a
solid line.
Look at the Dürer drawing in Figure
4.15. Use a magnifying glass to study
the way Dürer has used line combina-
tions to create dark and light values.
F
IGURE
4.15 The artist has used line to create this drawing. Identify the
areas where the artist has used crosshatching to indicate shading.What kinds
of line variation has Dürer used?
Albrecht Dürer. An Oriental Ruler Seated on His Throne. c. 1495. Pen and black ink. 30.6
19.7 cm (12 7
3
4
). National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. © 1998 Board of Trustees.
Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund.
Check Your
Understanding
1. How is line defined in drawing?
2. What are the five basic kinds of
lines?
3. Compare and contrast five ways that
lines vary in appearance in artworks.
4. Describe the crosshatching
technique.
LESSON 2 The Expressive Qualities of Line 77
The Expressive Qualities
of Line
LESSON
2
Vocabulary
contour line
gesture
calligraphy
F
IGURE
4.16 Strong horizontal lines—such as the bands of black clouds, the horizon, and the railroad tracks—
create a feeling of calm in this sunset scene. How do the verticals in this scene affect the meaning of the work?
Edward Hopper. Railroad Sunset. 1929. Oil on canvas. 71.8 121.3 cm (28
1
4
47
3
4
). Collection of the Whitney Museum of American
Art, New York, New York. Josephine N. Hopper Bequest.
D
epending on its direction, a line can express different ideas or feelings.
This is why line is an important element in the language of art. Vertical
lines can make certain objects look taller. For example, vertical lines on wall-
paper can make low ceilings seem higher. Clothing designers use vertical
lines to make short people look taller and heavy people look thinner.
Line Movement
Vertical lines are static, or inactive. They appear to be at rest. For this rea-
son, they express stability. Artists use them to show dignity, poise, stiffness,
and formality, as in Figure 4.14 on page 75.
Horizontal lines are also static. They express feelings of peace, rest, quiet,
and stability, as in Figure 4.16. They give a feeling of permanence or solidar-
ity. Because we stand on solid horizontal ground, horizontal lines make us
feel content, relaxed, and calm.
78 CHAPTER 4 Line
Because curved lines change direc-
tion, they express activity. How much
activity they express depends on the
type and direction of the curve. The less
active the curve, the calmer the feeling.
Spiral curves wind around a central
point. They are hypnotic and draw the
eye to their center. Curved lines are
often used in decorative arts to suggest
a feeling of luxury, as in Figure 4.17.
Diagonal lines express instability, ten-
sion, activity, and excitement, as shown
in Figure 4.18. Since they can appear
to be either falling or rising, they some-
times make a viewer feel uncomfort-
able. Artists use them to add tension or
to create an exciting mood. However,
when two diagonals meet and seem to
support each other, as in the roof of a
house, they appear more stable.
Zigzag lines create confusion. They
are extremely active and may evoke
feelings of excitement (Figure 4.19,
page 80) and nervousness. The degree
of intensity is indicated by the direction
of the zigzag. Zigzags that move hori-
zontally, such as those across the top of
a picket fence, are less active than the
irregular zigzags of a streak of lightning.
F
IGURE
4.17 Notice the many different kinds
of curves the artist used to create this luxurious gate-
way. Identify any straight lines. Follow them through
the work. Do they stay straight? Can you think of
adjectives to describe the many types of curves used
in the artwork?
Albert Raymond Paley. Portal Gates. 1974. Forged steel, brass,
copper, and bronze. 230.5 182.9 10.2 cm (90
3
4
72 4).
Renwick Gallery, The National Museum of American Art,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Applying Your Skills. Choose two
words from the following list:
swimming burning praying
rocking flowing jumping
marching running growing
dancing crawling laughing
wagging writing flying
On separate sheets of paper, illustrate
the words you have chosen by using line
movement only. Do not draw objects.
Choose the medium you think will work
best. When you are finished, write the
words on the back of each paper. Ask your
classmates to look at the lines and guess
which words you have illustrated.
Computer Option. Use the Line tool to
make two drawings using lines. Let one
drawing illustrate quiet, calm piano music,
and let the other illustrate loud rock music.
Using Imagination to Draw
Lines Expressively
LESSON 2 The Expressive Qualities of Line 79
F
IGURE
4.18 In this painting, every line that should be static is diagonal. Look at the window, the lamp, the rug,
the floor planks, and the fiddler’s bench. The diagonal lines fill the work with a sense of excitement. Not only the people
but also every corner of the room seems to be alive and dancing to the music of the fiddler.
Thomas Hart Benton. Country Dance. 1929. Oil on gessoed canvas. 76.2 63.5 cm (30 25). Private collection. © T. H. Benton and R. P.
Benton Testamentary Trusts/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
80 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.19 The artist has used line to show the movement of the children. Look at their arms, legs, and feet.
What kinds of lines do you see? How has Lawrence used line to create a feeling of movement and excitement?
Jacob Lawrence. Children at Play. 1947. Tempera on Masonite panel. 50.8 60.9 cm (20 24). Georgia Museum of Art, University of
Georgia, Athens, Georgia. Eva Underhill Holbrook Memorial Collection of American Art, Gift of Alfred H. Holbrook.
Jacob Lawrence was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in 1917. When he was
12, his family moved to Harlem in New York City. The move would have a great
impact on his growth as an artist.
The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s had attracted many talented minority
artists from all over the world, and many still remained in Harlem during the
1930s. These artists served as Lawrence’s inspiration.
Lawrence sought every opportunity he could to learn about art. He listened to
the Harlem artists as they talked in their studios. The 135th Street Public Library,
which he visited often, always had pieces of African sculpture on display. His
many trips to the Metropolitan Museum of Art gave him a strong background in
art history.
Lawrence became fascinated with black history and its heroic figures. He took
as his subjects such important people as Toussaint L’Ouverture, Harriet Tubman,
and Frederick Douglass. Lawrence often found he could not express all he
wanted to say in just a single picture. Therefore, he often made series of paint-
ings to tell the whole story. In this way, he used his art to convey his ideas about
the heritage of African Americans.
MEET THE
ARTIST
JACOB
LAWRENCE
American, 1917–2000
LESSON 2 The Expressive Qualities of Line 81
F
IGURE
4.20 Andrews has used a contour line to
draw a memory of his past. His mother insisted that the
children dress up for Sunday church services. How does
he use line to emphasize the ill-fitting clothes?
Benny Andrews. Mom and Us. 1972. Pen and ink drawing.
45.7 30.5 cm (18 12). Collection of the artist.
Contour Line
Drawings
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Set up a group of
three shoes in an interesting, overlapping
composition. Arrange them at different
angles so you can observe them side-
ways, head-on, from the top, and from the
back. Use a black marker to do a contour
line drawing of all the shoes. Use only
line. Do not color or shade the drawing.
Use line to add details such as laces,
stitches, patches, and holes.
Computer Option. Sit at your com-
puter, turn sideways, and look down. Use
the Line tool to draw your feet, legs, and
free hand.You may start at the feet and
work your way up toward your lap, or
vice versa. Use the mouse just as you
would use a pencil. Be sure to start your
drawing near the edge of your screen so
you will have room for the entire picture.
F
IGURE
4.21 Student work. Notice how
the line flows through this hospital scene. Look
at the difference between the busy zigzag lines
that describe the wrinkles in the sheet and the
few lines that define the person’s face.
Contour Drawing
A contour line defines the edges and
surface ridges of an object. A contour line
also creates a boundary separating one
area from another. Learning how to
contour draw will add to your drawing
skills as well as to your ability to observe
and understand objects. See the exam-
ples in Figure 4.20 and Figure 4.21.
When drawing contours, let your
eyes follow the contour of the object
you are drawing. Move your pencil at
the same speed as your eyes. Do not
lift the pencil from the paper. The line
should be continuous. Draw the line
slowly and with care. Concentrate in
order to draw accurately. See Technique
Tip 1 on page 428 in the Handbook for
help in making contour drawings.
Creating Gesture
Drawings
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Make a series of
gesture drawings. Classmates should take
turns posing for one another. Start with
thirty-second poses. Shorten the time by
five seconds for each pose until the pose is
held for only ten seconds. Have the model
twist, turn, bend, and kick, trying to avoid
doing the same thing twice.
Computer Option. Choose a round,
medium-size Brush or Pencil tool. Sit at
the computer station, turn sideways, and
look at other students who are modeling
for gesture drawing.They will be changing
positions every 20 or 30 seconds.Try to
capture the feeling of motion, not detail.
Change color each time the model
changes positions. Some of your drawings
will overlap.
82 CHAPTER 4 Line
Gesture Drawing
A gesture is an expressive movement.
The purpose of drawing gestures is to
capture the feeling of motion. A gesture
drawing uses very little detail. (See
Figures 4.22 and 4.23).
Lines showing gestures are drawn
quickly. They should be sketched freely
and looselyeven recklesslyin order
to capture movement. (See Technique
Tip 2 on page 428 in the Handbook.)
Unlike contours, they represent the
interior of an object. Your gesture draw-
ings may look like scribbles at first, but
this is acceptable. Concentrate on show-
ing position and movement.
F
IGURE
4.22
Andrews captures
the excitement of
the jazz sounds of
Thelonious Monk
with gesture lines.
Compare and
contrast Andrews’s
use of line in this
work to the lines
in Figure 4.20.
Benny Andrews.
Thelonious at The Five
Spot. 1958. Pen and
ink drawing. 27.3
20.6 (10
3
4
8
1
8
).
Collection of the artist.
F
IGURE
4.23
The artist used
a brush and paint
to create this
gesture oil sketch.
Compare and
contrast the use of
line in this sketch
with Figure 4.22.
Describe the
similarities and
differences
between the two
works of art. Does
this painting have
more detail?
Audrey Flack.
Self-Portrait: The
Memory. 1958.
Oil on canvas. 127
86.4 cm (50 34).
Miami University Art
Museum, Oxford,
Ohio. Gift of the artist.
Calligraphic Drawing
The word calligraphy means beauti-
ful handwriting. Calligraphy is often
associated with Asian writing and art.
In China and Japan, calligraphy is used
to form characters that represent the lan-
guage. However, characters are more
than just a letter of the alphabet. They
are like pictures. They can represent an
idea, an object, or a verbal sound. The
Chinese and Japanese use the same
types of calligraphic lines and brush-
strokes in their paintings (Figure 4.24).
In fact, in the Chinese language, the
words writing and painting are repre-
sented by the same character.
Calligraphic lines are usually made
with brushstrokes that change from
thin to thick in one stroke. To make a
very thin line, use the tip of the brush.
As you press on the brush and more of
it touches the paper, the line becomes
wider. (See Technique Tip 3 on page
428 in the Handbook.)
LESSON 2 The Expressive Qualities of Line 83
F
IGURE
4.24 The long, flowing leaves of the orchid plant in the
left corner of the painting are made with one flowing brushstroke.
Where do you see other objects made with a single brushstroke?
Shitao. Qing Dynasty. c. 1700. Orchids, Bamboo, and Rock. Hanging scroll. Ink on
paper. 72.4 51.1 cm (28
1
2
20
1
8
). Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. Gift of Arthur M. Sackler,S1987.206.
Calligraphic
Lines
Applying Your Skills. Practice making
calligraphic lines with ink or watercolor
paint. Use round, pointed brushes, both
thin and thick. Also, try bamboo brushes.
Next, use a watercolor brush and ink or
watercolor paint to make a series of five
calligraphic studies of one natural object,
such as a leaf or a vegetable.
Computer Option. Research either
Egyptian hieroglyphics or Southwestern
pictographs to gain information about
“picture writing.” Create your own pic-
ture writing by making up symbols. Use
any computer tools and options available.
Remember that the Cut and Paste
options are helpful when you want to
repeat a symbol without redrawing it.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Select and analyze artworks in this
lesson to form a conclusion about
the meanings of vertical and hori-
zontal lines.
2. How are contour drawings and ges-
ture drawings different?
3. What type of artwork is often associ-
ated with calligraphy?
4–1
F
IGURE
4.25
Iris Sandkühler. Viking Net Chain Necklace. 2001. Silver wire, malachite, and glass.
43.2 cm (17) long. Private collection.
Historical and Cultural
Context
Iris Sandkühler is a San Francisco-
based artist. The necklace in Figure 4.25
is an example of Sandkühler’s fine
craftsmanship. Silver wires form an
intricate net around hanging beads of
colored glass and a rich, green mineral
known as malachite.
Sandkühler was born in Bingen, West
Germany, in 1958. Her family immi-
grated to Maine when she was seven
years old. As a young adult, she
attended Ohio State University. After
obtaining a bachelor’s degree in sculp-
ture and glass, she went on to earn a
master’s degree in mixed media drawing
and painting. After graduation, she
honed her jewelry skills at the Jewelry
Arts Institute in New York City. Her
unique jewelry has been exhibited in
Berlin, Tokyo, and in galleries through-
out the United States.
Notice how the loops and lines of
wire in the Viking Net Chain Necklace
create implied lines. These lines lead
the viewer’s eyes across the necklace.
The hanging glass forms also create an
implied line that moves the eye rhyth-
mically across the strand.
What You Will Learn
You will design and create a design for
a practical application—a wearable piece
of wire jewelry such as a pin, pendant,
necklace, ring, hair ornament, bracelet,
or pair of earrings. The wire may be
bent, twisted, looped, and so on. How-
ever, only these “cold connections” are
allowed—no solder or glue. You will be
SUPPLIES
Assortment of wire: steel,copper, brass, and
color-coated wires of various gauges
Needle-nose jewelry pliers and wire cutters
Hammer and anvil block
Sketchbook and pencils
Jewelry findings: ear wires, pin backs, watch cord, etc.
Jewelry files (half-round needle files)
Steel wool and/or emery paper
Brass and copper cleaner (optional)
STUDIO
PROJECT
Wire Jewelry
84 CHAPTER 4 Line
working with line in space. Your design
may be nonobjective or represent an
object, person, place, or thing.
Creating
Practice shaping a length of steel wire
with a pair of pliers. What can you do
with the wire? Try spiraling, coiling
around a pencil, and flattening (forging)
the wire with a hammer on an anvil
block. An anvil is a flat-topped block of
iron. Experiment with techniques for
connecting wire pieces by twisting,
weaving, wrapping, and linking.
After experimenting, sketch a series
of five to ten line drawings of the type
of object you wish to create, using the
skills you were able to master during
your practice session. Take into consid-
eration any findings, or fasteners, that
are necessary.
Make a practice model in
steel wire of your best design. Planning
is the key to success. Solve all the prob-
lems that present themselves before
beginning with the more expensive
wires. For example, a fastener may need
to be fashioned as part of the design for
a necklace or bracelet.
Carefully work with the
pliers on the brass, copper, and color-
coated wires, as these metals are softer
and will scratch and scar more easily
than the steel. All the scratches made
during the construction will need to be
removed with steel wool or emery
paper to complete the project. Good
craftsmanship, the care with which an
object is completed, is an essential part
of the finished project.
Complete the project by
sanding away any stains or scratches,
rounding sharp ends with a file, and
attaching findings such as ear wires, pin
backs, and clasps.
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
4.25A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Wire Jewelry 85
DESCRIBE What wire-forming techniques
(wrapping, weaving, linking, forging, and so
on) did you use in the creation of this object?
If fasteners or jewelry findings were neces-
sary, are they a part of the design? Is your
piece representational or nonobjective? If it
is representational, what object, animal, or
person did you use in your design?
ANALYZE Compare and contrast the differ-
ent kinds of lines you used in your design.
List them. How was working with line in
three dimensions different from making the
drawings in your sketchbook?
INTERPRET What is the function of your
wire jewelry? Interpret your artistic deci-
sions. What idea, feeling, or mood does your
work convey to the viewer?
JUDGE Is your piece of jewelry aesthetically
successful? Which of the three aesthetic the-
ories would you use to judge your work? Is it
a practical piece of jewelry? Is it comfortable
to wear? Is it too heavy? Does any of the
wire scratch skin or snag fabric?
4–2
Historical and Cultural
Context
The wool and cotton tapestry in
Figure 4.26 is by Josep Royo, who was
born in Spain in 1945. The work is based
on—and is a tribute to—a painting by
another Spanish artist and personal
friend, Joan Miró. Miró was influenced
by many different twentieth-century art
styles. One style reflected in this work is
Cubism. Cubism was an approach to art
in which natural forms were broken
down and reorganized to present a
unique perspective. Notice the title of
the tapestry in Figure 4.26. Can you find
the outline of the woman in this abstract
work? How many different shapes has
the artist used in reassembling this fig-
ure? How many colors has he used?
What You Will Learn
You will design and weave a small
tapestry using a cardboard loom. Your
work will be an abstraction of an object
from nature. You will begin by drawing
the contour of one object. You will then
divide the shape into an assortment of
geometric and free-form shapes. You
will create visual movement by using
different colors for the resulting internal
areas.
Creating
Collect and bring to class natural
objects that have interesting lines and
shapes, such as flowers, shells, feathers,
and so on. Focus on the contour of each
object. Choose one to draw.
SUPPLIES
Natural objects: flowers, shells, seedpods, plants,
feathers, and so on
Sheets of 6 8" paper
Pencils and markers or crayons
Cardboard for loom, at least 8 14"
Ruler and scissors
A variety of fibers: yarns,embroidery floss,
textured yarns, metallic thread, raffia, and so on
Tw o 1 8" strips of mat board
Stitchery needle with large eye
STUDIO
PROJECT
Nature Tapestry
86 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.26
Josep Royo. Woman (after
Joan Miró). 1977. Wool
and cotton tapestry. 10.5
6 m (34’ 7” 19’ 10”).
National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Gift of
Collectors Committee and
George L. Erion.
Using direct observation,
make a contour drawing of your object.
Divide the inner space of the object into
geometric or free-form shapes of differ-
ent sizes, as in Figure 4.26A. Make
several such pencil drawings.
Select your best drawing.
Transfer it, using a marker or crayon, to
a sheet of 6 8-inch paper. Choose a
color scheme that will lead the viewer’s
eye around your object. Each shape
should have a single color. You may
repeat a color, but no shape should have
the same color as its neighboring
shapes.
Make your loom. (See Tech-
nique Tips, pages 437–438.) Tape your
completed design on the cardboard
under the warp (vertical) threads, leav-
ing 2
1
/
2 inches at the bottom. Use a strip
of mat board as a header at the bottom
of the loom by weaving a tabby pattern
(see page 438) starting over/under.
Weave a second mat board strip, starting
under/over, above the first one, creating
a straight edge to begin.
Weave
1
/
4 inch of plain tabby
up to the design, using a color that will
match the bottom of the design. Begin
weaving the tapestry. Follow your
design. Keep the outside finished edges
straight by not pulling the weft (hori-
zontal threads) tight. Do not stop or
start new threads on the side edges. As
you change yarns, leave 1
1
/2 inches of
thread. When you are finished, use a
stitchery needle to pull the thread tails
through the weft along a warp thread.
When the tapestry is com-
plete, cut the warp threads and tie every
two warp threads together securely by
using an overhand knot. Pull the knots
together close to the weaving.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
4.26A
Student work.
DESCRIBE Tell what object you chose as
the basis for your tapestry. Explain how
you made your loom and prepared it for
weaving.
ANALYZE Compare and contrast your use
of lines and color. What type of lines did
you use to divide the shapes? What colors
did you choose? Did you vary the values of
colors placed side by side?
INTERPRET Give your tapestry a title that
sums up what you think it expresses. Be
prepared to justify why you have given it
this title.
JUDGE Were you successful in completing
a tapestry that matched your original design?
Which aesthetic theory would you use to
judge your work? Explain.
STUDIO PROJECT Nature Tapestry 87
4–3
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencils
Digital or conventional camera
Scanner (optional)
Computer equipped with advanced paint or
photo-editing software
Printer
Photo quality paper (optional)
Digital Image
Using Line
STUDIO
PROJECT
88 CHAPTER 4 Line
Historical and Cultural
Context
The painting in Figure 4.27 is by
twentieth-century Uruguayan-born
Spanish painter Joaquin Torres-Garcia.
Torres-Garcia spent 40 years living in
the United States and Europe before
returning to Uruguay in 1934. This
painting makes use of a style of art the
artist termed Constructive Universalism. In
it, a grid system is used for arranging
symbols into compositions. Examine the
painting, taking note of the vertical and
horizontal lines. What symbols do you
see? Do you think the lines symbolize
anything? What do the diagonal and
curved lines express?
What You Will Learn
In this lesson, you will create a digital
image that emphasizes the expressive
qualities of a particular line. You will
begin by taking a photograph in which
a single type of line dominates. The line
may be horizontal, vertical, diagonal,
or curved. Using computer painting
tools, you will emphasize the expressive
qualities of this line by altering its color,
value, texture and/or width.
F
IGURE
4.27
Joaquin Torres-Garcia. New York City: Bird’s Eye View. 1920. Gouache and
watercolor on board. 33.6 48.6 cm (13
1
4
19
1
8
). Yale University Art
Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut. Gift of Collection Société Anonyme.
© 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VEGAP, Madrid.
Creating
Review Lesson 2 briefly. Look around
your environment for examples of lines
that express a specific feeling or emo-
tion. You might select the delicate
curves on the petals of a flower or the
graceful ripples on the surface of a
pond. Make sketches of these and simi-
lar observations. Emphasize the line or
lines that dominate.
Take several digital pho-
tographs of settings similar to those
described above. If a digital camera is
not available, use a regular camera.
Scan your images into the computer.
Import your digital images,
and view them. Select the one in which
the lines are most evident and expres-
sive. Note: Be sure to save or convert this
file in a format that will permit it to
open in your computer’s paint or photo-
editing application.
Open the file. Crop any
unnecessary edges or images that will
detract from the expressive nature of
the lines being emphasized.
Use the Line Properties
menu or tool to experiment with chang-
ing the color, value, texture and/or
width of the line or lines. You may also
select filters such as Emboss, as in the
student artwork shown on this page. If a
Preview feature exists in the software,
use it to examine and calibrate the
effect. (Usually, this is done by means of
a slider indicating percentages.) Other-
wise, simply use the Undo command to
eliminate undesirable effects.
When you are satisfied with
the results, print a copy of your work.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Digital Image Using Line 89
DESCRIBE What subject did you choose for
your photograph? What type of camera did
you use to take the photograph?
ANALYZE Compare and contrast your use
of line and emphasis. What type of line is
emphasized in your photograph? What
changes to these lines did you make?
INTERPRET Were the lines in your photo-
graph adequately expressive? What feelings
or emotions do they express? How did you
emphasize them? Give your digital image a
title.
JUDGE Were you successful in creating the
feeling or emotion you wanted to empha-
size? What would you do differently if you
were to redo this assignment? Which of the
three aesthetic theories would be best to
judge your finished image?
F
IGURE
4.27A
Student work.
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
As you have discovered in this chapter, there are many
types and uses of line in art. Examine the student artworks
on these pages to:
Compare and contrast the use of line. How do the lines lead your eyes
into, around, and out of the visual images?
Select and analyze what media were used and how your peers created
lines with these media.
Line
90 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.28
Student work. Untitled. Tapestry weaving made from
fiber and embroidery floss.
F
IGURE
4.29
Student work. Untitled. Watercolor, pen and ink on paper.
Activity 4.29 Line movement. Compare
the watercolor in Figure 4.29 to Figure 4.18
on page 79. Describe the similarities between
the uses of line movement in both works.
Activity 4.28 Implied line. This artist has used implied
line to lead your eyes to the central form in the weaving.
What shape is this form? Identify the implied line.
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Evaluate Personal Artworks. As you add to your
portfolio, include artworks that demonstrate use of
the elements of art. Each entry in your portfolio
should be marked clearly for identification. Make sure
each piece includes your name and the date you com-
pleted the artwork. Any notes about the artistic deci-
sions you made are valuable and should be kept with
your artwork. Make it a point to use the names of the
elements of art as you write about your artwork.
A visual journal can be
used to record your
explorations and obser-
vations. As you study line,
take notes and create
sketches. For example,
you may wish to record
the various kinds of line
you see as you ride in a
car or on the bus.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Line 91
F
IGURE
4.31
Student work. Altered Expressions.
Watercolor, pen and ink on paper.
Activity 4.31 Interpreting line.
The artist has included horizontal
lines of text in this illustration.
Identify other kinds of lines. Then
interpret what idea or feeling the
lines express.
F
IGURE
4.30
Student work. Sweet Kisses. Acrylic on canvas.
Activity 4.30 Line and pattern.
Crisscrossed lines have been used
to create a pattern in this artwork.
Compare and contrast the use of
line and pattern in this work with
another work on these pages.
92 CHAPTER 4 Line
F
IGURE
4.32
Utagawa (Ando¯) Hiroshige. Plum Garden at Kameido (Kameido Umeyashiki) from One Hundred Views of Edo,
View 30. 1857. Woodblock print. 33.9 22.5 cm (13
1
3
8
7
8
). Gift of James A. Michener, 1991.
Honolulu Academy of Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
Read the credit line.
What media have been used to create this work of art?
List everything you see in this work. To organize your
thoughts, start with the objects that are closest to you
and gradually work your way to the background.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with the composition or formal
qualities of the work.This is a clue-collecting step
about the elements of art.
Compare and contrast the different kinds of line
(vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved, and zigzag) in
this work. List at least one location for each line type
you identify.
Do you see any line variations—such as length, width,
and texture—in this work? List at least one location for
each variation you identify.
Form a conclusion about which type of line dominates.
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
Now, you will combine the clues you have collected
and your personal ideas to form a creative interpreta-
tion of the work.
Why are the people so small? Why do you think they
are separated from some of the trees by a fence?
Analyze the meaning of this work. What does this
work say about the relationship between people and
nature?
Write a brief paragraph or a poem that expresses the
message you believe this print communicates.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, it is time to decide whether this is a successful
work of art.
What is your reaction to this work? Did it make you
think?
Do you think it is successful? Why or why not? Use
one or more of the aesthetic theories of art explained
in Chapter 2 to defend your judgment.
Ando¯ Hiroshige was born in
Edo (present-day Tokyo). When
Hiroshige was orphaned at the
age of 13, he inherited his father’s
position in the Edo fire brigade.
For many years, he studied paint-
ing and held the fireman position.
In 1812, he took his teacher’s
name, Utagawa, which was a sign
of graduation.
Hiroshige combined tradi-
tional Japanese techniques with
Western perspective techniques
to create naturalistic landscapes.
His masterful scenes of nature
are inhabited by people in har-
mony with their surroundings.
Hiroshige’s poetic, gentle prints
appealed to everyday people who
easily appreciated his message.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 93
Utagawa Kunisada. Memorial Portrait of
Ando¯ Hiroshige. 1858. Woodblock print.
Ando¯ Hiroshige
1797–1858
Whats My Line?
Whats My Line?
Artist Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003) was famous for his line
drawings and caricatures of famous people. In a TIME
interview, he discussed his career and work habits.
Q. How old were you when you realized you
could draw?
A. I don’t remember doing anything else. I can’t do
anything else. That’s one of my limitations.
Q. Why did you move toward drawing rather
than becoming a painter, for example?
A. I started out as a sculptor,
actually. And I found that it was
impossible to make a living. So I
became a painter and went to Paris.
Q. What turned you away from
painting?
A. Line. I discovered line, and I fell in love
with it. I still find it fascinating how a line can
communicate. It expresses everything that
I want.
Q. How would you describe your work habits?
A. I work seven days a week until around 5:00
P
.
M
.
Q. Does drawing ever feel like work to you?
A. No, it’s a luxury. Work is something you don’t
like to do.
TIME to Connect
Artists capture and express physical characteristics
through drawing. Writers do the same with words.
Choose a personality from the world of music,TV,
sports, or film. Analyze photos of the person.
Draft a descriptive paragraph so that a reader is
able to “see” the person you are writing about.
Edit your writing.Try to improve the wording
and refine your style.
Share your work with the class.Does your
paragraph enable your classmates to
picture the personality?
94 CHAPTER 4 Line
© 2001 Al Hirschfeld. Drawings
reproduced by special arrangement with
Hirschfeld’s exclusive representative,
The Margo Feiden Galleries Ltd., New York.
www.alhirschfeld.com
ABOVE: Elvis Presley
in his blue suede
shoes.
TOP: Al Hirschfeld,
self-portrait at
age 99.
Explore the use of line in
dance as shown in the perfor-
mance of “Danza de la Reata”
by Ballet Folklorico de Mexico in the
Performing Arts Handbook on page 416.
One example of the element of line is the
use of the lariat, or lasso, during the perfor-
mance. Identify other examples.
CHAPTER
4
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. An element of art that is the path of a
moving point through space.
2. The amount of space an object takes up in
one direction.
3. A line that shows or creates the outer
edges of a shape.
4. A series of points that the viewer’s eyes
automatically connect.
5. The element of art that describes the dark-
ness or lightness of an object.
6. The technique of using crossed lines for
shading.
7. A line that defines the edges and surface
ridges of an object.
8. An expressive movement.
9. A term meaning beautiful handwriting.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
10. Give an example of an implied line.
11. How does a two-dimensional object differ
from a three-dimensional object?
12. Compare and contrast the five basic kinds
of lines.
13. Name five major ways in which lines
can vary.
14. What are the four factors that affect the
value of a group of lines?
15. Name the kind of line that conveys insta-
bility, tension, and action.
Most fine artists use
line to create their
artworks. Fine artists
range from sculptors
to painters to installation artists. Visit
art.glencoe.com to compare and contrast
this art career with other career opportunities.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
16. Analyze. Study Figure 4.1 (page 68) Fig-
ure 4.14 (page 75), and Figure 4.19 (page
80). What is the common thread that links
the three works?
17. Compare and Contrast. In what ways
are Figure 4.20 (page 81) and Figure 4.22
(page 82) similar? In what ways are they
different? Consider the element of line and
the subject matter in your comparison.
18. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 80.
Identify themes from Jacob Lawrence’s cul-
tural heritage shown in Figure 4.19.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 4 Review 95
F
IGURE
5.1 Without even
looking at the title, you can
identify this familiar object
because of the shapes used. In
what way is this work “larger
than life”? If you are not sure of
the answer, review the credit line
below. Compare and contrast
this work to another sculpture
by the same artist on page 261.
Can you draw any conclusions
about the theme of his work
from these two pieces?
Claes Oldenburg. Shoestring Potatoes
Spilling from a Bag. 1966. Canvas,
kapok, glue, and acrylic. 274.3
116.8 106.7 cm (108 46 42).
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis,
Minnesota. Gift of T. B. Walker
Foundation, 1966.
96 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Y
ou live in a world filled with objects. Each has a shape;
some have form—or depth—and all inhabit space. As art
elements, shape, form, and space are closely related to one
another. Learning to “read” the meaning of these elements
as well as how to use them effectively in artworks is very
important as an artist.
In this chapter, you will:
Compare and contrast the use of form and space
in artworks.
Create two- and three-dimensional works of art
using direct observation and imagination.
Interpret artistic decisions about using shapes,
forms, and space in personal artworks.
Up through the early
twentieth century, the
media of sculpting were fairly limited. Sculptors could choose from
hard materials (marble, bronze) or softer ones (wood). Then a revolu-
tion in art occurred.“Anything goes” became the battle cry of experi-
mental artists. One such artist is Swedish-born American sculptor
Claes Oldenburg (b.1929). Oldenburg is a member of the Pop Art
school. His art, like that of other Pop Artists, used everyday objects
from American culture as a theme. Like Figure 5.1, however, the
works are so large that the viewer can’t help but notice them.
Compare and Contrast. Look at Figure 2.1 on page 24. This work
shares the theme of contemporary Pop Art. Like Figure 5.1, this work uses
unconventional materials. In what way does it go even further in breaking
the traditional “rules” of three-dimensional art?
CHAPTER
5
Shape, Form,
and Space
97
LESSON
1
Shapes and Forms
A
ll objects are either shapes or forms. Rocks, puddles, flowers, shirts,
houses, chairs, and paintings are all shapes and forms. The words shape
and form are often used interchangeably in everyday language, but in the
language of art, they have very different meanings.
Shape
A shape is a two-dimensional area that is defined in some way. A shape may
have an outline or a boundary around it, or you may recognize it by its area.
For instance, if you draw the outline of a square on a sheet of paper, you
have created a shape. You could also create the same shape without an out-
line by painting the area of the square red.
You see many two-dimensional shapes every day. They are found in most
designs, which in turn can be seen on many flat surfaces. Look for shapes on
such things as floor coverings, fabrics, and wallpapers. Floors and walls are
two-dimensional shapes; so are tabletops, book pages, posters, and billboards.
The images you create with your computer and the images in the handheld
and computer games you play may have the illusion of depth, but they are
also two-dimensional shapes.
Geometric Shapes
All shapes can be classified as either geometric or free-form. Geometric
shapes are precise shapes that can be described using mathematical formulas
(Figure 5.2). The basic geometric shapes are the circle, the square, and the
triangle. All other geometric shapes are either variations or combinations
of these basic shapes. Some of the variations include the oval, rectangle,
parallelogram, trapezoid, pentagon, pentagram, hexagon, and octagon.
Vocabulary
shape
geometric shapes
free-form shapes
forms
98 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
F
IGURE
5.2 Geometric shapes.
Circle Square Triangle Oval Rectangle
Octagon Parallelogram Trapezoid Pentagon
Hexagon
LESSON 1 Shapes and Forms 99
Geometric shapes are used for deco-
ration, uniformity, and organization.
Notice the decorative quality of the geo-
metric shapes in the artwork shown in
Figure 5.3. How many different simple
and complex geometric shapes can you
find in Biggers’ painting?
Road signs are examples of unifor-
mity. The same kind of sign must always
have the same shape. Do you know the
shape of a stop sign? Which shape is
used for “Yield”? Which shape is used
for TV screens? Why do you think ceil-
ing tiles and window panes have geo-
metric shapes?
Free-Form Shapes
Free-form shapes are irregular and
uneven shapes. Their outlines may be
curved, angular, or a combination of
both. They often occur in nature.
Another word that may be used to
describe free-form shapes is organic.
Organic is used when we talk about the
shapes that are silhouettes of living
things such as animals, people, or trees.
Look at the difference between the dec-
orative patterns of geometric shapes in
Figure 5.3 and the free-form, organic
shapes painted on the vases in Figure
5.4. Which looks more organized?
F
IGURE
5.3 Biggers uses the women in this work to represent the
African civilizations of Egypt, Benin, and Dogon. The crowns are symbols
of these civilizations. The cloth on their laps represents the geometry
that has brought order to each culture.
John Biggers. Starry Crown. 1987. Acrylic, mixed media on Masonite. 155
124.5 cm
(61
49). Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas. Museum League Purchase Fund.
F
IGURE
5.4 Notice the free-form, organic qualities
of the dragons and clouds that were painted on this
matching pair of vases. Although the forms of the vases
are perfectly matched, the paintings are not exactly
alike. Look closely to find the differences between the
two dragons.
Chinese, Pair of Vases. 1426–1435. Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).
Porcelain with underglaze blue decoration. 55.2 29.2 cm
(21
3
4
11
1
2
). The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City,
Missouri. Purchase: Nelson Trust, 40-45/1,2.
100 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
F
IGURE
5.5 What kind of relationship do you see between the two-dimensional shapes
and three-dimensional forms?
Geometric and
Free-Form Shapes
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Using the printed
areas of a newspaper, make two cut-paper
designs. Make one design by measuring
and cutting precise geometric shapes.
Make the second design by tearing free-
form shapes. Arrange the shapes and glue
them on a sheet of black construction
paper. Use a white crayon to print the
words free-form and geometric on the
appropriate design.Try to make the let-
ters for geometric look geometric, and the
letters for free-form look free-form.
Computer Option. Use the Shape or
Straight Line tools to draw four different
geometric shapes. Do not overlap the
shapes and space them apart so they can
easily be selected and arranged later.
Choose a color scheme and make each
shape a solid color. Pick the Selection tool
and then the Copy and Paste menu to
repeat each of the shapes several times on
the page. When the page is nearly full,
choose a Brush or Pencil tool to draw
free-form shapes in between the geometric
shapes. Select the Bucket tool to fill these
shapes with pattern.
LESSON 1 Shapes and Forms 101
F
IGURE
5.6 The inspiration for this work came from Smith’s studies of geometric crystalline forms in the early
1960s.The title, a pun on the insect it resembles, is based on the mythical beast of the same name in James Joyce’s
Finnegan’s Wake. This is one of Smith’s most complex sculptures. It took him eight years to see it to completion.The
six separately constructed, geometric steel units were assembled on the museum’s lawn in 1972.
Tony Smith, Gracehopper. 1971. Welded steel and paint. Height: 7 m (23). The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan. Founders
Society Purchase with other funds.
Forms
Although the words shape and form
are often used interchangeably in every-
day language, they have different
meanings in the language of art. Forms
are objects having three dimensions. Like
shapes, they have both length and
width, but forms also have depth. You
are a three-dimensional form; so is a
tree or a table.
Two-dimensional shapes and three-
dimensional forms are related (Figure
5.5). The end of a cylinder is a circle.
One side of a cube is a square. A triangle
can “grow” into a cone or a pyramid.
Like shapes, forms may be either
geometric (Figure 5.6) or free-form (Fig-
ure 5.7 on page 102). Geometric forms
are used in construction, for organiza-
tion, and as parts in machines. Look
around you. What forms were used to
build your school, your church, your
home? Look under the hood of a car.
What forms were used to build the
motor? Did you know that common table
102 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
salt is made of a series of interlocking
cubes? You can see these cubes when
you look at salt through a microscope.
Free-form forms are irregular and
uneven three-dimensional objects such
as stones, puddles, and clouds. Your
own body and the bodies of animals and
plants are free-form forms.
1. List three geometric shapes.
2. What is another word for free-form
shapes?
3. Compare and contrast the use of
form in the artworks in this lesson.
Creating
Forms
Applying Your Skills. Make a flat sheet
of construction paper into a three-dimen-
sional paper sculpture by using cutting
and scoring techniques. (See Technique
Tip 20 on page 435 in the Handbook.)
Give your sculpture a minimum of five
different surfaces. Do not cut the paper
into separate pieces. Use only slots and
tabs if you wish to join any parts. Experi-
ment with scratch paper before you make
your final paper sculpture.
Computer Option. Use the Round
Shape tool to draw a circle or oval on
the screen. Choose the Airbrush to
gently add shading around the edges to
make the shape appear as a solid form.
Draw a free-form shape. Apply shading
with the airbrush to represent a form.
Consider adding a surface for the three-
dimensional forms to sit on and then
apply shadows.
F
IGURE
5.7 An Inuit artist carved this free-form, organic sculpture of a polar bear from memories
of personal experiences observing and hunting polar bears. Compare and contrast the forms of this
sculpture from Inuit culture to the forms of Tony Smith’s minimalist sculpture in Figure 5.6.
Ashevak Adla. Walking Bear. Serpentine stone. 14 34.3 13.3 (5
1
2
13
1
2
5
1
4
). Courtesy of Canadeau Gallery,
Quebec, Canada.
LESSON 2 Space 103
S
pace refers to both outer space and inner space. Rockets move through
outer space to explore other planets. People move through the inner
space of rooms and buildings. Space can be flat and two-dimensional, such
as the space of a window. Space can also be three-dimensional, such as the
space filled with water in a swimming pool.
Space and Its Relationship to Shape
and Form
Shapes and forms exist in space. Space is the element of art that refers to the
emptiness or area between, around, above, below, or within objects. All objects take
up space. You, for example, are a living, breathing form moving through
space.
Shapes and forms are defined by the space around and within them. They
depend on space for their existence. This is why it is important to understand
the relationship of space to shapes and forms.
Positive and Negative Spaces
In both two- and three-dimensional art, the shapes or forms are called the
positive space or the figure. The empty spaces between the shapes or forms are
called negative spaces or ground. Look at Figure 5.8 and read the caption for an
example of figure and ground. In a portrait, the image of the person is the
positive space; the negative space is the area surrounding the person.
Space
LESSON
2
Vocabulary
space
holograms
F
IGURE
5.8 Do you see a
vase or do you see two profiles
of Picasso? Johns has deliberately
organized this lithograph as a visual
puzzle to confuse the viewer. One
minute the faces are very clear and
they seem to be the figure while
the space between the profiles is
the ground. The next moment the
vase between the profiles becomes
the figure and the space around
the vase becomes the ground.
Jasper Johns. Cups 4 Picasso. 1972.
Lithograph. 57.2
82 cm (22
1
2
32
1
4
).
Museum of Modern Art, New York, New
York. Gift of Celeste Bartos. © Jasper
Johns/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
104 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
F
IGURE
5.9 In this sculpture, Brancusi uses the lack of
space between the two figures to symbolize the concept of the
togetherness, the unity, of a couple in love. Compare and
contrast the ways these forms are balanced with the artwork in
Figure 5.6 on page 101.
Constantin Brancusi. The Kiss. c. 1908. Stone. Height 50.2 cm (19
3
4
).
Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France.
© 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
Experimenting
with Space
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Select a group of
objects to draw from direct observation.
Make an arrangement with a variety of
negative spaces between the shapes. Draw
the arrangement lightly with pencil or
chalk. Finish the work by (a) coloring only
the negative spaces with crayons or paint,
or (b) filling the negative spaces with
closely drawn sets of parallel lines. Leave
the positive spaces empty. What shapes
did the negative spaces take?
Computer Option. Use the Rectangle
shape tool to draw a solid rectangle
approximately 3" x 4" in the center of the
screen.Explore the different shapes of
Selection tools to select and move parts of
the rectangle away from the original shape.
Continue selecting and moving until the
rectangle has been broken into many
smaller parts with varying spaces in
between.Save and title your work when
you have created an interesting composi-
tion by adding space within the form.
The shape and size of negative spaces
affect the way you interpret positive
spaces. Large negative spaces around
positive spaces may express loneliness
or freedom. When the positive spaces
are crowded together, you may feel ten-
sion or togetherness (Figure 5.9). The
full meaning of a work depends on the
interaction between the positive and
negative spaces. It is not always easy to
tell which are the positive spaces and
which are the negative spaces in two-
dimensional art. Sometimes it is difficult
to identify the negative space. This is
because some artists give equal empha-
sis to both the figure and the ground.
Sometimes artists even try to confuse
the viewer. They create positive and
negative spaces that reverse themselves
while you are looking at them. These
visual puzzles fascinate some viewers
(Figure 5.10).
F
IGURE
5.10 At first this
print looks normal. Water is
falling to turn a water wheel.
However, follow the water from
the base of the fall. It runs uphill!
Escher has created a visual
puzzle using the mathematics
of perspective.
M. C. Escher. Waterfall. 1961.
Lithograph. © 1998 Cordon Art,
Baarn, Holland. All rights reserved.
LESSON 2 Space 105
Born in Leeuwarden, Holland, M. C. Escher (esh-ur) studied graphic art at
Harlem’s School of Architecture and Ornamental Design. He concentrated on
illustrating his eccentric inner visions and his fascination with the laws of
nature. In his lithographs, he explored a variety of visual jokes and trickery,
such as optical illusions and distorted or impossible perspective.
Escher’s works achieve their visual puzzles through his clever manipulation
of positive and negative space. They skillfully switch forms into places where the
viewer would logically expect space, or what appears to be the outer surface of
an object reverses into an inner space.
Escher also created designs using positive and negative space to transform one
object to another. A flock of birds on the left side of the picture becomes a school
of fish on the right side. Each time a change takes place, the negative space
becomes dominant and transforms into the new object.
MEET THE
ARTIST
M. C.
ESCHER
Dutch, 1898–1972
Portrait of M. C. Escher. © 1998
Cordon Art, Baarn, Holland.
All rights reserved.
106 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Space in Three-
Dimensional Art
Over, under, through, behind, and
around are words that describe three-
dimensional space. Architecture, sculp-
ture, weaving, ceramics, and jewelry are
three-dimensional art forms. They all
take up real space. You can walk
around, look through, look behind,
peer over, and reach into three-
dimensional art.
Architects shape space. They design
structures that enclose a variety of
spaces for people. They create large
spaces for group activities, such as the
one you see in Figure 5.11. They also
create small spaces for privacy. Land-
scape architects and city planners are
also involved in planning spaces for
people to use.
Negative areas in three-dimensional
art are very real. Most three-dimensional
works are meant to be freestanding, which
means they are surrounded by negative
space (Figure 5.12). The viewer must
move through this negative space to see
all of the different views of a three-
dimensional work.
Relief sculpture is not intended to be
freestanding. It projects out from a flat
surface into negative space. You can find
relief sculpture on ceramic pots and
plaster ceilings. When the positive areas
project slightly from the flat surface, the
work is called bas relief, or low relief
(Figure 5.13). When the positive areas
project farther out, the work is called
high relief.
Most jewelry is planned as relief
sculpture to decorate human surfaces.
The inside of a ring or the back of a
pendant is smooth. It is not meant to
be seen; it simply rests on the person’s
surface.
Today many artists are experimenting
and changing traditional art forms.
Printmakers are creating relief prints.
Some printmakers are molding relief
designs in handmade paper. Painters are
adding a third dimension to the painted
surface. Some painters are cutting or
tearing real negative spaces in two-
dimensional surfaces.
Weaving has also gone in new direc-
tions. It started as a practical craft, with
weavers making two-dimensional fab-
rics for clothing, and has evolved into
an art form. Today hand weavers are
F
IGURE
5.11 The interior of this cathedral was designed so that the
stained glass and the vertical columns would pull your eyes upward toward
the heavens.
Reims Cathedral (interior). Reims, France. Begun c. 1225.
FPO
LESSON 2 Space 107
creating relief hangings and three-
dimensional woven sculptures.
Photographers are creating holo-
grams, images in three dimensions created
with a laser beam. Sculptors are making
kinetic, or moving, sculpture.
F
IGURE
5.13 An example of low relief. Since the design was for
the back of a chair, the relief has to be low relief or the chair back
would be too uncomfortable to lean against.
Queen Ankhesenamun and King Tutankhamon. Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty.
Wood overlaid with gold, silver, semiprecious stones, and glass paste.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Egypt. Scala/Art Resource, New York.
F
IGURE
5.12 This
example of folk art from
Peru is a freestanding
sculpture. Look carefully
and you can see forms
peeking out from the back.
To see them you would
have to walk around to
the back of the work.
Artist unknown. Church Quinua,
Ayacucho, Peru. 1958. Painted
earthenware. Girard Foundation
Collection at the Museum of
International Folk Art, a unit of
the Museum of New Mexico,
Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Using Three
Dimensions
Applying Your Skills. Make a freestand-
ing, three-dimensional design that pro-
jects into negative space on all sides.
Using pieces of cardboard tubing and
small boxes, join the design pieces with
glue and tape. Paint the finished work in
one color to emphasize its form.
Set up a spotlight on one side of your
freestanding sculpture. In your sketch-
book draw the contours of the sculpture
and the shape of its shadow. Move the
spotlight to another angle. Draw the
sculpture and its shadow. Notice how the
changing light changes the shadow’s
shape.
Computer Option. Draw a solid cube
or rectangular form so the top, side, and
front are visible. Add shading by filling
each surface with a different value of a
color, texture, or gradient. Remove an
area within the form by using the Eraser
or Selection tool. Explore adding shadows
and lines to accurately depict the inner
space you see.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define positive space and negative space.
2. What words specifically describe
three-dimensional art?
3. Compare and contrast the use of
space in the artworks on this page.
Vocabulary
point of view
LESSON
3
How We Perceive Shape,
Form, and Space
L
ook up from this book to an object across the room to see if you can feel
the movement of your eye muscles. If you didn’t feel anything, try again
until you become aware that your eyes are working to refocus.
You have just taken a trip through visual space. Your brain measured the
amount of space between you and the object and sent a message to your eye
muscles to adjust. The muscles then refocused your eyes so that you could
clearly see the object.
Perceiving Depth
Your eyes and brain work together to enable you to see in three dimensions
height, width, and depth. Each eye sees an object from a slightly different
angle. The brain merges these two separate and slightly different views into
one, creating a three-dimensional image.
To see how this works try the following experiment. Close your right eye.
Point to a specific spot in the room. Without moving your pointing finger, open
your right eye and close your left
eye. It will appear that you have
moved your finger, even though
you know you have not.
Point of View
The shapes and forms you see
depend on your point of view.
Point of view is the angle from
which the viewer sees an object.
Another viewer at another loca-
tion will see the same shape or
form differently. For example, a
person looking down on a circle
drawn on the sidewalk sees a
round shape. If that person lies
on the ground beside the circle
and looks at it, the circle will
appear to have an oblong shape.
A person looking at the front end
of a car will see a form different
from the one seen by a person
looking at the side of that same
car. Figure 5.14 shows three
different views of a sculpture.
108 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Shape and
Point of View
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Look through
magazines for three or more different
views of one type of object. Look for TV
sets, sofas, spoons, toasters, cars, or
shoes. Cut out the objects and mount
each one on a sheet of white paper.
Observe and emphasize the changes in
shape by drawing around each outline
with a crayon or marker.
Computer Option. Divide the page into
three equal sections.Use the Grids and
Rulers menu to guide you if available.
Choose an interesting but simple object
such as a cup, a screw, pliers, a book, or a
paint container. Observe and draw three
views of the same object using the Pencil,
small Brush, Crayon, or Marker tool. After
drawing the contour or outer edges of
the object, add shading to emphasize the
form and surface from different views.
LESSON 3 How We Perceive Shape, Form, and Space 109
Next, look at a rectangular table.
What shape does the top have when
you are sitting at the table? Look at the
top through a rectangular viewing
frame. Are the edges of the table parallel
to the edges of the frame? You know the
top is a rectangle, but does it really look
rectangular now? What shape does the
top seem to take if you are sitting across
the room from it? What would the
shape look like if you viewed it from the
top of a tall ladder? Do you think the
shape you see will change if you lie on
the floor directly under the table?
F
IGURE
5.14 Notice how the
feeling expressed by this sculpture
changes as your point of view
changes. You must view the sculpture
from all angles to truly understand it.
Michael Naranjo. Spirits Soaring. 1985.
Bronze. Height 50.8 cm (20). Private
collection.
Experiments in Point of View
You can learn about point of view by
doing the following experiments. Place
your hand flat on the desk and spread
your fingers apart. The shape and form
you see are the shape and form you
would probably draw. They are part of
the mental image you have of the object
“hand.” Now lift your hand and let your
fingers relax. Notice how the shape and
form of your hand change. Turn your
hand and watch what happens. Your
hand is still the same hand. Only its
shape and form are different.
110 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
When you looked at your hand, your
eyes stayed in the same place, but your
hand moved. When you studied the
table, it remained in one place, but you
moved. In both cases, what you saw
changed because your relationship to
the object changed. Your point of view
depends on where you are and where
the object is. Look at Figure 5.15.
Where is the artist’s point of view in
relation to the people in that picture?
F
IGURE
5.15 Grandma Moses is the professional name of Anna Mary Robertson Moses. She began to paint rural scenes
from her memories in the 1970s. This painting depicts the many different aspects of making maple sugar. What point of view is
she using? What effect does this point of view create for the viewer?
Grandma Moses. Sugaring Off. 1955. 50.8 x 63.5 cm (20 x 25). © 1955 (renewed 1983) Grandma Moses Properties Company, New York, New York.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What three dimensions are we able
to see?
2. Define point of view.
3. Why may people who are looking
at the same object see different
shapes and forms?
LESSON 4 How Artists Create Shapes and Forms in Space 111
S
hapes and forms can be classified as natural or manufactured. Natural
shapes and forms are made by the forces of nature. For instance, animals,
plants, and stones are natural forms. Manufactured forms are those created
by people, whether mass-produced by the thousands in factories or made
by hand.
Artists use many materials and techniques to make shapes. They concen-
trate on both outline and area. Some artists outline shapes in drawings and
paintings. Others may paint shapes by placing brushstrokes together without
using even a beginning outline. Some may cut shapes and print shapes and
some may pour paint to create shapes (Figure 5.16).
Like shapes, three-dimensional forms can be made in many ways. Artists
model clay forms, mold metal forms, and carve forms from wood or stone.
They use glass, plastic, bricks, and cement to create forms as well as shapes.
The Illusion of Form
Artists can create the illusion of three-dimensional form on a surface that
is two-dimensional. They can give the impression of depth and solidity by
using changes in value. Figure 5.17 is an example of this illusion.
How Artists Create Shapes
and Forms in Space
LESSON
4
Vocabulary
chiaroscuro
highlights
perspective
F
IGURE
5.16 Frankenthaler is an action painter
who creates shapes by pouring thinned acrylic paint
onto a canvas that is placed flat on the floor.
Helen Frankenthaler. The Bay. 1963. Acrylic on canvas.
201.1
207 cm (79
3
16
81
1
2
). Detroit Institute of Arts,
Detroit, Michigan. Founders Society Purchase with funds
from Dr. and Mrs. Hilbert H. DeLawter.
F
IGURE
5.17
Artemisia Gentileschi
was a Baroque
artist who used
the arrangement of
contrasting light and
dark to create a
dramatic effect in
her work. Notice
how the light seems
to be coming from
a single candle.
Artemisia Gentileschi.
Judith and Maidservant
with the Head of
Holofernes. c. 1625.
Oil on canvas. 184.2
141.6 cm (72
1
2
55
3
4
). Detroit Institute
of Arts, Detroit,
Michigan. Gift of
Mr. Leslie H. Green.
112 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
The arrangement of light and shadow is
called chiaroscuro (kyah-roh-skoo-
roh). In Italian chiaro means “bright,”
and oscuro means “dark.” Chiaroscuro
was introduced by Italian artists during
the Renaissance. Today, chiaroscuro is
often called modeling or shading.
Look, for instance, at an object with
angular surfaces, such as a cube. You
will see a large jump in value from one
surface of the cube to the next. One sur-
face may be very light in value and the
next very dark. Now look at an object
such as a baseball. The curved surfaces
of spheres and cylinders show gradual
changes in value.
The area of a curved surface that
reflects the most light is, of course, the
lightest in a drawing. Highlights are
small areas of white used to show the very
brightest spots. Starting at the highlights,
the value changes gradually from light
values of gray to dark values of gray. The
darkest values are used to show areas
that receive the least light. An area that
is turned completely away from a light
source is almost black. Look at Figure
5.18 to see the different ways an artist
has created the illusion of form.
F
IGURE
5.18 The artist
has represented shadows and
highlights with photographic
reality. Notice how he has made
the objects seem to look solid.
The seats of the stools look
round. The reflections on the
metal ceiling indicate rounded
form. How does he use light
to create the effect of a cool,
air-conditioned interior against a
hot outdoor scene?
Ralph Goings. Diner With Red Door.
1979. Oil on canvas. 112.4
153.7 cm
(44
1
4
60
1
2
). Courtesy of OK Harris
Works of Art, New York, New York.
Using
Shading
Applying Your Skills. Set up an
arrangement of geometric forms. Use
boxes, books, balls, and cylindrical con-
tainers. Study the way light reflects off the
surfaces of the objects. Draw the
arrangement. Give the shapes in your
drawing the illusion of three dimensions
by using the medium and shading tech-
nique of your choice. Use values that
range from black to white, and employ
many value steps in between.
Computer Option. To perfect your
shading technique, experiment with the
Pencil, Brush, Line, Gradient, and Airbrush
tools. Several programs include a Smudge
or Blending tool, which softens edges.
The Pencil, Line, and small Brush tools
can be used with shading techniques you
use when working with pen and ink.To
explore these options, draw a small
square shape. Select, copy, and paste
seven more copies of the square in a row
across the screen.Then choose from a
variety of tools, textures, and settings to
create different values from light to dark
in the squares.
LESSON 4 How Artists Create Shapes and Forms in Space 113
in a painting or drawing. The surface of
a painting or drawing is sometimes
called the picture plane. The part of the
picture plane that appears nearest to
you is the foreground. The part that
appears farthest away is the background.
The area in between is called the middle
ground.
Perspective is a graphic system that
creates the illusion of depth and volume on a
two-dimensional surface. In the following
pages you will learn techniques artists
use to give their paintings and drawings
perspective.
The Illusion of Depth
In paintings, artists often create the
illusion of depth. When you look at
these paintings, you see objects and
shapes, some of which seem closer to
you than others. You seem to be looking
through a window into a real place
(Figure 5.19). This idea—that a paint-
ing should be like a window to the real
world—has dominated traditional West-
ern art since the early Renaissance.
There are several terms that will help
you as you talk about and create depth
F
IGURE
5.19 Panini excelled at capturing the interiors of famous buildings. Notice how he tries to focus your attention
on the arch at the end of the hall by using converging lines. After reading about perspective on the following pages, try to
find examples of each of the six perspective techniques in this painting.
Giovanni Paolo Panini. Interior of Saint Peter’s Rome. 1746-54. Oil on canvas. 154.3 196.9 cm (60
3
4
77
1
2
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund.
114 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Overlapping. When one object covers
part of a second object, the first seems to
be closer to the viewer, as in Figure 5.20.
Size. Large objects appear to be closer
to the viewer than small objects, as in
Figure 5.21. The farther an object is
from you, the smaller it appears. Cars
far down the road seem to be much
smaller than the ones close to you. If
you stand at the end of a long hallway
and raise your hand, you can block your
view of a whole crowd of people. You
know that each person is about your
size, but at a distance the crowd appears
to be smaller than your hand.
Placement. Objects placed low on the
picture plane seem to be closer to the
viewer than objects placed near eye
level. The most distant shapes are those
that seem to be exactly at eye level
(Figure 5.22).
Detail. Objects with clear, sharp edges
and visible details seem to be close to
you (Figure 5.23). Objects that lack
detail and have hazy outlines seem to be
farther away. Look closely at your own
hand. You can see very tiny lines clearly.
Now look at someone’s hand from
across the room. You have trouble see-
ing the lines between the fingers. All the
details seem to melt together because of
the distance between you and what you
are seeing.
Color. Brightly colored objects seem
closer to you, and objects with dull,
light colors seem to be farther away
(Figure 5.24). This is called atmospheric
perspective. The air around us is not
empty. It is full of moisture and dust
that create a haze. The more air there is
between you and an object, the more
the object seems to fade. Have you ever
noticed that trees close to you seem to
be a much brighter green than trees
farther down the road?
F
IGURE
5.20 Overlapping.
F
IGURE
5.21 Size.
F
IGURE
5.22 Placement.
F
IGURE
5.24 Color.
F
IGURE
5.23 Detail.
Creating
Depth
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Imagination. Create three different
designs on three separate sheets of paper.
Each design should contain five imaginary
shapes. Use the same five shapes in each
design as follows:
Draw all of the items as close to the
foreground as possible.
Draw one item close to the foreground
and make the others look as if they are
slightly farther back.
Draw one item close to the fore-
ground, one far in the background, and
the other three in the middle ground.
LESSON 4 How Artists Create Shapes and Forms in Space 115
ahead of you are actually just as far
apart as they are in your present
position.
Sometimes lines appear to meet at a
point on the horizon line called the van-
ishing point. In two-point linear perspec-
tive, different sets of parallel lines meet
at different vanishing points (Figure
5.26). Because two-point perspective
creates more diagonal lines in a painting,
Converging Lines. Linear perspective is
one way of using lines to show distance
and depth. As parallel lines move away
from you, they seem to move closer
together toward the horizon line (Fig-
ure 5.25). When you look at the high-
way ahead of you, the sides of the road
appear to move closer together. You
don’t worry, though, because you know
this is an illusion. The sides of the road
F
IGURE
5.26 In this drawing the lines come
together and meet at two points. This is two-point
linear perspective.
F
IGURE
5.25 In this drawing the lines gradually
come together and meet at one point in the
distance. This is one-point linear perspective.
Computer Option. Use the Brush or
Pencil tool to draw a landscape that
includes a foreground, middle ground, and
background. Draw several medium size
trees in the middle ground. Draw at least
one large tree in the foreground.This
tree should touch two or three edges of
the paper and overlap the smaller trees.
It should display the most detail. Add
other objects and details that might
include plants, animals, water, and objects
made by hand. Remember the methods
for creating the illusion of depth that
were discussed earlier in the chapter.
116 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
it seems more active. Renaissance artists
used strict mathematical formulas to cal-
culate perspective. Most of today’s artists
rely on visual perception rather than
mathematical formulas. Notice the ways
in which Doris Lee has used perspective
to show depth in her busy kitchen scene
(Figure 5.27).
In this painting about
the preparations for an
old-fashioned Thanksgiving
feast, Doris Lee has used
all six perspective tech-
niques.The lines in the
diagram of the painting
indicate one example of
each technique. Can you
find more examples of the
six techniques in the
painting?
Identifying Perspective Techniques
LOOKING
CLOSELY
1. How are shapes and forms classified?
2. What effect does chiaroscuro create
in artworks?
3. List and describe three techniques
artists use to give their works
perspective.
F
IGURE
5.27
Doris Lee. Thanksgiving. 1935.
Oil on canvas. 71.1
101.6
cm (28
40). The Art
Institute of Chicago, Chicago,
Illinois. Mr. and Mrs. Frank G.
Logan Prize Fund (1935.313).
LESSON 5 What Different Shapes, Forms, and Spaces Express 117
S
hapes, forms, and spaces in art convey certain feelings. This is possible
because you associate them with similar shapes, forms, and spaces in
real life. When you see a certain shape or form in a work of art, you may
think of an object from real life. Any feelings you have about that object
will affect your feelings about the artistic work. Artists use this relationship
between art and the environment to generate these feelings in the viewer.
Outline and Surface
The outline of a shape and the surface of a form carry messages. Artists
often use free-form shapes and forms to symbolize living things. When they
want to please and soothe viewers, they use shapes and forms with smooth,
curved outlines and surfaces (Figure 5.28). Forms that remind us of
well-worn river rocks or curled-up kittens tempt us to touch
them. These forms are comfortable. They appeal to us
through our memories of pleasant touching experiences.
Angular shapes with zigzag outlines and forms with
pointed projections remind us of sharp, jagged things
(Figure 5.29). We remember the pain caused by broken
glass and sharp knives. We would never carelessly grab
a pointed, angular form. If we were to touch it at all,
we would do so very carefully.
What Different Shapes,
Forms, and Spaces Express
LESSON
5
F
IGURE
5.29 This sculpture is based on the skeleton of a prehistoric bird. How many
bird body parts can you identify? How do the sharp points on its teeth, head, and tail make
you feel about this work?
David Smith. The Royal Bird. 1947–48. Steel, bronze, stainless steel. 56.2 151.9 21.6 cm (22
1
8
59
13
16
8
1
2
). Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gift of T. B. Walker. Art © Estate of David Smith/Licensed
by VAGA, New York, NY.
F
IGURE
5.28
The artist who
created this horse
used rounded
forms to make it
appealing to look
at and to touch.
Haniwa Horse. Japan,
Kofun Period,
A
.
D
.
300–550. Earthenware.
66
71.8
22.9 cm
(26
28
1
4
9). The
Minneapolis Institute
of Arts, Minneapolis,
Minnesota. The John
R. Van Derlip Fund
and Gift of anonymous
St. Paul Friends.
Geometric shapes suggest mechanical
perfection. It is impossible to draw a
perfect circle freehand. The special
appeal of geometric shapes and forms
has been felt throughout the ages. Their
lines, contours, and surfaces are clean
and crisp. This appeals to people’s sense
of order.
As used by modern artists, geometric
shapes and forms express less feeling
than other types. They are unemotional;
in fact, they may express a total lack of
feeling. Geometric forms in artworks
appeal to viewers’ minds rather than to
their emotions (Figure 5.30).
Density
The density or mass of an object refers
to how compact it is. Dense materials
are solid and heavy. Granite and lead,
for example, are very dense. They are so
solid and firm that you cannot make a
dent on their surfaces when you press
on them. Dense forms seem unyielding.
They resist impact. For this reason, you
may associate them with the idea of
protection. In two-dimensional art, you
can depict dense objects using shading
techniques and hard-edge contours.
Soft, fluffy forms are less dense. When
you press on them, you can make a
dent. These forms have air inside them,
and they look more comfortable than
denser forms. In two-dimensional art,
you can depict soft forms by using shad-
ing techniques and curved contours.
F
IGURE
5.30 The artist has transformed
a soft, feathered bird form into a dense,
abstract, bronze form that represents the
flowing movement of a bird.
Constantin Brancusi. Bird in Space. 1928. Bronze
(Unique Cast). Height 137.2 cm (54). Museum of
Modern Art, New York, New York. © 2003 Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
118 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
LESSON 5 What Different Shapes, Forms, and Spaces Express 119
Openness
An open shape or form appears invit-
ing. It seems to say, “Come in.” You can
see into or through it. An armchair is an
open form that invites you to sit (Fig-
ure 5.31). An open door invites you to
enter. An empty cup invites you to fill it.
Transparent objects, such as a glass wall,
invite you to look inside. When you
extend your hand to invite someone to
join you, the form of your outstretched
hand is an open form.
Open spaces in sculpture invite your
eyes to wander through the work.
Weavers leave openings in fabrics and
hangings to let you see through them. If
you remove an oak table from a room
and replace it with a glass table, the
room will seem less crowded. Architects
use glass walls to open small spaces.
Windows open up a building and bring
in the outdoors.
Closed shapes and forms look solid
and self-contained. Windowless build-
ings look forbidding. Closed doors keep
people out; closed drapes and shades
keep light out. When you make a tight
fist, your hand is a closed form that
seems to say, “Keep away.” Folding your
arms tightly to your body closes you off
from others. Open arms invite people to
come closer to you. The plumed deity,
or god, in Figure 5.32 is a closed form.
Even its feathers are pulled tightly
against its body.
F
IGURE
5.31 To Wright, form and function
were inseparable, so a chair, which functions for
sitting, should be considered along with the
whole architectural environment.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Armchair for the Ray W. Evans House,
made by Niedechen and Walbridge. c. 1908. Oak.
87
58.4
57.1 cm (34
1
4
23
22
1
2
).
The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. F. M. Fahrenwald, 1970.435.
F
IGURE
5.32 This carving represents Quetzalcoatl (Plumed
Serpent), a highly revered god in Aztec culture. It is tightly
knotted into a closed form. Notice the human head and the
carefully carved quetzal bird feathers.
Aztec, Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Mexico. Sculpture in the form of the deity
Quetzalcoatl. Last half of the fifteenth century. 20.3 12.7 19.7 cm (8
5 7
3
4
). Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Alabama.
120 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Activity and Stability
You have already learned about
active and static lines. Shapes and
forms, also, can look as if they are
about to move or as if they are fixed
in one place.
Active shapes and forms seem to defy
gravity. They slant diagonally, as if they
are falling or running. In Figure 5.33
notice how the back of the wave and all
the horse forms are arranged in diago-
nal, active positions.
Static shapes and forms are motion-
less, or stable. Their direction is usually
horizontal (Figure 5.34). However, if
two diagonal shapes or forms are bal-
anced against each other, a static shape
results. For instance, if an equilateral
triangle rests on a horizontal base, the
two diagonal edges balance each other.
Because static shapes and forms are
firmly fixed in position, they evoke
quiet and calm feelings. For instance, in
landscape paintings the land forms are
horizontal and the trees are vertical.
They look very peaceful. This is proba-
bly why so many landscape paintings
are chosen for people’s homes.
Active and
Static Shapes
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Make a simple design
with geometric shapes. Lightly draw it
with pencil on a sheet of watercolor
paper. Repeat the same design on another
sheet of watercolor paper of the same
size. Next, paint the first design precisely.
Use a pointed brush to make sure that all
of the edges are clearly defined.Wet the
second sheet of paper by sponging it with
water. Using exactly the same colors,
paint the second design while the paper is
wet so that the edges of the shapes run
and look soft. Mount the two designs, side
by side, on a sheet of black paper. Label
the first “hard-edged” and the second
“soft-edged.
F
IGURE
5.33 The diagonal push of
the back of the wave creates an unstable,
active feeling.The wave is caught at the
moment before it will collapse.
Anna Hyatt Huntington. Riders to the Sea.
1912. Bronze. 47
61
53.3 cm
(18
1
2
24
21). The Newark
Museum, Newark, New Jersey.
Gift of the estate of Mrs.
Florence P. Eagleton, 1954.
LESSON 5 What Different Shapes, Forms, and Spaces Express 121
Computer Option. Choose the Shape
and Line tool to make a design that creates
a static feeling.The Line tool on most
applications can be constrained to draw
straight horizontal, vertical, or diagonal
lines by holding down the shift key while
drawing with the mouse.Title and save the
black line static design. Select a color
scheme. Pick the Bucket tool to fill the
spaces with solid colors. Use the Save As
command to retitle the work by adding a
number or letter after the original title.
Open the original line design. Apply the
same color scheme but explore the tools
and menus, which create active flowing
edges. Use the Save As command to retitle
the active composition.
F
IGURE
5.34 The strong horizontal shape of the orange wheat at the base of the work creates a calm, stable effect.
Jane Wilson. Winter Wheat. 1991. Oil on linen. 101.6 127 cm (40
50). Photo courtesy of DC Moore Gallery, New York, New York. Private
Collection.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What do angular shapes suggest?
2. What do geometric shapes suggest?
3. Define density.
4. List one example each of an open
shape or form and a closed shape or
form.
5–1
F
IGURE
5.35
Henry Moore. Dallas Piece. Bronze. Located in
the plaza of the new City Hall, Dallas, Texas.
Historical and Cultural
Context
The twentieth-century British sculp-
tor Henry Moore created works in
stone, bronze, and marble. Most of
these creations were abstractions of the
human figure.
Moore did not design outdoor sculp-
tures for specific sites. The original
bronze casting shown in Figure 5.35
consisted of three separate pieces. The
present grouping was suggested by I. M.
Pei, a Chinese-born American architect,
who was commissioned to build a new
city hall for Dallas. Pei liked this work
but asked Moore to arrange the sculp-
ture so that people could walk through
it. Moore designed the pyramidal
arrangement you see. Notice the careful
balance between solid mass and an
almost airy visual flow. Does your eye
move in and around the smooth planes
of the sculpture without interruption?
What You Will Learn
Using your imagination, you will cre-
ate a nonobjective, free-form sculpture
in clay. You will use the subtractive
method of carving to demonstrate the
effective use of media and tools in sculp-
ture. Your work should have smooth
planes with well-defined edges. The goal
is to create visual flow, as in Figure 5.35.
Decorate some small areas of emphasis
in your work by carving small forms or
creating textures. The completed sculp-
ture must be freestanding and pleasing
from all angles.
SUPPLIES
Cotton cloth
Plastic bag
Clay rolling pin, dowel, heavy spoon
Turntable
Assorted clay tools
Soft cloth
Watercolor
STUDIO
PROJECT
Free-Form
Clay Sculpture
122 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Creating
If you have not worked in clay
before, take time to explore the proper-
ties of the medium. Clay must be
wedged—or thumped on a surface—
before use. Doing this removes any air
bubbles. Keep the clay moist by cover-
ing it with a slightly damp cloth. Seal it
in a plastic bag when not in use.
Wedge seven to eight
pounds of clay.
Beat and shape the clay
with various tools, such as a rolling pin,
a two-inch dowel, or a large heavy
spoon. Keep the form vertical rather
than horizontal so you will have a
standing sculpture.
Place the resulting form on
a turntable. Study it from all directions.
Let the existing form of the clay guide
you. Look for linear edges that flow
through the form. Avoid looking for a
recognizable object.
Begin to carve the form you
visualize, using large wire sculpture
tools. Use smaller clay tools to refine the
planes. Carve contrasting small areas of
emphasis. One possibility to consider is
adding texture with a fork
Hollow the sculpture, leav-
ing an outer shell no more than
3
/4 of
an inch thick. If possible, hollow the
sculpture from the bottom. Otherwise,
carefully cut open the sculpture with a
thin wire and remove the inside clay.
Allow the sculpture to dry at
room temperature until bone dry. Fire
your work in a kiln.
Using a soft cloth, apply
stain by using a watercolor. Begin
applying stain with a very light layer
and end with a darker layer.
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Did you use the media and tools
effectively? Did you use only the subtractive
method of sculpting? Did you hollow out the
center so that your work dried properly?
Describe the process you used to apply the
finish. Is your sculpture vertical and
freestanding?
ANALYZE Did you create smooth planes
with well-defined edges to develop a visual
flow? Compare and contrast your own use of
negative and positive space. Is your finished
work nonobjective? Compare and contrast
the areas of emphasis you carved or textures
you created.
INTERPRET What does your work
express? Interpret your artistic decisions.
Give your sculpture a title that reflects its
form and mood.
JUDGE Do you think this work is success-
ful? Use one or more of the three aesthetic
theories explained in Chapter 2.
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
5.35A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Free-Form Clay Sculpture 123
5–2
F
IGURE
5.36
Rembrandt van Rijn. Aristotle with a Bust of Homer. 1653. 143.5 136.5 cm
(56
1
2
53
3
4
). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York.
Purchase, special contributions and funds given or bequeathed by friends
of the Museum, 1961. (61.198).
Historical and Cultural
Context
Rembrandt van Rijn is one of the
best-known artists of all times and is
considered the greatest Dutch artist of
the 1600s. He completed numerous por-
traits, including more than 100 self-
portraits, in addition to landscapes and
religious art. Rembrandt often used
chiaroscuro for dramatic effect. The
technique creates a high level of con-
trast between the subject and back-
ground. Sometimes, as in Figure 5.36,
it almost appears as though the subject
were illuminated by a spotlight. Notice
how the light emphasizes the connec-
tion between the human figure—the
philosopher Aristotle—and the bust of
Homer, a great storyteller of the ancient
world. Study Aristotle’s face and body
language. What do they tell you about
his feelings toward this great author?
What You Will Learn
You will create a black-and-white
drawing, using direct observation and a
choice of drawing media: charcoal, gray
to black colored pencils, or 4B and 2B
graphite pencils. In your artwork, you
will use chiaroscuro to create a sense of
dramatic contrast and to emphasize
some aspect of the subject.
SUPPLIES
Charcoal,colored pencils (gray tones and black),
or soft (4B) and medium (2B) pencils
Tensor lamp or other strong light source
Camera with black-and-white film
Sketchbook and pencil
White drawing paper
Scrap paper
STUDIO
PROJECT
Contrast Drawing
124 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Creating
Work in pairs in a darkened room,
such as a closet, with a strong light
source. Partners will take turns role-
playing “model” and “artist.” The model
is to pose for a portrait. The artist should
experiment with angling the light
source on the subject to create dramatic
contrast. The artist should take several
black-and-white photographs. The artist
and model should then switch roles.
Select one photo that inter-
ests you most, and in your sketchbook,
create a study for the work. A study is a
preparatory sketch or painting. Your
study can be either a contour or gesture
drawing (see page 428). Make sure that
you indicate areas of light and dark.
Transfer your study onto a
sheet of drawing paper. Do not worry if
you are unable to capture your subject’s
exact likeness. Your chief goal is to
make a dramatic statement through
contrast. Decide which aspect of the
subject you will emphasize through the
use of light and dark.
Apply shading techniques,
using pressure, the edge of your
medium, or both. (For more on shading
effects, see page 429.) Start with the
darkest areas and work toward the
lightest areas. As you complete areas of
the work, cover these with clean scrap
paper to prevent smudging.
As you work, stop periodi-
cally to assess your progress. Check to
see that there is interplay between light
and shadow, as in Figure 5.36.
Use an art gum eraser to
remove any stray marks or smudges.
Mount your finished artwork. Give it
a title that best describes the mood of
the work.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What is the subject of your
drawing? What drawing medium did you
use? What shading techniques did you
employ to create the light and dark areas in
your drawing?
ANALYZE Explain how you have used
chiaroscuro in this particular drawing. Com-
pare and contrast your use of light and dark
values. Are there places where light gradually
blends into darkness? Did you use the princi-
ple of emphasis?
INTERPRET Can the viewer identify the
mood that you have captured without glanc-
ing at the title? Does your work’s title express
the mood you feel the drawing conveys?
JUDGE Do you consider your drawing
successful? Evaluate your artistic decisions.
Which aesthetic theory would you use to
judge your artwork?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
5.36A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Contrast Drawing 125
5–3
F
IGURE
5.37
Antonio Ruiz. The Bicycle Race. 1938. Oil on canvas. 33.3 43.2 cm (13
1
8
17). Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Purchased with the Nebinger Fund.
Historical and Cultural
Context
The painting in Figure 5.37 is by
twentieth-century Mexican artist
Antonio Ruiz. You don’t need to look
at the title of the work to know that it is
a depiction of a bicycle race. What is
unique about Ruiz’s painting is the per-
spective of the event he shows us. We,
the viewers, stand directly in the path
of the leading cyclists as they bear down
on the finish line!
Notice that Ruiz creates the illusion of
deep space by using all six perspective
techniques: overlapping of objects, size,
placement, detail, color, and converging
lines. Note also that, despite the crowds
of people in the painting, Ruiz fills his
composition with space and light by
placing most of the people at the sides of
the road.
What You Will Learn
In this project, you will create a digi-
tal genre scene that creates the illusion
of deep space. A genre scene is an artwork
depicting an event from everyday life—
in this case, from your own. As in Fig-
ure 5.37, you will use as many of the six
perspective techniques as you can.
Using a digital or traditional camera,
you will capture an ordinary, everyday
scene or event. Then you will import or
scan the images into an image-editing or
paint application to experiment with
perspective techniques.
SUPPLIES
Digital camera or scanner
Computer
Image-editing or paint program
Printing paper
Sketchbook and pencil
Graphics drawing tablet (optional)
Digital Genre
Scene
STUDIO
PROJECT
126 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Creating
Think for a moment about everyday
experiences or places that have a special
meaning for you. List them. Make notes
and sketches in your sketchbook. Plan
how you will draw from your experi-
ences to create the visual solutions for
your scene. Will there be one or more
people in your scene? Will you place
yourself in the scene? Apply perspective
techniques to help you create the illusion
of depth. Place larger, more vividly
colored and detailed shapes in the fore-
ground. Overlap some objects. Make the
scene unique. Consider photographing
the genre scene from a unique angle to
take advantage of converging lines.
List every person or object
you will need to stage your scene.
When everything is set up, take several
images of your subject in its space from
different angles.
Download your digital
images or scan your photos into the
computer, and select your best composi-
tion. Get opinions from your classmates
and teacher to help you select your
strongest image.
Save your best image. Be
sure to choose a file format compatible
with the image-editing program you
will use and a resolution to match the
printer’s output.
Using the tools available in
your image-editing program, begin to
paint, layer, distort, change lighting,
and/or add text to your image. Experi-
ment with various tools and controls.
Study the final choice care-
fully, and make changes to your digital
image, if necessary. When satisfied, save
and print your work.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What experience did you draw
from for your genre scene? Do people appear
in the setting? Did you add extra objects?
What were they? What kind of a camera did
you use? How did you download the image
into the computer? What software tools did
you use to modify your digital image?
ANALYZE Did you achieve the illusion
of deep space in your image? Compare and
contrast the perspective techniques you used
to create deep space.
INTERPRET Were you successful in
expressing your feelings about the place or
event? Give the image a title that sums up
the feelings or mood you were trying to
express.
JUDGE Were you successful in staging your
genre scene to achieve the illusion of depth?
Use one or more of the three aesthetic theo-
ries to justify your judgment of this work.
F
IGURE
5.37A
Student work.
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Digital Genre Scene 127
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
The elements of shape, form, and space are closely
related. Each is defined by the others. A square stretched
into a third dimension becomes a cube. A pyramid squashed
flat becomes a triangle. The area around and between these
shapes and forms is space. As you examine the student
works on this page:
Compare and contrast the elements of shape, form, and space.
Analyze the use of these formal qualities in artworks, forming
precise conclusions about their relationships to one another.
Shape, Form,
and Space
128 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
Activity 5.38 Geometric form. What
geometric form is used to create the hat in
this portrait? Identify specific art techniques
that were used to give depth to this and
other forms.
F
IGURE
5.38
Student work. Gordon. Pastel.
F
IGURE
5.39
Student work. Thinking. Charcoal and pencil.
Activity 5.39 Positive and negative
space. Compare the artist’s use of positive
and negative space. Which objects in the
work are figure, and which are ground?
What mood is suggested by the interaction
between the positive and negative space?
To view more student artworks
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Select and Analyze Portfolios. As you begin to build
your portfolio of artworks, it can be useful to evaluate
the work of your peers and others. Work with your
teacher to compile a collection of portfolios. Select and
analyze these portfolios by peers and other artists to
form precise conclusions about formal qualities (the
elements and principles of art), historical and cultural
contexts, intents, and meanings. Store your evaluations
in your portfolio.
Shapes and forms are
everywhere.They make
up the environment. As
you walk or ride through
your community, keep an
eye open for shapes and
forms. Notice the space
around them and how
forms extend into three-
dimensional space. Draw
and label these shapes,
forms, and spaces in your
visual journal.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Shape, Form, and Space 129
Activity 5.40 Identifying shape.
What is the shape of this art object?
Is the shape geometric or free-form?
F
IGURE
5.40
Student work.
130 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
F
IGURE
5.41
Deborah Butterfield. Woodrow. 1988. Bronze. 251.5 266.7 188 cm (99 105 74). Walker Art Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gift of Harriet and Edson W. Spencer, 1988.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
When was this work completed? Who is the artist?
What object is depicted in this sculpture?
What is unusual about the medium listed in the
credit line?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This is a clue-collecting step about the elements
of art.
Is the work two- or three-dimensional? Geometric
or free-form?
Is this form open or closed? Active or static?
Compare and contrast the use of form and space in
this sculpture.
3
INTERPRET What message does this sculpture
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
How do you think it would feel to walk around this
sculpture? Would the horse appear the same from
every viewpoint? Explain.
The artist went to great lengths to imitate wood in
cast bronze. Form a conclusion about her intent.
Why didn’t she simply use wood in the first place?
What feeling about horses does the work communicate
to you? Why?
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Decide if this is a successful work of art.
Do you think the artist constructed Woodrow with
appropriate materials? Why?
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why
or why not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theories
you have learned to defend your decision.
Deborah Butterfield was born
in San Diego. She developed a
love for horses at an early age.
Fittingly, these animals are the
subject of most of her sculptures.
She has sculpted horses in nearly
every medium imaginable. These
range from found materials to
metals to wood. In the 1980s,
her medium of choice became
bronze.The sculpture in Figure
5.41, created during this period,
began as sticks, tree branches, and
bark. Each piece was cast sepa-
rately in bronze and then welded.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 131
Deborah Butterfield
(b. 1949)
Frank Gehry’s unusual buildings have forms
that make people stop in their tracks.
ike all architects, Frank Gehry deals with shape,
form, and space when he designs buildings. But
instead of creating buildings with pure box-like forms,
Gehry’s buildings curve, swoop, and tilt.
Frank Gehry was born in 1929 in Toronto, Canada.
In 1947, he and his family moved to Los Angeles,
where he studied architecture. Gehry liked the
contemporary, nontraditional building styles he saw
there. He was also introduced to the shapes and forms
of sculpture. These sculptural forms influenced his
building design. An office complex he designed
in Prague, Czech Republic, has two towers that
lean into one another. To some people,
the towers seem to be dancing together. Gehry’s
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain,
resembles a spaceship that has landed in an
ancient town (Figure 14.1, page 388).
One of Gehry’s best-known works is the
Experience Music Project in Seattle,
Washington. The lines of this rock-and-roll
museum twist and curve to look like parts of a
giant smashed guitar. The walls are made of
thousands of titanium and stainless steel panels.
Each panel is cut in a different shape. Gehry
used specially designed computer software to help
fit the pieces together. Like most of Gehry’s work,
this building rocks!
L
ABOVE: The Experience Music Project in Seattle,
Washington. BELOW: A Gehry building in Prague,
Czech Republic, features two towers that remind some
people of the dancers Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.
132 CHAPTER 5 Shape, Form, and Space
TIME to Connect
When Frank Gehry was a boy, he made models of
buildings from scraps of wood. Architects make small
models of buildings based on drawings. Models give them
an idea of how the project will look when it is finished.
The models are made to scale. For example, in a model,
an inch may represent 10 feet of the actual building size.
Design a two-story office building. Sketch the
front view.
Draw the front to scale on graph paper. Each box on
the graph paper should represent a certain number
of feet.
DOUGLAS PEEBLES/CORBIS
GETTY IMAGES
Chapter 5 Review 133
Use Performing Arts Hand-
book page 417 to find out
how dancer and choreogra-
pher Bella Lewitsky uses the elements of
shape and form in dance to express her
impressions of Henry Moore’s art.
CHAPTER
5
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. A two-dimensional area that is defined in
some way.
2. Precise shapes that can be described using
mathematical formulas.
3. Irregular and uneven shapes.
4. Objects having three dimensions.
5. The element of art that refers to the empti-
ness or area between, around, above,
below, or within objects.
6. Images in three dimensions created with a
laser beam.
7. The arrangement of light and shadow.
8. Small areas of white used to show the very
brightest spots.
9. A graphic system that creates the illusion
of depth and volume on a two-dimensional
surface.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
10. Name the two basic types of shapes and tell
which is more often used in decoration.
11. What is the difference between shapes and
forms?
12. Name the two kinds of space found in art.
13. Using a portrait as an example, name the
kind of space the subject occupies.
14. Explain how the eyes and brain enable us
to see in three dimensions.
15. Explain how an artist creates the illusion of
three-dimensional form on a two-dimen-
sional surface.
16. Name six devices for creating perspective.
17. Give an example of an active shape and tell
what makes it look active.
Journey to the Dallas
Museum of Art by
clicking on the Web
Museum Tour link at
www.glencoe.com. Analyze how a group of
Texas artists working in a variety of media have
used shape, form, and space in their artworks.
View these rich and diverse artworks, read
about the artists, and then test yourself with
questions prepared by the museum’s curators.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
18. Synthesize. The Kiss (Figure 5.9, page 104)
and Bird in Space (Figure 5.30, page 118)
are two of Brancusi's abstract works. Make
a list of the similarities and differences
between them. Do you think his style has
changed over the years? Explain and
defend the conclusions you reach in a few
paragraphs.
19. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 105.
Compare and contrast Figure 5.10 by
Escher with Figure 1.11 on page 13 by
Romare Bearden. How do both works
share a general theme in relation to the
illusion of depth? How are they different?
Linking to the
Performing Arts
F
IGURE
6.1 Notice the variety of colors used in this painting. Where in your environment
do you find colors like these? Are these calming colors? If not, how would you describe them?
Wassily Kandinsky. Tension in Red. 1926. Oil on board. 66 53.7 cm (26 21
1
8
). The Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York. Gift, Solomon R. Guggenheim, 1938. © 2003 Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
134 CHAPTER 6 Color
Figure 6.1 was painted
by the Russian artist
Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944). Kandinsky was a founder of the
“Der Blaue Reiter” (The Blue Rider) movement. The group followed
the art style known as Expressionism. Its goal was to express raw
emotion, mainly through composition. Kandinsky, an innovator,
created abstract compositions at a time when most artists were
producing lifelike subjects. He also stood out by using bold, brash
colors as a unifying element.
Interpret. Study the bright colors and sharp, angular lines of Figure 6.1.
Read the title. Do you think the title captures the mood of this work? Do
you experience tension and unrest in this work, or do you find it peaceful
and calm?
C
olor is everywhere. We see it in the blue of the sky and
in the yellows, reds, and oranges of the changing
autumn leaves. The expressive qualities of color are so
powerful that they can create instant emotional reactions.
The color green can be soothing; the color red, exciting.
In this chapter, you will:
Identify hue, value, and intensity as the properties
of color.
Compare and contrast the use of color and value
in different artworks.
Demonstrate effective use of color art media in
drawing, painting, and design.
Analyze the use of color in the artworks of others to
express meaning.
CHAPTER
6
Color
135
136 CHAPTER 6 Color
LESSON
1
Hue, Value, and Intensity
C
olor is the most expressive element of art. It shares a powerful connection
with emotion. That relationship is why we hear people say, “I’m feeling
blue,” or, “She was green with envy.” The connection of color to emotion is
also illustrated in a question we often ask friends“What’s your favorite
color?” Almost everyone has a favorite color. It might remind us of a favorite
childhood toy or a piece of clothing that we love to wear. Our appreciation of
color affects many of the choices we make.
In this lesson you will learn what color is and how you see it. You will
learn the properties of color. You will also learn how to mix colors to create
shades you might use in your artwork.
How We See Color
Color is an element of art that is derived from
reflected light. You see color because light
waves are reflected from objects to your eyes
(Figure 6.2). White light from the sun is
actually a combination of all colors.
When light passes through a wedge-shaped
glass, called a prism, the beam of white light is
bent and separated into bands of color, called the
color spectrum.
Vocabulary
color
color spectrum
hue
color wheel
value
tint
shade
intensity
complementary colors

F
IGURE
6.2 Chagall has used many different
tints and shades of blue. He has also used a few
other colors for emphasis. Identify some of the
objects he has emphasized this way. As the light
outside changes throughout the day, how do you
think the artwork changes? What if the day were
stormy or rainy? How do you think the artist
planned for this?
Marc Chagall. The American Windows. 1977. Stained glass.
The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Gift of the
Auxiliary Board of The Art Institute of Chicago in
memory of Richard J. Daley, 1977. 938. © 2003 Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
LESSON 1 Hue, Value, and Intensity 137
The colors of the spectrum always
appear in the same order: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, and violet.
A rainbow is a natural example of a
spectrum. Rainbows occur when sun-
light is bent by water, oil, or a glass
prism. You can find rainbows in the sky
after a storm, in the spray from a gar-
den hose, or in a puddle of oil.
We see color because objects absorb
some of these light waves and reflect
others. A red apple looks red because it
reflects red waves and absorbs the rest
of the colors. Special color receptors
in your eyes detect the color of the
reflected light waves. Another type of
receptor detects the lightness or dark-
ness of the color. Colors don’t change.
F
IGURE
6.3 What color do you see
when you shift your gaze from the red to
the white area? Your eyes can fool you
about color.
Your ability to distinguish between
them does. That is why your eyes have
trouble seeing colors in dim light. Not
enough light is reflected off of objects
for you to see their color.
When you are looking at colors, your
eyes can sometimes fool you. For
instance, stare at the bright red shape
in Figure 6.3 for 30 seconds; then
quickly shift your gaze to the white
area below it. Did you see a green
shape on the white surface? This is
called an afterimage. It occurs because
the receptors in your eyes retain the
visual stimulation even after it has
ceased. Your brain creates the afterim-
age as a reaction to the color you stared
at originally.
138 CHAPTER 6 Color
Primary Primary Secondary+=
Red Yellow Orange+=
Blue Yellow Green+=
Red Blue Violet+=
F
IGURE
6.4 Primary and secondary hues.
F
IGURE
6.5 The color wheel.
The afterimage of a color is the oppo-
site of that color. Green is the opposite
of red. So the afterimage of green is the
color red. The afterimage of black is
white, and the afterimage of blue is
orange. An afterimage isn’t a strong
colorit is only the ghost of a color.
Some artists make use of the way your
eyes work when they create optical illu-
sions of color and movement.
Three properties of color work together
to make the colors we see. These proper-
ties are hue, value, and intensity.
Hue
Hue is the name of a color in the color
spectrum, such as red, blue, or yellow.
Red, yellow, and blue are the primary
hues. You cannot make primary hues by
mixing other hues together. However,
by combining the three primary colors
and black and white, you can produce
every other color.
The secondary hues are made by mix-
ing two primary colors (Figure 6.4).
Red and yellow make orange; red and
blue make violet; and blue and yellow
make green. Orange, violet, and green
are the secondary hues.
The six intermediate colors are made
by mixing a primary color with its sec-
ondary color. For example, red and
orange make red-orange, red and violet
make red-violet, blue and violet make
blue-violet, and so on. You can make
many additional variations by combin-
ing the intermediate colors.
A color wheel is the spectrum bent into
a circle. It is a useful tool for organizing
colors. The color wheel in Figure 6.5 is
a twelve-color wheel showing the three
primary, three secondary, and six inter-
mediate hues.
LESSON 1 Hue, Value, and Intensity 139
Other Color Systems
The three primary hues—red, yellow,
and blue—are specifically the primary
hues of pigment found in paints, pastels,
or colored pencils. There are different
color systems that apply to the colors
seen on computer screens and those
printed in magazines and photographs.
The primary colors of light, as on a
computer screen, are red, green, and
blue, commonly referred to as RGB.
Because these colors are created by
adding light, the pigment color system
does not apply.
Another color system is used by
printers—the CMYK color system.
CMYK is short for the four primary
colors of this system—cyan (also called
process blue), magenta, yellow, and
black. If you have worked with com-
puter graphics software, you have prob-
ably seen references to CMYK color.
Value
Value is the art element that describes
the darkness or lightness of a color. The
amount of light a color reflects deter-
mines its color value. Not all hues of the
spectrum have the same value. Yellow is
the lightest hue because it reflects the
most light. Violet is the darkest hue
because it reflects the least light.
Black, white, and gray are neutral
colors (Figure 6.6). When white light
shines on a white object, the object
reflects all of the color waves and does
not absorb any. As a result, you see the
color of all the light, which is white.
F
IGURE
6.6 Neutral colors:
black, gray, and white.
140 CHAPTER 6 Color
F
IGURE
6.8 Everything except Margot’s eyes
and hair are painted with tints of color. Even the
shadow in the upper left corner of the picture has
been softened with gray. The white highlights
shimmer and create the effect of a sunny day.
Mary Cassatt. Margot in Blue. 1902. Pastel. 61 50 cm
(24 19
5
8). The Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Maryland.
Tints Shades
F
IGURE
6.7 Color value scales.
A black object absorbs all of the color
waves. Black reflects no light; black is
the absence of light. Gray is impure
whiteit reflects an equal part of each
color wave. The more light that gray
reflects, the lighter it looks; the more it
absorbs, the darker it looks.
You can change the value of any hue
by adding black or white (Figure 6.7). A
light value of a hue is called a tint, and a
dark value of a hue is called a shade. The
term shade is often used incorrectly to
refer to both tints and shades. A tint is
created by adding white; a shade is cre-
ated by adding black.
When artists want to show a bright,
sunny day, they use tints (Figure 6.8).
Paintings having many tints are referred
to as high-key paintings. Cassatt’s Margot
in Blue is an example of a high-key
painting. Low-key paintings have shades,
T
INTS
S
HADES
LESSON 1 Hue, Value, and Intensity 141
F
IGURE
6.9 The dark
values in this work enhance
its ominous mood. Every
hue in this work has been
darkened with the addition
of black except one. Which
hue has not been changed?
Why?
Rufino Tamayo. Girl Attacked by a
Strange Bird. 1947. Oil on canvas.
177.8 127.3 cm (70 50
1
8
).
Museum of Modern Art,
New York, New York. Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Charles Zadok.
or dark values, which are used when the
artist wants to represent dark, gloomy
days, nighttime, and dusk. Dark values
can add a feeling of mystery to a work.
They can also be used to create a sense
of foreboding or danger (Figure 6.9).
If the change in value is gradual, the
design produces a calm feeling. If the
values take large leaps up and down the
scale, from almost white to almost
black, the artwork has an active, even
nervous, effect.
142 CHAPTER 6 Color
Intensity
Intensity is the brightness or dullness
of a hue (Figure 6.10). If a surface
reflects only yellow light waves, for
example, you see an intensely bright
yellow. If a surface reflects other light
waves, the color will appear duller. A
pure or bright hue is called a high-
intensity color. Dull hues are called low-
intensity colors.
Complementary colors are the col-
ors opposite each other on the color wheel.
The complement, or opposite, of a hue
absorbs all of the light waves that the
hue reflects (Figure 6.11). Red and
green are complements. Green absorbs
red waves and reflects blue and yellow
waves. (Blue and yellow waves combine
to appear green.) Red absorbs blue and
yellow waves and reflects red waves.
Mixing a hue with its complement
dulls the hue, or lowers its intensity.
The more complement you add to a
hue, the duller the hue looks. Eventu-
ally, the hue will lose its own color qual-
ity and appear a neutral gray.
The hue used in the greatest amount
in a mixture becomes dominant. For
this reason, a mixture might look dull
F
IGURE
6.10 Intensity scale. This scale shows how the intensity of one hue changes as you add
its complement to it. The first box is pure, high-intensity green. Each time you add more red, the green
becomes duller. Eventually the even mix of green and red creates an interesting, low-intensity gray.
Creating
Values
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media and Tools in Painting. Select a
hue. Draw a row of three equal shapes. If
you are using an opaque paint, such as
tempera, add only a small amount of the
hue to white with a brush or palette
knife. Fill the first shape with the light
value. Paint the second shape with the
pure hue. Add a small amount of black to
the hue to create a dark value, and paint
this in the third shape.
If you are using a transparent water-
color paint, make a light value by thinning
the paint with water to let more white
paper show through. Make a hue darker
by adding a small amount of black. Fill the
three shapes as in the above directions.
Computer Option. Look at the color
palette of your software program.
Choose only the tints and shades of one
hue to create a computer drawing of a
simple cityscape or underwater scene.
Colors do not have to be used realisti-
cally.Your software program will deter-
mine the number of tints and shades that
you can use. If your software has the
capabilities, mix your own tints and
shades for use in this assignment.
LESSON 1 Hue, Value, and Intensity 143
orange or dull blue, depending on the
amount of color used. Orange and blue
mixtures usually yield brownish results.
Hue, value, and intensity do not
operate independently. They rely on
one another to create all of the colors
that you see around you. When you
observe colors, you will see dull tints
and bright tints, dull shades and bright
shades, light hues and dark hues.
Knowing the three properties of color
helps you to understand and use color.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What are the three properties of color?
2. Define color wheel. What does a color
wheel show?
3. Describe the difference between tint
and shade.
4. Compare and contrast the use of
value in Figure 6.8 on page 140 and
Figure 6.9 on page 141.
Working with
Intensity
Applying Your Skills. Contrary to what
you may have thought, tree trunks are not
really brown.They reflect a variety of
light and dark low-intensity grays. Draw
seven or more bare trees on a large
sheet of white paper. Use real trees as
models, if possible; if not, find pho-
tographs. Combine varying amounts of
one primary color and its complement as
well as white and black to create a num-
ber of different, low-intensity light- and
dark-valued colors.Then use these colors
to paint each tree a different color.
Computer Option. Design a simple
motif using only two solid colors. Use
Copy and Paste options to make five
copies of the motif. Fill each motif with
one primary color or intermediate color
and its complement. If your software has
the capabilities, mix the two comple-
ments together to create a dull or low-
intensity version of each. Label each set
of complements and mixture sets.
F
IGURE
6.11 Sets of complements. The left
column are sets of primary and secondary
complements. The right column are sets of
intermediate complements.
LESSON
2
Color Schemes
C
olors are like musical instruments. Each instrument has its own spe-
cial sound. When you hear an instrument in an orchestra, the sound
you hear is affected by the sounds of the other instruments. When the
musicians tune up before a performance, you hear confusing, even
unpleasant, noises. When they play together in an organized way, they
can make beautiful sounds. In the same way, putting colors together with-
out a plan can be confusing and unpleasant to your eyes. Color without
organization can look like a visual argument. A plan for organizing colors
is called a color scheme.
When two colors come into direct contact, their differences are more obvi-
ous. A yellow-green surrounded by a green looks even more yellow. A yellow-
green surrounded by yellow, however, appears greener. Grayish-green will
seem brighter when it is placed against a gray background. This effect is called
simultaneous contrast (Figure 6.12).
A color scheme is a plan for organizing colors according to their relation-
ship on the color wheel. By following a color scheme, you can avoid putting
together colors in a confusing or unpleasant way. The following are some of
the most frequently used color schemes.
Vocabulary
monochromatic
analogous colors
144 CHAPTER 6 Color
F
IGURE
6.12
Your perception of
any color is affected
by the colors that
surround it. This effect
is called simultaneous
contrast.
LESSON 2 Color Schemes 145
F
IGURE
6.13 The artist has captured the sad mood of these
people by using a monochromatic blue color scheme. He has kept it
interesting by using the full range of tints and shades from white to
black. Where are the whitest areas? Where are the blackest areas?
Look at the title. Does the painting evoke this feeling?
Pablo Picasso. The Tragedy. 1903. Oil on wood. 105 69 cm (41
1
2
27
1
8
).
National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. © 1998 Board of Trustees. Chester Dale
Collection. © 2003 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
6.14 Analogous colors are related.
Monochromatic Colors
Monochrome means one color. A mono-
chromatic color scheme is a color scheme
that uses only one hue and the tints and shades
of that hue. Because this is such a limited
scheme, it has a strong, unifying effect on
a design (Figure 6.13). It is very easy to
organize furniture or clothing using
monochromatic colors. The drawback to a
monochromatic color scheme is that it
can be boring.
Analogous Colors
Analogous colors are colors that sit
side by side on the color wheel and have a
common hue (Figure 6.14). Violet, red-
violet, red, red-orange, and orange all
have red in common. A narrow color
scheme would be limited to only three
hues, such as violet, red-violet, and red.
An analogous color scheme creates a
design that ties one shape to the next
through a common color (see Figure
13.34 on page 380).
Complementary
Colors
The strongest contrast of a hue is pro-
duced by complementary colors. When
a pair of high-intensity complements
are placed side by side, they seem to
vibrate. It is difficult to focus on the
edge where the complements touch.
Some artists use this visual vibration to
create special effects. They make designs
that sparkle, snap, and sizzle as if
charged with electricity (Figure 6.15).
Complementary color schemes are
exciting. They are loud, and they
demand to be noticed. They are fre-
quently used to catch the viewer’s atten-
tion. How many ways do people use the
red-and-green color scheme? Where else
have you seen complementary color
schemes used to grab attention?
Not all color schemes based on com-
plements are loud and demanding. If
the hues are of low intensity, the con-
trast is not so harsh. Changing the val-
ues of the hues will also soften the effect
of the design.
Color Triads
A color triad is composed of three col-
ors spaced an equal distance apart on
the color wheel. The contrast between
triad colors is not as strong as that
between complements. The primary
triad is composed of red, yellow, and
blue. The secondary triad contains
orange, green, and violet (Figure 6.16).
A high-intensity primary triad is very
difficult to work with. The contrast
between the three hues is so strong that
they might make people uncomfortable.
A triad can be made more comfortable
to the viewer by changing the intensity
or values (Figure 6.17). A triad of sec-
ondary colors is less disturbing.
F
IGURE
6.16 Color triads.
F
IGURE
6.15 Which set of complementary colors dominates this
painting? Where is the contrast the strongest? Which area has the
dullest contrast? Explain how the artist has done this?
Piet Mondrian. Sun, Church in Zeeland. 1910. Oil on canvas. 90.5 62.1 2.9 cm
(35
3
8
24
1
2
1
1
8
). Tate Gallery, London, England. © Tate Gallery, London/Art
Resource, NY. ARS, NY.
146 CHAPTER 6 Color
LESSON 2 Color Schemes 147
Split Complements
A split complement is the combination
of one hue plus the hues on each side of
its complement (Figure 6.18). This is
easier to work with than a straight com-
plementary scheme because it offers
F
IGURE
6.17 Even though this painting is based
on the primary triad, it is very comfortable to view.
How has the artist organized the colors to make
this painting easy to look at?
Fritz Glarner. Relational Painting, Tondo #40. 1955–56. Oil on
Masonite. Diameter: 111.8 cm (44). Walker Art Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gift of the T. B. Walker
Foundation, 1956.
F
IGURE
6.18 Split complement.
more variety. For example, start with
red-orange. Check the color wheel to
find its complement, blue-green. The two
hues next to blue-green are blue and
green. Red-orange, blue, and green form
a split-complementary color scheme.
148 CHAPTER 6 Color
Warm and Cool
Colors
Sometimes the colors are divided into
two groups, called warm and cool (Fig-
ure 6.19). Warm colors are red, orange,
and yellow. They are usually associated
with warm things, such as sunshine or
fire (Figure 6.20). Cool colors are blue,
green, and violet. They are usually asso-
ciated with cool things, such as ice,
snow, water, or grass (Figure 6.21).
Warm colors seem to move toward the
viewer and cool colors seem to recede,
or move away.
Warm
Cool
F
IGURE
6.19 Warm and cool colors.
F
IGURE
6.20 Albizu is a Puerto Rican artist. Many of her paintings were
commissioned by jazz musician Stan Getz to be used as covers for his record
albums. Can you see how the small areas of black jump out from the warm
colors to visually suggest music with a Latin jazz beat?
Olga Albizu. Growth. c. 1960. Oil on canvas. 127 107 cm (50 42
1
8
). Lowe Art Museum,
University of Miami, Miami, Florida. Gift of Esso Inter-American, Inc.
LESSON 2 Color Schemes 149
F
IGURE
6.21 The title for this work can be translated as “sad
fact” or “sad figure” or even “metaphor for sadness.” Examine the
work to find a figure sitting in the center with legs and torso bent.
The figure is surrounded by intersecting blue, black, and white
shapes. Does the color scheme enhance the mood the artist
intended to convey? Explain.
Francis Picabia. Figure Triste. 1912. Oil on canvas. 118.1 119.4 cm (46
1
2
47). Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of the Seymour H.
Knox Foundation, Inc., 1968. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS) New
York/ADAGP, Paris.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Describe a monochromatic color
scheme.
2. What types of colors, when placed
side by side, seem to vibrate?
3. Compare and contrast the color
schemes in Figures 6.20 and 6.21.
Using Color
Schemes
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. In your sketchbook,
draw several squares. Arrange your ini-
tials or the letters of your name in a
design in one of the squares.The letters
must touch the four edges of the square.
Do several different designs using the
remaining squares. Play with the letters
turn them upside down, twist them out of
shape, make them fat, or overlap them.
Consider the letters as shapes.They do
not have to be readable.
When you find a design you like, repro-
duce it on four squares of white paper.
Now paint each design using one of the
following color schemes: monochromatic,
analogous, complementary, triad, split-
complementary, warm, or cool. How do
the color arrangements affect the design?
Computer Option. Create a design
with the initials or letters of your name.
The letters must touch the four edges of
the screen. Experiment with the
lettersmake them different sizes and
turn them upside down or twist them
out of shape.They do not have to be
readable.
When you find a design you like, save
it. Use various tools to fill in all the
shapes, lines, and spaces with each of the
following color schemes: monochromatic,
analogous, complementary, triad, split-
complementary, warm, and cool.
When you finish all the color schemes,
evaluate their effect on the basic design.
The amount of warmth or coolness is
relative. Violet on a red background
appears much cooler than violet alone.
However, the same violet on a blue
background seems much warmer than
the violet alone.
LESSON
3
Understanding the Nature
and Uses of Color
A
rtists use color to create special effects in art. Not only do they use
color to depict objects the way they actually look, but artists also use
color to express ideas and emotions (Figure 6.22). By experimenting with
color, you will learn what it can do, and you will learn how to use it so that
you achieve the results you want. Understanding the nature and uses of
color allows you to express yourself artistically.
Paint
All paints used in art are made up of three basic ingredients: pigment,
binder, and solvent. Artists’ pigments are finely ground, colored powders that
form paint when mixed with a binder. Pigment colors cannot match the purity
and intensity of the colors of light. The binder is a material that holds together
the grains of pigment in a form that can be spread over some surface. Linseed
oil is the binder for oil paints. Wax is used for encaustic paint, gum arabic for
watercolor paints, and acrylic polymer for acrylic paints. A chemical emul-
sion is used to make school tempera paint. Many professional artists use a
traditional method of mixing pure pigments with egg yolk for a translucent
tempera paint. These binders each give different qualities to the paint.
The solvent is the liquid that controls the thickness or the thinness of the paint.
Turpentine is the solvent for oil paints. Water is the solvent for watercolors
and tempera. Water or acrylic medium is the solvent for wet acrylic paints,
but once acrylic paint dries, it is waterproof.
Paint pigments do not dissolvethey remain suspended in the binder.
When applied, the pigments stay on top of the surface and dry there. Pigments
that dissolve in liquid are called dyes. Dyes do not remain on the surface as
paints do. Dyes sink into and color the surface by staining it.
Visual Effects of Paint
The pigment, the binder, the solvent, and the surface to which the paint is
applied all affect the color you see. Wet colors look brighter and darker than
dry ones. Tempera and watercolor paints look duller and lighter after they
dry. Oil paints glow even when dry because of their oil binder. If diluted with
turpentine, oil paints dry to a dull finish.
The color and density of the surface receiving the paint affects the way the
light waves will be reflected back to your eyes. If you apply red paint to a col-
ored surface and to a white surface, your eyes will perceive the red paint dif-
ferently on each surface. The colored surface absorbs some light waves,
whereas the white surface reflects all light waves.
Have you ever tried to match colors that are on two different surfaces? A
brown leather bag can never truly match a fuzzy brown sweater. Dense sur-
faces always look brighter because they reflect more light.
Vocabulary
pigments
binder
solvent
dyes
150 CHAPTER 6 Color
LESSON 3 Understanding the Nature and Uses of Color 151
F
IGURE
6.22 Murray has
used a complementary color
scheme for her artwork. Although
this kind of color scheme can
sometimes be loud and demanding,
the artist has reduced the intensity
of the colors. How has she done
this? Why do you think she has
chosen this color scheme?
Elizabeth Murray. Things to Come. 1988.
Oil on canvas. 292.1 287 68.6 cm
(115 113 27). Paula Cooper
Gallery, New York, New York. Private
Collection, San Francisco, California.
Elizabeth Murray was born in Chicago in 1940. From an early age, she showed
an interest in art, which her parents encouraged. In elementary school she sold
drawings of elephants, cowboys, and stagecoaches to her classmates for 25 cents
apiece. This early success kept her interest in art alive.
A high school teacher recognized her talent and created a scholarship for her
at the Art Institute of Chicago. Murray took classes in figure drawing, landscape
painting, and traditional techniques. She walked through the exhibit halls of the
Art Institute museum. Surrounded by masterpieces, she was inspired to become
a painter.
In the 1960s, she was told that painting was dead. Everything that could be
done had been done. Murray refused to listen and kept painting. Through her
perseverance, she developed a style that combines painting with sculpture.
Murray is now considered a master of the shaped canvas.
MEET THE
ARTIST
ELIZABETH
MURRAY
American (b.1940)
152 CHAPTER 6 Color
Sources of Pigment
In the past, pigments came from ani-
mals, vegetables, and minerals. A kind
of beetle and the root of a certain plant
were both sources for red pigment.
Another plant produced a deep, trans-
parent blue. Ultramarine blue was made
by grinding a semiprecious stone. The
color ocher was created by using natural
clay colored by iron rust.
Today, synthetic (artificially made)
pigments have been developed by scien-
tists. The synthetics are brighter and
more permanent than natural pigments,
but some artists still prefer to use nat-
ural colors (Figure 6.23). Many
weavers color their yarns with natural
dyes. Some contemporary painters use
only natural earth pigments.
F
IGURE
6.23
Aboriginal bark paint-
ings enjoy a long cul-
tural tradition in
Australia. Like this
one, they are typically
created by applying
natural pigments to
eucalyptus bark.
Yäma Mununggiritj.
Yellow Ochre Quarry.
1961. Natural pigments
on eucalyptus bark. 69.9
30.5 cm (27
1
2
12). The Kluge-Ruhe
Aboriginal Art Collection
of the University of
Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia.
Mixing
Colors
Applying Your Skills. Collect and grind
three of your own earth pigments (see
Technique Tip 11 on page 432 in the
Handbook). Mix them with a binder and
solvent and experiment with them.Try
using a variety of brushes and surfaces.
Finally, paint a design that shows all the
colors you can obtain from the pigments.
Computer Option. Mixing colors with
light on a computer is very different from
mixing colors with pigment. If your com-
puter software has the capabilities, prac-
tice making secondary and intermediate
colors. Also mix tints, shades, and inten-
sity changes. Fill a variety of geometric
shapes with all the new colors you have
made, and show off your work by filling
your screen with repeated shapes.
The Expressive Effects
of Color
Artists use color in the language of
art. They use color to express thoughts,
ideas, and emotions. There are many
ways to use color to convey feelings,
and realistic representation is only one
of them.
Optical Color
Sometimes artists reproduce colors as
they see them. Until the late nineteenth
century, this was the way most Western
artists painted. Artists would try to cap-
ture color as it actually appeared. As we
saw earlier in the chapter, colors can
change depending on their surround-
ings. For example, in an automobile
dealer’s showroom, the color of a blue
car is affected by the light, the color of
the floor and the walls, and even the
colors of the other cars. The car may
sparkle as it reflects the showroom
LESSON 3 Understanding the Nature and Uses of Color 153
The Impressionists were deeply
involved with optical color and its rela-
tionship to light. They tried to express the
sensation of light and atmosphere with
their unique style of painting. They
applied dots and dabs of colors from the
spectrum. They did not mix black with
any colors. They made gray, low-intensity
colors by putting complements together
instead of mixing just black and white.
These low-intensity grays, such as dull
blue and dull green, are much richer and
look more natural in landscapes than do
grays made by mixing black and white.
lights. Shadows on the car may look
dark blue or blue-violet. The red from
the car next to it may cause a red-violet
reflection on the blue surface.
A painter who is trying to show the
car in its setting will use all the colors
involved. He or she will make use of
optical color, the color that results when a
true color is affected by unusual lighting
or its surroundings. Optical color is the
color that people actually perceive.
Compare the two paintings by Claude
Monet in Figures 6.24 and 6.25 to see
how the time of day affects color.
F
IGURE
6.24 Monet was one of the first artists
to paint outdoors. He realized that the colors of a
scene changed as the sunlight changed; so he carried
several canvasses to record the same scene at different
times of the day.
Claude Monet. Rouen Cathedral, West Façade. 1894. Oil on canvas.
100 66 cm (39
3
8
25
15
16
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Chester Dale Collection.
F
IGURE
6.25 This is Monet’s same view of the
Rouen Cathedral façade painted in a different light
than Figure 6.24. Compare and contrast this painting
to Figure 6.24. Explain how the changes in color affect
the mood of each work.
Claude Monet. Rouen Cathedral, West Façade, Sunlight. 1894. Oil on
canvas. 100 66 cm (39
3
8
25
15
16
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Chester Dale Collection.
154 CHAPTER 6 Color
Colors affect feelings. Light, bright
colors can create happy, upbeat moods.
Cool, dark colors can express mysterious
or depressing themes. Warm, low-inten-
sity earth tones seem comfortable and
friendly. They are often used to decorate
rooms in which people gather. A
unique, light value of red-orange has
been used to soothe people and has
even been successful in calming violent
prisoners. Blue is also known for its
soothing qualities. Bright yellow is stim-
ulating and pure red excites.
Arbitrary Color
When artists use color to express feel-
ings, they usually ignore the optical col-
ors of objects. They choose the colors
arbitrarily, that is, by personal prefer-
ence. They choose arbitrary colors
rather than optical colors because they
want to use color to express meaning
(Figure 6.26). In abstract art, color is
teamed with the other elements to
become the subject as well as the mean-
ing of the work (see Figure 6.1 on page
134 and Figure 6.28 on page 156).
F
IGURE
6.26 Marc developed a personal theory of color symbolism. He believed that different
hues symbolized different meanings. Yellow was a gentle, cheerful color, and for him, it symbolized
women. He thought blue represented the spiritual and intellectual man. He said that red represented
matter, and in this work, it symbolized the earth. Green served to complement the red.
Franz Marc. Yellow Cow. 1911. Oil on canvas. 140.7 189.2 cm (55
3
8
74
1
2
). The Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York, New York.
LESSON 3 Understanding the Nature and Uses of Color 155
Movement
Color can create a sense of move-
ment. When the values in a work jump
quickly from very high key to very low
key, a feeling of excitement and move-
ment is created (Figure 6.28, page 156).
When all the values are close together,
the work seems much calmer. Today’s
artists use color to create movement and
depth in abstract art.
When you work with color to create
movement, remember to use values of
pure hues as well as those of tints and
shades. You will need to remember, for
instance, that the pure hue yellow is
much lighter than red or blue.
Artists today have put their knowledge
of color psychology to work to develop
unusual methods for using color. Many
of their choices are personalthey make
color say what they wish to express.
Space
The placement of warm and cool col-
ors can create illusions of depth. Warm
colors advance toward the viewer, and
cool colors seem to recede and pull away.
The French artist Paul Cézanne painted a
cool, blue outline around the shape of a
warm, round orange. The fruit seemed to
be pushed forward by the surrounding
blue background (Figure 6.27).
F
IGURE
6.27 Look at the different objects on the table. Identify the number of colors used for
each object. Notice how the artist has used dark blue lines to outline the fruit and make each piece
stand out. Does this use of color make the objects seem real?
Paul Cézanne. The Basket of Apples. c. 1895. Oil on canvas. 65.5 81.3 cm (25
3
4
32). The Art Institute of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection. (1926.252).
156 CHAPTER 6 Color
This is one of Stuart Davis’s
first abstract works that cele-
brates his love for New York
City. Davis has used strong
jumps in value (from bright
white, pale blue, and yellow to
red, black, and orange) to make
your eyes jump around the
work. He wants you to feel the
excitement and movement of
the city.This diagram indicates
some of the value jumps.
Where can you find others?
Jumps in Color Value
Create Visual Movement
LOOKING
CLOSELY
F
IGURE
6.28
Stuart Davis. Hot Still Scape for Six Colors–7th
Avenue Style, 1940. 1940. Oil on canvas. 91.4
113.9 cm (36 44
7
8
). Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston, Massachusetts. Gift of the William H.
Lane Foundation and the M. and M. Karolik
Collection, by exchange, 1983.120. © Estate of
Stuart Davis/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
LESSON 3 Understanding the Nature and Uses of Color 157
Tonality
Sometimes an artist lets one color,
such as blue, dominate a work. In such
a case, the work is said to have a blue
tonality (Figure 6.29). To have a certain
tonality, the painting does not have to
be monochrome. Other colors may be
present. The overall effect of the work,
however, will be of one color. Tonality
has a unifying effect.
F
IGURE
6.29 The
blue tonality of this
work conveys the cool
impression of the water.
The jellyfish are spots of
contrast in the blue
water. Although blue is
the dominant color in
this painting, other hues
are used. What are they?
Childe Hassam. Jelly Fish.
1912. Oil on canvas. 35.8
43.8 cm (14
1
8
17
1
4
).
Wichita Art Museum,
Wichita, Kansas. The John
W. and Mildred L. Graves
Collection.
Using Color
for Effect
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Drawing. Create four small
sketches of trees with leaves. Use a
simple color medium such as crayon.
Color each sketch to illustrate one of the
following: true color, arbitrary color,
tonality, optical color, depth through the
use of warm and cool colors, or move-
ment through value.
Computer Option. Using the tools of
your choice, draw and label six sketches
of trees or leaves. Let each sketch illus-
trate one of the following: true color,
optical color, color that expresses per-
sonal feelings, depth through the use of
warm and cool colors, movement
through value, or tonality.
Evaluate the results of your work.
Develop your favorite sketch into a
finished drawing.
Check Your
Understanding
1. All paints are made up of what three
basic ingredients?
2. What is the difference between paint
pigments and dyes?
3. Select and analyze two artworks
from this lesson. What is the mean-
ing of the color choices?
6–1
F
IGURE
6.30
Armenian. Front cover of The Gospels. Thirteenth century (binding fourteenth
century). Carved and hammered silver, gilded, and enameled, and set with
jewels. 26 x 18.7 cm (10
1
4
7
3
8
). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York, New York. Gift of Mrs. Edward S. Harkness, 1916 (16.99).
Historical and Cultural
Context
The object in Figure 6.30 is a book
cover dating to the Middle Ages. It was
carved and hammered from silver and
then covered in gold leaf and studded
with jewels. Notice the use of relief,
positive areas extending from a nega-
tive, or flat surface. Observe how each
grape along the border appears to jut
out in space.
What You Will Learn
Today, the art of making books by
hand has been revived. You will partici-
pate in this revival by making a star
book with front and back covers. When
opened, the pages will form a three-
dimensional object. Aluminum foil will
be used to simulate hammered and
carved silver. Your book’s cover will
have both raised and etched areas. You
will add radial balance using plant
shapes, as in Figure 6.30.
Creating
Gather real plants and images of plant
forms from print or online resources.
Illustrate your ideas by directly observ-
ing these samples.
Make line drawings of
plants in your sketchbook. Using a ruler,
divide a second page of your sketchbook
into 1-inch squares. In these squares,
make small drawings of plant parts—
leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and so on.
Step 1
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil, ruler
2 sheets of 3 3" mat board
White glue
Heavy-duty aluminum foil
Four sheets of 6 6" watercolor paper
Watercolors and brushes
Permanent nontoxic black marker
Nontoxic rubber cement
Tw o black ribbons
1
4 8"
STUDIO
PROJECT
Color Spectrum
Star Book
158 CHAPTER 6 Color
Transfer your drawing of an
entire plant to the center of the sheet of
mat board. Using white glue as your
“drawing” medium, redraw the lines of
your plant. Let glue dry.
Lay a sheet of heavy-duty
aluminum foil over the surface. Gently
press the foil around the glue lines so
that the lines appear raised. Smooth the
foil down around the lines. Fold and
glue any excess foil over the edges, tak-
ing care not to tear the foil.
Place one of your plant-part
drawings in the upper left corner. Using
the drawing as a template, trace over
the lines with your pencil to leave an
impression in the foil.
Repeat this step for each
corner. Complete your cover by adding
four more copies of your template, one
along the center of each edge.
Create the pages. Use water-
colors to create washes of color on the
four sheets of watercolor paper. Follow
this sequence: (for page 1) yellow-
green, yellow, yellow-orange; (for page
2) orange, red-orange, red; (for page 3)
red-violet, violet, blue-violet; (for page
4) blue, blue-green, green.
With pencil, transfer a
plant-part drawing onto each of the four
pages. Trace over the lines with black
marker. Add color with watercolors.
Fold and open each page top
to bottom, side to side, diagonal to the
left, and diagonal to the right. Notice
that there is a front side and back side to
the resulting three-dimensional object.
Adorn each side with plant drawings
and paint.
With rubber cement, glue
the pages and covers together, and
attach ribbons.
Step 9
Step 8
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
6.30AB
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Color Spectrum Star Book 159
DESCRIBE Did you make two sketches, one
of a complete plant, one of a plant part?
Where does your whole plant appear on your
finished cover? Where does the plant part
appear? How many times does it appear?
ANALYZE Does your cover have both raised
and etched areas? Compare and contrast the
use of color and the use of balance on the
inside pages. What kind of balance is exhib-
ited by the design of your finished cover?
INTERPRET Does your book appear to be
covered in silver? Does it suggest the ancient
style of the book in Figure 6.30? What type
of content would you expect to find inside a
book with a color such as yours?
JUDGE Would you judge your book cover to
be a success? Why or why not? If you were
able to redo your cover, what would you do
differently next time? Evaluate your artistic
decisions.
6–2
F
IGURE
6.31
Kuna (Panama). Mola: Our Environment. 1995. Layered and cut fabric with
stitchery. 106.7 167.6 cm (42 66). Georgia Southern University,
Statesboro, Georgia.
Historical and Cultural
Context
The colorful work in Figure 6.31,
called a mola, was made by the Kuna
people of Panama. Among the Kuna,
the tradition of making molas is passed
down through generations of the same
family. The works are made by sewing
together layers of colored fabric and
adding decorative needlework to the top
layer. Molas are made for the fronts and
backs of blouses. Many of the designs
are similar to those found on pre-
Columbian pottery. (Pre-Columbian art
predates the arrival on this continent of
Christopher Columbus in 1492.) Take a
moment to study Figure 6.31. Note the
array of bright colors used for highly
stylized figures and objects of nature.
What mood does this work communi-
cate to you?
What You Will Learn
You will create a painting that illus-
trates the mood of an event or experi-
ence in your life. You will create visual
solutions by elaborating on your experi-
ence. The event or experience can be
happy (for example, a memorable
birthday) or sad (a time when your
team lost a big game). As in Figure 6.31,
your colors will be either bright and
with high intensity to represent happy
times or dull and low intensity for sad
times. Figures and objects in your
painting should be stylized. In other
words, they should be easily identifiable
but simple, almost childlike.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencils
Watercolors and assorted brushes
Scrap paper
Tap e
Heavy drawing paper
Drawing board
Chalk
STUDIO
PROJECT
Mood Painting
160 CHAPTER 6 Color
Creating
Brainstorm happy or sad moments
in your life. Think about objects you
associate with these events. List these
on a page in your sketchbook. Sketch
several ideas. Then begin thinking about
colors that express the mood of this
event. Choose your best idea.
Using watercolors and
sheets of scrap paper, practice mixing
complementary colors to create low-
intensity and high-intensity colors
(see pages 144–149.) Think about
which colors best fit the objects you
have chosen and the mood you are
attempting to communicate.
Tape a piece of heavy draw-
ing paper to a stiff drawing board. Using
chalk, transfer the sketch of your best
idea onto the painted surface. Make
sure to include the contour lines of
objects and figures. Add in details that
will be outlined as well (like the fish
scales in Figure 6.31).
Begin painting. Use the
colors you have chosen to express the
mood of your artwork. Switch to a
finer brush, as necessary, to complete
fine details of your work. Allow your
painting to dry thoroughly before dis-
playing it.
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Did you illustrate your ideas
based on an experience or event? Identify the
experience and all the objects and figures in
your picture.
ANALYZE Did you choose bright colors
or dull colors? Are your figures and objects
stylized?
INTERPRET What mood were you trying
to express through your painting? Give your
work a title that sums up your feelings about
the event.
JUDGE Were viewers able to recognize the
mood of your work? Could they pick out
individual details? If you were to redo your
painting, what, if anything, would you do
differently?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
6.31A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Mood Painting 161
STUDIO
PROJECT
6–3
F
IGURE
6.32
William H. Johnson. Harbor Under the Midnight Sun. 1937. Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C./Art Resource,
NY.
Historical and Cultural
Context
Imagine taking a common scene—
perhaps the one outside your bedroom
window—and stripping it down to the
bare essentials. What would you end up
with? This is precisely the question
asked and answered by early twentieth-
century artist William H. Johnson in
Figure 6.32. If you study the work for a
moment, you notice a craggy mountain
rising up to a deep, azure sky swirling
with clouds. At the bottom of the pic-
ture is an expanse of water dotted with
boats—a harbor.
When Johnson painted this work, his
primary influence was the French Post-
Impressionist Paul Cézanne. Like
Cézanne, Johnson has reduced the
objects in his work to flat planes of
color. If in some places the colors appear
a little too intense, note the title John-
son gave to this work. Could it be that
the midnight sun casts a different type
of light than the daytime sun?
What You Will Learn
You will create a digital landscape
painting. Begin by selecting a view of an
existing landscape; then capture the
view with a camera. After your photo-
graph has been imported into a paint
program, you will divide the landscape
into four geometric areas. By applying a
different color filter or lighting effect to
each area, the final image will depict the
passage of time.
SUPPLIES
Digital camera (optional) and/or photograph
or magazine picture
Computer
Scanner
Sketchbook and pencil
Image-editing or paint program
Photo quality paper
Printer
Digital Color
Collage
162 CHAPTER 6 Color
NEW ART
Figure 6.32
Johnson
Creating
Choose a familiar setting that looks
interesting. Notice the way changes in
sunlight or the different seasons affect
the setting. Make sketches in your
sketchbook.
Use a digital camera to
capture a picture of the chosen land-
scape. If you are using a magazine
image or a photograph as a picture
source, scan the image into the com-
puter. Use a format compatible with
your image-editing or paint program.
Save the image.
Open your image-editing
application. Go to the File menu, choose
Open, and select a new document. Set
up and save a document measuring
8 10 inches at a resolution of 72 dpi.
Your orientation could be vertical or
horizontal, depending on your image.
Open your saved image
in a separate file. Use the Freeform
Selection tool to select about one fourth
of the image. Copy and paste this sec-
tion of the landscape into the corre-
sponding area of your new document.
Repeat this procedure for each of the
remaining three quadrants of your land-
scape. Paste each selection into a new
layer. Save the new document.
Experiment with stretching,
rotating, and overlapping the layers.
Working with a layer at a
time, experiment with enhancing
and changing aspects of color, such as
contrast/brightness, hue/saturation, and
color balance. Try using one or more of
the filters in your program to add tex-
ture and special effects. Concentrate on
changes that will convey the mood and
look of different seasons or times of day.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
6.32A
Student work.
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Digital Color Collage 163
DESCRIBE What was the original source
of the landscape in your work? Which tools
did you use to alter the image? Explain how
you used each tool and on what area of the
painting.
ANALYZE Compare and contrast how you
used colors to convey a sense of passing time.
Identify how changes in mood, season, or
time are shown in each part of the picture.
INTERPRET What mood or feeling does
your work communicate? What would be a
fitting title for your work?
JUDGE Which aesthetic theory does your
landscape reflect? How would you improve
or change your art?
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
Colors, as you have seen, can be warm or cool, dull or
bright. These and other properties of color open up a world
of possibilities for the artist. As you examine the student
artworks on these pages:
Compare and contrast the hues, values, and intensities
of the colors used.
Analyze them to form precise conclusions about the
color scheme used.
Color
Activity 6.33 Color intensity.
Compare and contrast the intensity
of the two main colors used in this
painting. Form a conclusion about
which orange and which blue is
most intense.
Activity 6.34 Hue. Analyze the
hues this student artist has chosen.
Which are optical colors, and
which are arbitrary colors? Form
a conclusion about the meaning of
the work.
164 CHAPTER 6 Color
F
IGURE
6.33
Student work. Spiders. Acrylic.
F
IGURE
6.34
Student work. Winds of
Change. Computer graphic.
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Evaluate Personal Artworks. As you add to your
portfolio, be sure to evaluate the artistic decisions you
made in your works in terms of their use of color. In
the second step of your evaluation (the analyze step),
indicate the color scheme (monochromatic, comple-
mentary, and so on) and its role in unifying the work.
Also, note the effective use of color properties, such as
value and intensity, in your composition. Keep the eval-
uation with the work itself.
Survey the artworks
on these pages or art-
works in your classroom.
Then select and analyze
two of these peer art-
works to form conclu-
sions about historical and
cultural contexts, intents,
and meanings. If you are
analyzing portraits, what
can the clothing and/or
hairstyles reveal about
the historical context?
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Color 165
Activity 6.36 Color scheme.
Evaluate and identify the color
scheme used in this portrait.
Explain how it is used to draw
the viewer’s eye to the subject.
Activity 6.35 Color triads.
The primary color triad—yellow,
red, and blue—is used to color the
shirt of the female figure in the
background. Do you find this
effective or distracting? Evaluate
the use of this color triad.
F
IGURE
6.35
Student work. Evening at the
Rendezvous. Acrylic.
F
IGURE
6.36
Student work. Number 7. Water-
color and colored pencil.
F
IGURE
6.37
Miriam Schapiro. Father and Daughter. 1997. Acrylic and fabric on canvas. 182.9 175.3 cm (72 69).
Collection of Aaron and Marion Borenstein, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
166 CHAPTER 6 Color
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
Describe the figures in this painting. Include details
about their body language and clothing.
What is the relationship of the figures?
Describe the background.
Which parts are painted, and which appear to be
fabric?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This is a clue-collecting step about the elements
of art.
What hues do you see? Name and locate examples
of each.
Compare and contrast the use of tints, shades, and
neutral colors.
What expressive effects of color has the artist used in
this work?
3
INTERPRET What message or feeling does this
artwork communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
Describe the relationship you sense between the
father and daughter.
How does color affect the mood of this work?
What do you think the background represents?
After your analysis, sum up what you believe the
artist intended.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Decide if this is a successful work of art.
Did the artist use the element of color to convey her
message well?
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not? Choose an aesthetic theory to defend your
judgment.
Miriam Schapiro is an Ameri-
can artist who was born in
To r onto, Canada. She grew up in
the Flatbush section of Brooklyn,
New York. Her parents encour-
aged her interest in art. Her work
connects her with women artists
and craftspeople of the past. Like
them, she draws her art media—
including fabrics—from the world
of women. She has even coined
the word femmage to describe
her unique art style. Schapiro
combines collage with tradition-
ally “female” art materials.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 167
Miriam Schapiro
(b. 1923)
TIME to Connect
Leonardo da Vinci wrote about the impor-
tance of observing color. He recognized that
changing light plays an important role in how
people perceive color. Test this yourself.
Observe and then sketch the colors of an object under fluorescent and
incandescent light.Then observe and sketch the colors of the object in
natural light at different times of the day.
Organize your sketches in a chart. In what ways did the colors change?
What conclusions can you draw?
Share your observations and conclusions with the class. Think about
how light may affect the choice of colors an artist makes.
The visual arts may have been influenced
by the paints and pigments available.
hilip Ball, an art historian and author of Bright
Earth, claims that what artists paint isn’t only
influenced by their color sense and artistic tastes. It
also has to do with the colors and paints available to
them. Experts say that the ancient Greeks created
somber paintings because they had only four colors:
black, white, red, and yellow.
During the Middle Ages, artists had more colors
to use. Natural pigments were discovered including
malachite (green), azurite (blue), orpiment (yellow),
and realgar (orange).
Then oil colors were discovered. This type of paint
was made by binding pigments with linseed, poppy,
and nut oils. With oil paints, masters such as
fifteenth-century artist Jan van Eyck (Figure 9.8,
page 231) could produce intense, layered colors.
In the 1700s, more colors appeared, thanks to
the discovery of chemicals such as cadmium
(orange and yellow), chrome (yellows
and green), and cobalt (blues).
The discovery of new colors will
continue to influence painting. With
computers, artists today can use about
17 million colors. From Realism to
Abstract Expressionism, new colors
have steered artists in new directions.
168 CHAPTER 6 Color
P
NATIONAL GALLERY; BY KIND PERMISSION OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON/CORBIS
TATE GALLERY, LONDON
TOP: The mix of verdigris with resins
sometimes reacted badly to light,
turning foliage black, as in Pollaiuolo’s
Daphne and Apollo.
ABOVE: Modern artists boldly use pure
pigments. Anish Kapoor let the colors of
a 1981 sculpture spill onto the floor.
Chapter 6 Review 169
Read how Joanna Feather-
stone paints a picture with
words as a professional story-
teller in the Performing Arts Handbook on
page 418. Like a painter, Joanna uses tonality,
contrast, intensity, and movement to tap into
the emotions that each color evokes.
CHAPTER
6
REVIEW
Understanding the
properties of color
and how to use color
effectively is a job
requirement of many careers in art. Interior
designers and graphic designers, for example,
create and work with color schemes on a daily
basis. Go to
art.glencoe.com to compare
and contrast the job descriptions and require-
ments of these and many other art careers.
ART
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. An element of art that is derived from
reflected light.
2. Produced when light passes through a
wedge-shaped glass, called a prism, and is
bent and separated into bands of color.
3. The name of a color in the color spectrum.
4. A light value of a hue.
5. A dark value of a hue.
6. The brightness or dullness of a hue.
7. The colors opposite each other on the
color wheel.
8. A color scheme that uses only one hue
and the tints and shades of that hue.
9. Colors that sit side by side on the color
wheel and have a common hue.
10. Finely ground, colored powders that form
paint when mixed with a binder.
11. A material that holds together the grains
of pigment.
12. The liquid that controls the thickness or
thinness of the paint.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
13. Explain how the eye sees color.
14. What is an afterimage? How is it produced?
15. Name the three components of color.
16. What is color value?
17. Name the different kinds of color schemes.
18. What are complementary colors? How do
complementary colors affect each other?
19. What are synthetic pigments? How do they
differ from natural pigments?
20. What is arbitrary color?
Thinking Critically About Art
21. Synthesize. Figure 6.20 on page 148 and
Figure 6.21 on page 149 use very different
color schemes. List the similarities and dif-
ferences in their style and use of color.
22. Interpret. Look at Figure 6.9 on page 141.
The artist has used a color scheme of dark
values to create a specific mood. Study the
lines and shapes in this work. How do they
affect the feeling of the painting? Notice the
areas of bright, intense color. How does this
add drama? Does the title add to the mood?
23. Compare and Contrast. Examine Figures
6.15 on page 146, 6.22 on page 151, and
6.32 on page 162 to discuss the similarities
and differences in the ways color is used to
achieve a sense of balance.
170 CHAPTER 7 Texture
F
IGURE
7.1 Notice the work’s title. A playscape can be created with any playground equipment such as
ladders and parallel bars. Why do you think this artist called this sculpture a playscape? Describe the way the
surface of this sculpture appears to the touch.
Jesús Bautista Moroles. Granite Weaving Playscape. 1995. Fredericksburg granite. 45.7 45.7 17.8 cm (18 18 7).
The Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California.
American sculptor
Jesús Bautista Moroles
(b. 1950) draws inspiration from the past. His sculpture in Figure 7.1
was inspired by the art of the ancient Mayan civilization. Peaking
around
A
.
D
. 800, this civilization occupied much of present-day Central
America.The Mayans created towering structures from local stone
(Figure 12.27, page 340). All were characterized by their deliberately
rough-hewn textures and repeating geometric forms. These character-
istics are also found in Moroles’s sculptures. He has worked with many
stone materials but prefers to use granite because it is such a challenge
to work with and because of the textures he can create.
Describe. Examine Figure 7.1, the Olmec sculpture in Figure 12.26 on
page 339, and the Buddha sculpture in Figure 12.14 on page 329. Describe
general characteristics of these artworks from a variety of cultures.
E
verything you touch has its own special feel, or texture.
Polished glass feels slick; a bumpy road, rough. As an
element of art, texture may be real, as in Figure 7.1, or it
may be “suggested.” The photo of Figure 7.1, for example,
is smooth to the touch.
In this chapter, you will:
Explain how texture is perceived through the senses.
Compare and contrast different textures in personal
artworks and in those of others.
Create two- and three-dimensional artworks that
explore texture.
Analyze the use of texture in the artworks of others to
express meaning.
CHAPTER
7
Te xture
171
LESSON
1
Te xture in Your Life
T
exture is the element of art that refers to how things feel, or look as if they might
feel, if touched. Textures play a role in decisions you make every day. Think
about how fabric textures have influenced your clothing choices. Would you
wear a shirt made of rough burlap against your bare skin? Probably not.
Clothing manufacturers consider this when they decide what fabrics to use
and how to make their clothes.
Think about the textures of food. Imagine the smoothness of ice cream,
and consider how different it is from the angular roughness of tortilla chips.
Would grilled steak taste the same if it were ground up in a blender? Textures
are important to us in a variety of ways.
How You Perceive Texture
You perceive texture with two of your senses: touch
and vision. Infants learn about their environment by
touching objects and by putting them into their mouths.
Toddlers are attracted to all objects that are within their
reach. When you look at surfaces, you are able to guess
their textures because you have learned how textures
feel. Your eyes tell you what something would feel like if
you were to touch it (Figure 7.2).
Vocabulary
texture
tactile texture
visual texture
matte surface
172 CHAPTER 7 Texture
 
F
IGURE
7.2 What textures are
represented in these photographs?
LESSON 1 Texture in Your Life 173
There are two kinds of visual texture:
simulated and invented. Simulated tex-
tures imitate real textures. Plastic table-
tops can be made to look like wood.
Vinyl flooring can be made to look like
ceramic tile or stone. Manufactured fab-
rics imitate natural leather and fur.
Artists can do the same. For example,
painter Peggy Flora Zalucha simulates
textures in her paintings so accurately
that you think you might be looking at a
photograph (Figure 7.3).
When you actually touch something
to determine its texture, you experience
tactile texture, the texture you feel.
When you look at a photograph of a
texture, such as velvet, leather, con-
crete, or ice, you see surface patterns of
light and dark that bring back memories
of how those objects actually feel.
When this happens, you are experienc-
ing visual texture, the illusion of a three-
dimensional surface. If you touch visual
textures, you do not feel what your
eyes told you to expect.
F
IGURE
7.3 At first you might think you are looking at a photograph because the artist has simulated
the textures of objects so realistically. This is actually a still-life painting of items associated with taking a
road trip. The details of the map are so clear that if you recognized the area of the country, you could read
the map. Zalucha has used white highlights to represent the brilliant reflections of light off the shiny surfaces
of the glasses and keys. She has used more subtle changes of value to represent the textures found in
nonreflective surfaces, such as the wrinkles on the map.
Peggy Flora Zalucha. Map Still Life with Carnations, Keys, and Glasses. 1989. Mixed watermedia. 76.2 111.8 cm
(30 44"). Private Collection.
174 CHAPTER 7 Texture
Invented textures appear as two-
dimensional patterns created by the rep-
etition of lines or shapes. These patterns
do not represent real surface qualities,
but the patterns of light and dark sug-
gest real texture. The purpose of
invented texture is to create decorated
surfaces that evoke memories of
unusual textures (Figure 7.4).
Creating
Te xtures
Applying Your Skills. Make a collection
of texture rubbings.To make a rubbing,
place a sheet of thin paper against a rough
object or surface. Hold the paper in place
with one hand. Use the flat side of an
unwrapped crayon or the side of a pencil
lead to rub over the paper. Rub in one
directionaway from the hand holding
the paper. Rubbing back and forth can
cause the paper or object to slip. Examine
the rubbings closely, paying special atten-
tion to the lines, dots, shapes, and values.
Computer Option. Explore the
textures on your computer application
as well as those you can create. Begin
with a Pencil, Brush, or Shape tool . Draw
objects or shapes. Fill each shape with a
different texture from available menus.
Make some new textures by editing or
adding textures. Use a variety of available
tools and paper textures. Experiment
with a blending tool to soften surfaces.
Identify which objects look rough and
which look smooth.
F
IGURE
7.4 In this painting, the artist has used a
number of techniques to suggest texture. A variety of
line types and shading techniques have been used. Can
you identify the textures? Do they represent real
textures or are they invented? The artwork clearly
depicts two people and an elephant, but would you call
it realistic? Why or why not?
Artist unknown. Deccan, Bijapur. Stalling Elephant with Two Riders.
Mid-seventeenth century. Ink, gold, and watercolor on paper.
16.5 12.4 cm (6
1
2
4
7
8
). Brooklyn Museum of Art,
Brooklyn, NY. Gift of Dr. Betram Shaffner.
LESSON 1 Texture in Your Life 175
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Drawing and Painting. Make
a series of small drawings and paintings of
objects that have different textures.Try
to reproduce both smooth and rough
textures.You may use a different medium
for each drawing, but study the lights and
shadows on each object before you
choose the medium. For example, you
might examine a hairbrush, an old work
shoe, weathered wood, a wig, a fuzzy slip-
per, or a satin slip, then select a medium
that would work best for each texture.
Computer Option. Make a series of
small drawings and paintings of objects that
have different textures, as in the preceding
activity. Use the Pencil or Brush tool on
the computer. First, sketch your shapes.
Then reproduce the texture of each shape
using dots, lines, and value blending. Con-
centrate on the shadows, lights, and high-
lights of each different texture.
Creating Contrasting
Te xtures
Te xture and Value
The appearance of a surface depends
on how it reflects light. Every surface
displays a pattern of light and dark val-
ues. From the pattern of light and dark
values, we can make a judgment about
the texture of a surface or an object
even if we cannot touch it.
Rough and Smooth Textures
The roughness or smoothness of a
texture can be determined by looking at
its light and dark values. A rough sur-
face reflects light unevenly. It shows
irregular patterns of light and shadow.
Look at a shag rug, an orange, tree bark,
or a patch of bare ground. Notice how
the high places catch the light, casting
shadows of different sizes and shapes.
A smooth texture reflects light evenly.
Look at a sheet of paper, an apple, or a
new, unmarked desktop. Your eyes glide
across these objects, uninterrupted by
shadows, just as your fingers would
glide across them, uninterrupted by
bumps and dents.
Matte and Shiny Textures
In addition to rough and smooth, tex-
tures can be matte or shiny. A matte
surface is a surface that reflects a soft, dull
light. It absorbs some light and reflects
the rest. Matte surfaces, such as paper,
denim, unfinished wood, and your skin,
have a soft, dull look.
A shiny surface is the opposite of a
matte surface. A shiny surface is a sur-
face that reflects so much bright light
that it seems to glow. Shiny surfaces also
have highlights. Some surfaces reflect
bright sunlight with such intensity that
you have to squint your eyes to protect
them from the glare. Window glass, a
new car, a polished brass candlestick, and
the surface of a calm pool of water are all
examples of shiny surfaces.
Matte and shiny surfaces can be rough
or smooth. Sandpaper is matte rough,
and a freshly ironed pillowcase is matte
smooth. Aluminum foil is shiny and
smooth until it gets crumpled up; then it
becomes shiny and rough. In Figure 7.5
on page 176, Janet Fish has illustrated
all of these texture variations.
176 CHAPTER 7 Texture
Check Your Understanding
1. Define visual texture.
2. Describe, in detail, the two types of
visual texture.
3. Compare how rough and smooth
textures reflect light.
4. Compare and contrast the use of
textures in Figure 7.3 on page 173
and Figure 7.5 on this page.
F
IGURE
7.5
Janet Fish. Oranges. 1973. Pastel on sandpaper. 55.5
96.5 cm (21
7
8
38). Allen Memorial Art Museum,
Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. Fund for Contemporary
Art, 1974. © Janet Fish/Licensed by VAGA, New
York, NY.
Janet Fish has used pastels to
create the visual textures in this
work.The diagram points out
some areas where she has com-
bined different kinds of visual
texture, such as shiny-rough,
shiny-smooth, and matte-
smooth. Can you find more
areas where she has created
combinations of visual texture?
Visual Texture Combinations
LOOKING
CLOSELY
LESSON 2 How Artists Use Texture 177
T
he texture of surfaces is important in every form of visual art. Our
minds are full of texture memories. Artists use both visual and real
textures to make you remember those texture experiences.
Ivan Albright was a painter who loved to depict decaying, aging objects
with meticulous precision. He painted the skin of the old gentleman in
Figure 7.6 to accent and exaggerate every tiny wrinkle. Look at the paint-
ing. How many different kinds of textures can you identify?
In contrast, Pierre-Auguste Renoir (ren-wahr) painted people with
healthy, glowing complexions (Figure 7.7). How many different textures
can you identify in this painting? Notice that both Albright and Renoir have
imitated the texture of human skin. In each case, the artist has used texture
to convey a feeling about the subject. In one painting the skin is appealing,
in the other it is almost repulsive. Both artists have tried to control your
reaction to the subject of the paintings through their use of visual texture.
How Artists Use Texture
LESSON
2
Vocabulary
collage
frottage
grattage
decalcomania
F
IGURE
7.6 Albright created this
portrait for the movie called The Picture
of Dorian Gray. The artist took over a
year to create the textures that
indicated extreme physical aging.
Ivan Albright. The Picture of Dorian Gray.
1943–44. Oil on canvas. 215.9 106.7 cm
(85 42"). The Art Institute of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois.
F
IGURE
7.7 Renoir started his career as an artist in a
porcelain factory. He copied famous portraits of beautiful women
onto porcelain plates. Notice the skin texture of the sisters in
this work. Compare and contrast this painting to Figure 7.6.
Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Two Sisters (On the Terrace). 1881. Oil on canvas. 100.5
81 cm (39
9
16
31
7
8
). The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
Mr. and Mrs. Lewis Larned Coburn Memorial Collection, 1933.455.
178 CHAPTER 7 Texture
Many painters use color and value
patterns to produce the illusion of tex-
tures. Look, for instance, at the painting
by Judith Leyster (Figure 10.4, page
257) or Rembrandt van Rijn (ryne)
(Figure 5.36, page 124). These artists
were experts at suggesting textures such
as soft velvet, shiny satin, delicate lace,
and fluffy feathers. When you look
closely at their paintings, you discover
that these artists do not paint every tex-
ture in photographic detail. They use a
few brushstrokes to suggest the texture
from a certain distance.
Instead of relying only on visual
texture, many painters add real textures
to their paintings. Vincent van Gogh
(vahn goh) used such thick paint on his
canvas that his swirling brushstrokes
created a rough surface (Figure 7.8).
The surface ridges of the thick paint
actually make the paint look brighter.
The ridges catch more light and reflect
brighter colors to the viewer. If you
were to touch a van Gogh painting you
would feel the texture you see. Even
today, artists feel that such textural
qualities enhance their work.
F
IGURE
7.8 At times, van Gogh
became so impatient with the progress of
his work that he squeezed the paint
directly from the tube onto the canvas.
Then he used anything that was handy,
including his fingers, to move and swirl the
globs of paint around.
Vincent van Gogh. Sunflowers. 1888. Oil on canvas.
92 73 cm (36
1
4
28
3
4
). National Gallery,
London, England.
LESSON 2 How Artists Use Texture 179
Joan Mitchell is one contemporary
painter who brushes on paint and does
not try to smooth out the brushstrokes
(Figure 7.9).
Some painters add real textures to
their work by attaching various materi-
als to the work’s surface. Some artists
add sand and other materials to the
F
IGURE
7.9 Joan
Mitchell remained an
Abstract Expressionist
throughout her entire
painting career. This
work refers to the
snow and cold of her
Chicago childhood.
Notice how she has
used the brushstrokes
to show the excite-
ment and tension of a
snowy day in the city.
What kinds of lines do
you find in the
brushstrokes?
Joan Mitchell. Dirty Snow
(Sale Neige). 1980. Oil on
canvas. 219 180 cm
(86
1
4
70
7
8
). National
Museum of Women in the
Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift
of Wallace and Wilhelmina
Holladay.
paint. In some cases, artists create what
is called a collage (kul-lahzh), or an
artwork created by pasting cut or torn mate-
rials such as paper, photographs, and fabric
to a flat surface. Although folk artists
have used this technique for centuries,
fine artists only began using collage in
the last century. (The word wasn’t even
180 CHAPTER 7 Texture
F
IGURE
7.11 John Hoover is an Aleut sculptor. He uses the folklore
of his people as subject matter, but he has developed a personal style that
is not traditional. This work represents a female shaman. The circle around
her face is made up of ravens that are escorting her on her journey.
John Hoover. Shaman’s Journey. 2000. Cedar. Diameter: 81.3 cm (32). Collection of
the Artist.
F
IGURE
7.10
Schapiro used pieces
of embroidered,
appliquéd, and
crocheted fabrics
that were created by
women to add real
textures to her
work. In this way,
she connected her
work to the
traditional women’s
arts of the past.
Miriam Schapiro. In Her
Own Image. 1983.
Acrylic and fabric on
canvas. 152.4 254 cm
(60 100). Hunter
Museum of American
Art, Chattanooga,
Tennessee. Museum
purchase with funds
provided by the
Benwood Foundation
and the 1983 Collectors’
Group.
invented until 1919.) Miriam Schapiro,
an artist who uses collage, added bits of
fabric, lace, and thread to her paintings
to enrich the surface and to convey a
message (Figure 7.10).
Sculptors must also be aware of
texture because the tactile texture of
each surface must fit the whole. Some
sculptors imitate the tactile texture of
skin, hair, and cloth; others create new
textures to fit new forms. In Figure
7.11, the artist lets the texture of the
cedar wood show through the natural
pigments. In contrast, the sculptor of
Figure 7.12, Edgar Degas, imitated
tactile textures. He even added fabrics
(a gauze skirt and a satin ribbon) to the
figure to make it more realistic.
LESSON 2 How Artists Use Texture 181
F
IGURE
7.12 What an unusual combination of
textures! The figure of the young dancer is cast in
bronze. Even the vest and the ballet shoes she wears
are bronze. To that Degas added a skirt made of
gauzelike fabric and a satin hair ribbon. Why do you
think he added real textures to the metal figure?
Edgar Degas. The Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer. Model c. 1880,
cast 1922. Bronze, slightly tinted, with gauze skirt and satin
hair ribbon. Height: 104.5 cm (41
1
8
). The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, New York. H. O. Havemeyer
Collection, bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929.
(29.100.370).
MEET THE
ARTIST
EDGAR
DEGAS
French, 1834–1917
Edgar Degas. Self-Portrait. c. 1862.
Oil on canvas. 81 64.5 cm
(31
7
8
25
3
8
"). Musee d’Orsay,
Paris, France.
Edgar Degas (day-gah) was born in Paris in 1834. His family, wealthy
bankers, supported his ambition to become an artist. He was educated at the
École des Beaux-Arts by a French Classicist who trained him in classical drafting.
This expertise in drawing is a main element in Degas’ work.
Around 1865, Degas fell under the influence of the Impressionist movement
and abandoned academic, classical subject matter. He began painting contempo-
rary subjects such as music halls, theatres, and cafés. Unlike the Impressionists
with whom he is often associated, however, Degas was not interested in the use
of light or in depicting nature on canvas. He worked in
a studio and tried to capture his models in natural
and spontaneous movements. He preferred
women as his subjects and is best known for his
studies of ballet dancers, although he also
painted milliners (hatmakers) and laundresses.
In the 1860s, he began experimenting
with unusual methods of composition,
such as alternate perspectives, odd visual
angles, asymmetrical balance, and acciden-
tal cut-offs. These methods of composition
would inspire many modern artists. As he
grew older, his eyesight began to fail and
he turned to a new process: sculpture. In
his sculpture, as in his painting, he tried to
capture spontaneous movement and real-
istic poses.
F
IGURE
7.13 The colors, forms, and textures of
this building were planned so that Taliesin West
would blend into the colors, forms, and textures of
its desert setting. Wright believed that a building
should be in harmony with its environment.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Taliesin West. Near Phoenix, Arizona.
182 CHAPTER 7 Texture
F
IGURE
7.14 Giant feathered masks like this one are worn by
Tapirapé men as they run through the village in pairs shouting and causing
a commotion. The other men of the village participate in a mock battle
with the masqueraders.
Tapirapé People, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Mask. c. 1970. Glued and tied feather work,
tropical bird feathers, mother-of-pearl, wood. 102.9 106.7 cm (40
1
2
42).
Museum of International Folk Art, Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Architects are also aware of the impor-
tance of texture. They use stucco, brick,
wood, stone, concrete, metal, and glass
to create texture. Frank Lloyd Wright,
one of the most influential architects of
the twentieth century, believed that a
building should develop out of its natural
surroundings (Figure 7.13). Because of
this, he selected textures that related to
the local environment. Interior designers
select textures for rugs, drapes, furniture,
and artworks that complement different
wall surfaces. This gives a sense of cohe-
siveness, or unity, to a design.
In crafts, textures are essential. Potters
manipulate textures by pressing different
objects into wet clay. They can also
change surfaces by applying glazes. Some
glazes are shiny, while others are matte.
Some glazes result in a crackle finish that
gives a rough texture to a piece of pot-
tery. Weavers control texture through
the use of fibers and weaving techniques.
For example, rough wool fibers have a
different texture than smooth cotton
fibers. In addition, weavers use different
techniques to create texture. By twisting
fibers as they weave, they can create a
rough texture. Other artisans also use
texture. Jewelry makers work with
different kinds of metal to create various
textures. They might emboss or press a
raised design into metal or facet a stone
to give its surfaces a smooth, shiny
appearance. Feathers, seashells, seeds,
bones, and teeth have been used to make
jewelry and hair ornaments, and deco-
rate clothing and masks (Figure 7.14).
LESSON 2 How Artists Use Texture 183
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define collage.
2. Describe a form of frottage.
3. What is a grattage effect?
4. Select and analyze two artworks from
this lesson to form a conclusion about
the meaning of the textures used.
Imagining
Te xtures
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Imagination. On a small piece of white
paper, draw nine shapes of different sizes
with a pencil or felt-tip pen. Some
shapes should touch the edges of the
paper. Fill each shape with sketches of a
different texture.The textures should
be imaginary. For instance, you could put
lines of writing close together in one
shape, or you could try repeating small
shapes in another.Try line patterns, stip-
pling, or smooth shadow.
Computer Option. Explore textures
and effects that can be made with the
Brush tool or other tools on the com-
puter. Menus provide choices from
thick, opaque oils to wet, transparent
paint. Experiment. Save your results by
applying your discoveries to objects,
shapes, or scenes.
F
IGURE
7.15 Compare and contrast the kind
of texture used in this painting with the textures in
Figure 7.14.
Max Ernst. Age of Forests. 1926. Oil on canvas. 91.8 59.7
cm (36
1
8
23
1
2
). Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New
York. A. Conger Goodyear Fund, 1964. © 2003 Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
Artists also invent textures to enrich
their works. Max Ernst used three
unusual techniquesfrottage, grattage,
and decalcomaniato create his Sur-
realist fantasy paintings. In frottage
(froh-tahzh), designs and textural effects
are created by placing paper over objects that
have raised surfaces and rubbing the paper
with graphite, wax, or crayon. In Figure
7.15, Ernst combines frottage with
painting techniques. The texture rub-
bings you made earlier in this chapter
are another form of frottage. To create
grattage (grah-tahzh) effects, wet paint
is scratched with a variety of tools, such as
forks, razors, and combs. In decalcoma-
nia, paint is forced into random textured
patterns. Paint is placed between two canvas
surfaces. The canvases are then pulled apart.
7–1
F
IGURE
7.16
Romare Bearden. In the Garden. 1974. Color lithograph on paper.
91.1 74.3 cm (35
7
8
29
1
4
). Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts,
Montgomery, Alabama. Romare Bearden Foundation/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
Historical and Cultural
Context
If asked, most artists would admit to
loving their work. The work in Figure
7.16 is a labor of love in two ways. First,
it is a loving tribute to the sunny
Caribbean. The artist, Romare Bearden,
was so taken with this lush tropical set-
ting that he moved there in 1973.
Notice the dominance of warm colors.
To locate the second expression of
love, find the rectangle in the center of
the right side. Notice how it slices
through one of the tall plants and con-
tinues into the woman’s dress. Maybe
the contents of this rectangle were
meant to reflect a connection between
the woman—the artist’s grandmother—
and her much-beloved garden.
What You Will Learn
Figure 7.16 is a lithograph, a type of
fine art print that uses limestone for the
printing plate. In this activity, you will
create another type of print, a collagraph.
You will glue items with different tex-
tures to different areas of your printing
plate. This will give your collagraph
both tactile and visual texture. You will
demonstrate the effective use of print-
making media and tools in this project.
Creating
Sitting in front of a mirror, use direct
observation to practice sketching self-
portraits. If possible, angle a strong light
source, such as a spotlight or unshaded
lamp, so that it creates well-defined
SUPPLIES
Heavy cardboard
Found textured materials such as lace, nubby fabric,
sandpaper, or aluminum foil
Scissors
White glue, white latex paint, or gloss/gel medium
White and/or colored printing paper
Water-based printing ink
Tray and brayers
Felt blankets
Printing press
Sponge, rag, or paper towels
STUDIO
PROJECT
Self-Portrait
Collagraph
184 CHAPTER 7 Texture
areas of dark and light. Shade areas of
your drawing to reflect these contrasting
values. Outline these areas with a pen.
Choose your best drawing.
Transfer it to a sheet of heavy card-
board. This will serve as the basis of
your printing plate.
Choose two found materials
with different textures. Assign one
material to the dark areas that you have
highlighted. Cut out pieces of the mate-
rial the size and shape of each such area.
Glue the pieces of material in place. Fol-
low the same procedure with the second
textured material and the light areas of
your self-portrait. Allow time for the
printing plate to dry.
Waterproof the printing
plate by covering it with gloss medium
or latex paint, and let it dry.
Choose the paper for your
print. Then choose a contrasting color of
ink. Spray or soak your paper in water.
Place the wet paper between towels and
press to extract the excess water.
Pour the ink into a tray, and
roll the brayer through the ink to coat
it. Carefully apply the ink to areas of the
plate’s surface that you want to print.
Uninked areas will remain the color of
the paper. Place the inked plate on the
press. Carefully place the dampened
paper over the plate. Put dry towels or
felt blankets over the paper, and run the
layers through the press.
Place the print on a dry
surface or a drying rack. When it is dry,
sign the print in pencil directly under
the image. Write the title on the left and
your name and date on the right. Care-
fully wash off the front surface of the
printing plate with a sponge, rag, or
paper towel. Avoid wetting the back of
the plate.
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Did you create self-portrait
sketches? Did you outline areas of light and
dark value?
ANALYZE Did you select textured items
to suggest light and dark values? Compare
and contrast your use of tactile and visual
textures.
INTERPRET Do the use of texture and
sharp contrasts in values affect the mood of
this work? If so, how? Does the title of the
work express the same mood?
JUDGE Were you successful using different
textures to create contrast? Did you demon-
strate the effective use of printmaking media
and tools? Which of the three aesthetic
theories would be best to judge your work?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
7.16A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Self-Portrait Collagraph 185
7–2
F
IGURE
7.17
Leo Sewell. Penguin. Atlanta Airport, Atlanta, Georgia.
Historical and Cultural
Context
Leo Sewell is a Philadelphia-based
artist who grew up in Annapolis, Mary-
land. His home was near a junkyard
belonging to the U.S. Navy. Sewell fre-
quently visited the yard, collecting dis-
carded items that interested him. These
recycled materials became a driving
force in his sculptures and assemblages
(ah-sem-blazh). Assemblages are works
created by simply combining existing
objects into a meaningful whole.
Sewell’s early works were functional
objects such as a watchcase or a table.
Today, they are decorative and complex
creations. Study his penguin sculpture
in Figure 7.17. How many different
objects can you identify that have been
integrated into the form of this bird?
What You Will Learn
You will design and create a papier-
mâché sculpture of an animal or a
fantasy creature. You will cover the
sculpture completely with found items,
some of which may relate to the sculp-
ture. You will attach and layer the
found materials to create interesting
surface textures and a sense of unity.
Creating
Begin your sculpture by thinking
about or examining pictures of animals
or fantasy creatures. Once you have
chosen an animal or creature, draw
details of its limbs, body, and head in
your sketchbook.
SUPPLIES
Found objects such as seashells, marbles, feathers, bottle caps,
pieces of old toys, ribbons, scraps of fabric, and so on
Sketchbook and pencils
Cardboard, wire, or chicken wire
Masking tape
Nontoxic papier-mâché paste
Bowls for mixing paste
Newspaper
Paper towels
Acrylic paint
White glue or hot glue gun
STUDIO
PROJECT
Papier-Mâché
Sculpture
186 CHAPTER 7 Texture
Gather as many found
materials as you can. Comb your neigh-
borhood, your attic, and other places
where you might find discarded materi-
als. Set these aside for later.
Combine your body part
sketches into a unified whole. Practice
drawing your creature from various
viewpoints: top, sides, front, back, and
underside. Try to make the drawings as
consistent as you can.
Create a skeletal frame for
your animal out of cardboard, wire,
chicken wire, or some other pliable mate-
rial. Wrap and stuff paper around your
base. Tape it together with masking tape
to create your form. Continue wrapping
and stuffing and connecting until you
have completed the basic form of your
animal’s body, including limbs and head.
Mix your papier-mâché
paste, following directions on the pack-
age. Tear strips of newspaper, dip them
in wheat paste, and smooth them over
the body (see pages 434–435 of the
Technique Tips Handbook.) Repeat two
layers of newspaper and one final layer
of paper towels over the entire struc-
ture. Let your sculpture dry completely.
Paint the sculpture using
acrylic paint for a base coat. Let the
work dry.
Choose objects from among
your found materials that seem to fit the
contours of the animal’s body. Glue the
objects to the form. Fill in every space.
Continue gluing and layering your
items until your animal is completely
covered. Add facial features and details.
Create a base for your cre-
ation, if necessary. Give your work a
title to express the meaning or mood of
your creature. Display your sculpture.
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What animal did you create?
What materials did you use to create your
body form? What recycled items appear
on your creation? How did you choose to
display your creation?
ANALYZE What basic shapes did you use
to create your form? Did you select textured
objects that were appropriate to the form?
Compare and contrast your use of texture
and unity.
INTERPRET What mood were you trying
to convey? Does the title you chose sum up
the meaning of your work?
JUDGE Were you successful in creating the
specific animal or creature? Did it turn out
how you imagined? Which aesthetic theory
would be appropriate to judge your work?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
7.17A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Papier-Mâché Sculpture 187
7–3
Historical and Cultural
Context
Have you ever heard someone
described as “not seeing the forest for
the trees?” This expression might be
applied to the work in Figure 7.18. If
you study the work very closely, you
will notice that it contains hundreds of
tiny photographs, many of them of
wolves and other animals. These images
provide a clue to the overall “forest”
made up of tiny “trees.” Stand back,
and you discover the work is a portrait
of a wolf.
The unique type of digital art shown
here is known as a photomosaic. Like tra-
ditional mosaics, it is made up of many
tiny parts. Unlike traditional mosaics,
the parts are photos. Digital artist Robert
Silvers precisely selected each tiny
photo for its colors.
What You Will Learn
You will create a digital portrait that
depicts an individual and a unique back-
ground that reflects the subject’s inter-
ests. After photographing the subject
and objects that represent them, you
will import all the images into a com-
puter application. Then you will choose
a color scheme and apply a variety of
textures to communicate a mood or
message about the individual.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Digital camera
Computer
Scanner
Image-editing or paint program
Printer
Layered
Self-Portrait
STUDIO
PROJECT
188 CHAPTER 7 Texture
F
IGURE
7.18
Robert Silvers. Wolf. 2003. Photomosaic.
Creating
Take a picture of yourself, a friend, or
a celebrity with a digital or traditional
camera. Import the image into the com-
puter. Next, capture or find and scan
additional pictures that show the sub-
ject’s interests and accomplishments.
Open your image-editing or
paint program. In separate files, import
and open the images that reflect the
subject’s interests and activities. Choose
one image that is the most interesting or
striking. Scale the image so that it mea-
sures 8 6 inches. Save the document.
Identify interesting details
from the remaining open images. Use
the Rectangle tool, Circle tool, and other
Selection tools. Choose details one at a
time. As each one is copied and pasted
into the saved document, assign each to
a different layer.
Open your portrait docu-
ment. Select the image of the person.
Copy and paste this image into the top
layer of the document with the details.
Explore menus and settings
to enhance and change color, contrast/
brightness, hue/saturation, and opacity.
Consider the mood or the idea you want
to express. Select a color scheme.
Pick options from the Filter
menu. Explore the endless choices for
adding textures. These special effects
can distort images as well as imitate
other media such as watercolors, chalks,
and brushstrokes. Preview the effects
before applying them.
Save three different solu-
tions. Print the one whose mood best
fits your subject.
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Identify the person you picked
as your subject. What are the subject’s inter-
ests and accomplishments?
ANALYZE Explain your choice of objects,
colors, and special effects in the portrait. How
many layers did you use? Compare and con-
trast the use of textures in your work.
INTERPRET What mood or feeling does the
portrait convey? Interpret your artistic deci-
sions. What message does the image commu-
nicate about the person?
JUDGE What do you like best about the art-
work? What challenges did you overcome?
Justify your artistic decisions in this work.
Which aesthetic theory would you use to
judge this work?
F
IGURE
7.18A
Student work.
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Layered Self-Portrait 189
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
Texture can be rough or smooth, shiny or dull. Texture can
be tactile (experienced through touch) or visual (experienced
through sight). As you examine the student artworks on
these pages:
Compare and contrast them in terms of their use of texture.
Analyze the works, forming precise conclusions about whether
each uses tactile or visual texture.
Te xture
190 CHAPTER 7 Texture
F
IGURE
7.19
Student work. Untitled. Weaving,
embroidery floss, fiber.
Activity 7.19 Tactile texture.
Describe how this tapestry might feel
to the touch. What adjectives would
you use to convey this sensation?
Activity 7.20 Te xture and value.
Analyze this artist’s use of visual texture in
this painting. Where has this artist used light
and dark values of a hue to suggest a glossy
texture?
F
IGURE
7.20
Student work. Wishing. Acrylic.
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Select and Analyze Portfolios. Sharpen your visual
awareness by evaluating the artworks of others.With
your teacher’s guidance, compile a collection of portfo-
lios or find online portfolios. Select and analyze these
portfolios by peers and others to form precise conclu-
sions about formal qualities (the elements and princi-
ples of art), historical and cultural contexts, intents, and
meanings. Store your evaluations in your portfolio.
Every object has a tex-
ture. As you walk around
your school or commu-
nity, develop your aware-
ness of texture.Touch
objects such as stone
walls, glass windows, and
your own clothing. Prac-
tice capturing these tac-
tile textures in visual
form by sketching them
in your visual journal.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Texture 191
Activity 7.21 Visual texture combinations.
This artwork combines many different visual
textures. Identify as many of these as you can.
Match each texture with one or more objects
that appear to have this surface.
Activity 7.22 Te xture and unity.
Compare and contrast the variety of
textures in this student print with those in
the print in Figure 3.10 on page 48. Does
the textural variety in these works create
a sense of unity? Explain your reaction.
F
IGURE
7.21
Student work. Me. Collagraph.
F
IGURE
7.22
Student work. Untitled. Collagraph.
F
IGURE
7.23
Duane Hanson. Football Player. 1981. Oil on polyvinyl, clothes, helmet, Styrofoam cup. 109.9 76.2
80 cm (43
1
4
30 31
1
2
). Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami, Miami, Florida. Museum purchase
through funds from the Friends of Art and public subscription. © Estate of Duane Hanson/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
192 CHAPTER 7 Texture
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
Judging from the media, do you think this artwork is a
painting, photograph, or sculpture? Explain.
Describe what you see.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This is a clue-collecting step about the elements
of art.
Which type of texture has the artist used, tactile or
visual?
Identify at least one example of rough, smooth, matte,
and shiny texture. Compare and contrast their uses.
Would you classify the form of this work as free-form
or geometric?
3
INTERPRET What feeling does this artwork
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
What mood do the facial expression and body language
of this sculpture express?
What do you imagine this person is thinking? Write his
thoughts in a brief paragraph.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, it is time to decide whether this is a successful
work of art.
Do you think the artist used texture successfully in this
work? Explain.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why
or why not? Use one or more of the three aesthetic
theories to defend your judgment.
Duane Hanson was born in
Alexandria, Minnesota, in 1925.
He was always fascinated by the
human figure. At age 13, he
carved a wood version of Gains-
borough’s Blue Boy from a log. His
“model” was a reproduction of
the painting in an art history
book. His early professional
works use traditional painting
and sculpting techniques. By the
mid-1960s, he had begun using
polyester resin and fiberglass to
make castings of people. He
painted these realistically with
oils, adding hair and real clothing.
The result is life-size sculptures
so real that they are often mis-
taken for living people.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 193
Duane Hanson
1925–1996
People are passionate about Antonio Gaudi’s
architecture.
ove it or hate it, most visitors react strongly to the
bizarre architectural creations of Antonio Gaudi
(1852–1926). Every year, visitors come to Barcelona,
Spain, to admire—and even touch— his amazing
buildings.
This Spanish architect combined a love of nature and
of Gothic ornament in his design (Figure 13.7, page 355).
That mixture produced buildings with shapes and
textures so unusual, they still make people gasp. An
apartment house completed in 1910 has curvy sides
and a rough, grainy surface. Together, these textures
create the effect of waves crashing on a beach.
Gaudi used ceramics to decorate a public park.
He embedded broken glazed ceramic tiles in a
concrete bench and other structures to create
fantastic colors and rich, varied textures.
Gaudi’s most famous work, the Sagrada
Familia, is an unfinished church. The stone
towers are so thickly decorated, they look
to some people like trees in a rainforest.
When Gaudi graduated from
architecture school, one teacher said
he was either a madman or a
genius. Today, most people cast
their vote for genius.
194 CHAPTER 7 Texture
L
TIME to Connect
Climate, available materials, and the cultural backgrounds
of the people often influence a nation’s architecture. Use a
map to locate these Spanish cities: Seville, Barcelona, and
Granada. Using your school’s media center to obtain photos
and information, compare and contrast the architecture in
those cities. Write a report including the following:
What are some landmark buildings in each of the cities?
How are the styles alike or different? What types of mate-
rials were used to build these landmarks?
Compare them with Gaudi’s work.How are they similar?
How are they different?
BELOW:
The Sagrada
Familia church
ROSMI DUASO/TIME PICTURE COLLECTION
MACDUFF EVERTON/CORBIS
A ceramic bench in a Barcelona park.
Gaudi designed the bench in 1914.
Use the Performing Arts
Handbook page 419 to find
out how Paul Winter captures
the texture of the sounds of nature through
his music.
CHAPTER
7
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The element of art that refers to how
things feel, or look as if they might feel, if
touched.
2. The illusion of a three-dimensional surface.
3. A surface that reflects a soft, dull light.
4. An artwork created by pasting cut or torn
materials such as paper, photographs, and
fabric to a flat surface.
5. A method of producing textures by placing
paper over objects that have raised surfaces
and rubbing the paper with graphite, wax,
or crayon.
6. The technique of scratching into wet paint
with a variety of tools to create texture.
7. A technique of creating random textured
patterns by applying thick paint to two sur-
faces, pressing them together, and then
pulling them apart.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
8. With what senses is texture perceived?
9. What is the difference between tactile and
visual texture?
10. What is the difference between simulated
and invented texture?
11. Name the four types of texture.
12. Name two ways in which painters may add
real texture to their paintings.
13. In what ways do sculptors create texture in
their works?
14. Describe the similarities and differences in
frottage, grattage, and decalcomania.
Learn more about
the amazing textures
in the sculptures of
Jesús Moroles.Take
part in an interactive online exhibition and
discussion of his works at the J. Paul Getty
Museum Web site. Click on the Web
Museum Tour link at
art.glencoe.com.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
15. Describe. Look at the photographs in
Figure 7.2 on page 172. Describe them
without naming any of the objects shown.
Describe only the lines, shapes, spaces, val-
ues, and textures in the photographs. From
your description, have classmates guess
which photograph you are describing.
16. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 181.
The dancer in Figure 7.12 is depicted in a
spontaneous, natural manner. This re-
flected the general trend toward capturing
natural scenes in art at that time. Compare
and contrast the historical style shown in
Figure 7.12 with Figure 5.9 on page 104
and identify the general trend in art at the
time Figure 5.9 was created.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 7 Review 195
196
197
Rufino Tamayo. Fruit Vendors. 1952. Oil on canvas. 150.8
200.8 cm (59
3
8
79
1
16
). Albright-Knox Art Gallery,
Buffalo, New York. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, Jr., 1954.
“The fundamental thing in art is
freedom! In art, there are millions
of paths—as many paths as there
are artists.”
—Rufino Tamayo (1899–1991)
UNIT
The
Principles
of Art
Identifying Connotations. In the
above quote, the artist refers to paths. He
was not using the word in its strict dictio-
nary sense. Tell what you think he meant by
restating the quote in your own words.
3
F
IGURE
8.1 The quilt shown here is unique in that the images in the center have been painted by hand.
Can you find a pattern in this quilt? What objects or figures are repeated?
Faith Ringgold. The Men: Mask Face Quilt #2. 1986. Acrylic on canvas with fabric borders. 177.8 157.5 (70 62).
© 1986 Faith Ringgold.
198 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
Faith Ringgold (b. 1930) is
known for her colorful
painted story quilts (Figure 8.1). She grew up in a close-knit family in
Harlem, New York. Her early oil paintings focused on civil rights issues
of the 1960s.Then in 1980, she was invited to make a quilt for a special
exhibit. Her mother, who was a seamstress, helped her make Echoes of
Harlem, a quilt of painted faces and fabrics. She has been creating quilts
that combine storytelling and painting ever since. Her story quilts have
also been used as illustrations in children’s books that focus on the
achievements of African Americans.
Analyze. Look again at Figure 8.1 to form a conclusion about the
use of pattern. Can you find a repeated pattern in this quilt? Explain
your answer.
L
ife is full of rhythmic events and patterns. Think
about the yearly cycle of the seasons. The regular
routines or patterns of daily life create a sense of stability
and security.
In this chapter, you will:
Identify rhythms and patterns occurring in the
world around you.
Observe the relationship of motif to pattern.
Compare and contrast the use of the art
principles rhythm and pattern to organize the
art elements in artworks.
Create visual solutions that use the principles
of rhythm and pattern.
CHAPTER
8
Rhythm, Pattern,
and Movement
199
200 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
LESSON
1
Rhythm and Pattern
R
hythm is the principle of art that indicates movement by the repetition of
elements or objects. The principle of rhythm is found in all the arts: music,
dance, poetry, and theatre. In music, rhythm is created by the measure of
time between musical sounds. Beats are followed by rests. In poetry, the
repetition of words, sounds, and phrases creates rhythm. The visual arts
combine repetition and pauses to create rhythm.
Visual Rhythm
Visual rhythm is rhythm you receive through your eyes rather than through your
ears. Visual rhythm is created by repeated positive shapes separated by negative
spaces. Everywhere you look you can see visual rhythms. Books lined up in a
bookcase and cars in a parking lot are examples of visual rhythms. A line of
people in the cafeteria has visual rhythm. Each person is a positive shape, and
the space between each person is a negative space.
In Figure 8.2, Chief Black Hawk has used visual rhythm to suggest the
movements of a dance ceremony. The repeated images of the six Crow men
are the major beats, or positive shapes, of the rhythm. The spaces between
the men are the rests, or negative spaces, in the rhythm.
Vocabulary
rhythm
visual rhythm
pattern
motif
module
F
IGURE
8.2 In the winter of 1880–81, Chief Black Hawk, a Lakota man, supported his family by
selling drawings to a trader on the reservation. He was unknown until 1994, when a book of his
drawings emerged on the auction market. Chief Black Hawk’s book shows natural history drawings,
hunting and ceremonial activities of the Lakota, and many pictures of Crow ceremonies.
Chief Black Hawk. Crow Men in Ceremonial Dress. 188081. Ink and pencil on paper. 26 41.9 cm (10
1
4
16
1
2
).
Thaw Collection, Fenimore Art Museum, Cooperstown, New York.
Rosa Bonheur (roh-zah bah-nur) was born in Bordeaux, France in 1822.
When she was seven years old, her family moved to Paris. Her father, Raymond
Bonheur, was a landscape artist and painting teacher. He trained Rosa and her
three siblings. As a member of the religious group called Saint-Simonians, he
believed in the equality of women. This attitude allowed Rosa Bonheur to
develop unrestrained by traditional women’s roles.
When she was ten years old, she refused to be apprenticed to a dressmaker,
preferring instead to sketch animals in nearby woods and to draw scenes from
the balcony of the family apartment. This lifelong love of animals would inspire
her later art. She painted huge compositions in which horses and other animals
played a major role. She visited slaughterhouses to learn the anatomy of ani-
mals. She also traveled to livestock markets. The Horse Fair (Figure 8.3) is a
painting that depicts one of these scenes. Bonheur became a famous, well-
known artist. In 1865, she became the first woman to be awarded the Grand
Cross of the Legion of Honor.
MEET THE
ARTIST
ROSA
BONHEUR
French, 1822–1899
F
IGURE
8.3 Bonheur, a lifelong animal lover, often created large-scale artworks with horses and other
animals as the subject matter. In this painting Bonheur has used the horses as a motif. The rhythm the horses
create pulls your eyes through the painting. Where does the movement start? From which direction does the
viewer get drawn through the art?
Rosa Bonheur. The Horse Fair. 185355. Oil on canvas. 244.5 506.7 cm (96
1
4
199
1
2
). The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, New York. Gift of Cornelius Vanderbilt, 1887. (87.25).
LESSON 1 Rhythm and Pattern 201
202 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
In visual rhythm, a beat may be one
element or a combination of elements.
Look at the photograph in Figure 8.4.
The strongest beats are the big, tall
buildings. The lighted windows are sec-
ondary rhythms. The streets and the
spaces between the buildings create
negative, empty spacethe rests
between the beats.
Visual rhythms create a sensation of
movement. Rhythms cause the viewer’s
eyes to follow the visual beats through a
work of art. Visual movement is differ-
ent from real action, which involves a
physical change in position. For exam-
ple, a ball bouncing across a room is real
action. Visual movement simply sug-
gests movement. In an artwork, round
shapes separated by negative spaces can
create the visual sensation of the move-
ment of a ball. Your eyes bounce from
one round shape to the next. In Figure
8.6 on page 203, the artist has used
rhythm to pull your eyes through the
work. Notice how the curved figures
and the slanted hoes give a sensation of
visual movement.
Pattern
Pattern is the principle of art that is con-
cerned with decorative surface design. It is
usually a two-dimensional visual repeti-
tion. Blue stripes on a shirt are a pattern.
Ten blue striped shirts arranged in a
store window create a visual rhythm
that in turn creates visual movement.
The unit that is repeated in visual pattern
is called a motif. Sometimes, every
motif is an exact duplicate of the first
unit; sometimes, the repetitions vary
from the original (Figure 8.5). Look
around, and you will find examples of
patterns created by the repetitions of
one or more motifs. You can discover
patterns in furniture, rugs, clothing, or
the line of lockers in the hallway.
F
IGURE
8.4 In this unusual night view of New York City, you can see
examples of rhythms made by the buildings and the lit windows. Notice
how the value changes also create a sense of rhythm.
Berenice Abbott. The Night View. 1936. Photograph. Museum of the City of New York,
New York. Gift of Mr. Todd Watts.
F
IGURE
8.5
There are two
major motifs in
this design. One is
a solid blue square
set on its point.
The alternating
motif is bordered
with a light blue
band and divided in
the center into four
smaller squares.
Annie M. Peachey.
Four in Block Work Quilt.
192535. Cotton,
rayon, and synthetics.
216 184 cm (85
72
1
2
). Collection of
the Museum of
American Folk Art,
New York, New York.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
William B. Wigton.
LESSON 1 Rhythm and Pattern 203
F
IGURE
8.6
Hale Woodruff. Poor Man’s Cotton. 1944. Watercolor on paper. 77.5
57.2 cm (30
1
2
22
1
2
). The Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey.
Woodruff has used many random visual
rhythms in this work to create the feeling that
the workers are singing and working to the
rhythm of the song as they hoe the cotton. In
the diagram you can see how he has used
repeated shapes to move your eyes through
the work. How many visual beats can you find
in this painting?
Visual Rhythms Create Visual Movement
LOOKING
CLOSELY
204 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define rhythm.
2. What is visual rhythm?
3. What is pattern? How do
motifs relate to pattern?
F
IGURE
8.7 This elevator grille is a delicate
pattern of lines and round forms. It was once part
of a large bank of elevators in the 1893 Chicago
Stock Exchange. The building was torn down in
1972, but parts of it, such as this grille, have been
saved and housed in various museums.
Louis Sullivan. Grille of Elevator Enclosure Cage from the Chicago
Stock Exchange Building. 189394. Painted cast and wrought
iron and bronze. 185.4 78.7 cm (73 31). High
Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia. Virginia Carroll
Crawford Collection, 1982.291.
Analyzing Motifs
and Patterns
Comparing and Contrasting the
Use of Pattern. Make a collection of
decorative patterns.You may use pho-
tographs, clippings from magazines, scraps
of fabric, and original drawings. Compare
and contrast the use of pattern in your
work and identify the motif in each pat-
tern by drawing a circle around one.
Organize your pattern collection into a
poster, a bulletin board, a booklet, or
some other type of presentation.
Computer Option. Start with a rectan-
gle and design a simple motif. Use three
colors or three original textures in black
and white. Create a variety of pattern
with that motif. Print your patterns. If your
printer is black and white, you can add
color with other media such as colored
pencil after the design is printed out.
In sculpture and architecture a three-
dimensional motif is sometimes called a
module. Modular furniture is com-
posed of standard matching units.
A pattern of lines can decorate a piece
of fabric or wallpaper. Figure 8.7 shows
a pattern decorating an elevator grille.
These are decorative patterns meant to
be visually appealing. Other patterns
are functional. A bricklayer places
bricks in a certain pattern in order to
build a sturdy, durable wall. The brick-
layer may make the pattern more com-
plex in order to create a finished work
that is very decorative, but the main
purpose is still functional.
LESSON 2 Types of Rhythm and Pattern 205
A
rranging beats or motifs and space in different ways creates different
visual rhythms and patterns. There are many ways to combine beats or
motifs and space. Each combination gives a different character to the
rhythm or pattern depicted.
Random
A motif repeated in no apparent order, with no regular spaces in between,
creates a random rhythm. One example is autumn leaves that cover the
ground. Cracks in mud and splashes of paint are also examples of random
rhythm.
Crowds of people often create random rhythms think of holiday shop-
pers, rush-hour commuters, and students in the halls between classes. A
large group of people pushing onto a bus is full of rhythm. The beat is one
person. Every person is different, and the space between and around each
person is slightly different.
Philip Moulthrop, the creator of the White Pine Mosaic Bowl in Figure 8.8,
is an artist and craftsman. He uses a machine called a lathe to create the
form of his wooden bowls. At the beginning of the twentieth century, wood
turning was considered an industrial activity since lathes had been used to
LESSON
2
Types of Rhythm and Pattern
F
IGURE
8.8 To
create this random rhythm
of round shapes on the
surface of his turned bowl,
Moulthrop placed white
pine branches in a specific
arrangement and embedded
them in a black resin
mixture.
Philip Moulthrop. White Pine
Mosaic Bowl. 1993. White pine,
resin, lathe-turned. 23.5 x 29.8 x
29.8 cm (9
1
4
11
3
4
11
3
4
).
Mint Museum of Craft + Design,
Charlotte, North Carolina.
mass-produce furniture. Gradually, the
turners became accepted as craftspeople.
They believed that the finding of a piece
of wood with specific qualities led to the
quality of the finished piece of work. In
Figure 8.8, the pieces of wood create a
beautiful random pattern. Today, you
will find turned-wood vessels in crafts
museums around the world.
Regular
Regular rhythms and patterns have
identical beats or motifs and equal
amounts of space between them
(Figure 8.9). Regular rhythm has a
steady beat. Regular repetitions are used
to organize objects. Parking spaces are
laid out with regular rhythm. Stores
organize merchandise into regular
stacks and rows. This makes it easier for
you to find things, and it also makes the
displays more attractive than if items
were arranged in a random fashion.
F
IGURE
8.9 This building was the first office
building to rise above 1,000 feet. Notice how the
pairs of windows form a regular beat both vertically
and horizontally. The negative spaces between them
are the rests between the beats.
William van Alen. Chrysler Building, New York, New York.
Completed in 1930.
206 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
Using Random
Rhythm
Applying Your Skills. Choose one let-
ter of the alphabet. Look through news-
papers and magazines for large examples
of that letter. Cut out about 20 letters.
Arrange them on a piece of colored
paper in a random pattern. If you have
trouble finding large letters, draw letters
of your own on your design.
Computer Option. Choose one letter
of the alphabet. Using different fonts, cre-
ate about 20 different examples of the
letter.You can use Flip, Rotate, Size
Change, and Color options if your pro-
gram has them.Then arrange the letters
in a random pattern.
LESSON 2 Types of Rhythm and Pattern 207
F
IGURE
8.10
While doing research
for this project, Maya
Lin stumbled on a
photo of the “Stokes
Wave” that occurs
naturally on the open
sea. She transformed
something that was
liquid and moving
into a solid sculpture
in the landlocked,
Midwestern
landscape.
Maya Lin. The Wave Field.
1995. Shaped earth. 30.5
30.5 m (100 100).
University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
F
IGURE
8.11 Look closely at the designs in
the repeated geometric shapes. They are stylized
eyes and mouths with fangs that symbolize
powerful feline deities.
Peru, Huari. Tunic. c.
A
.
D
. 800–1000. Cotton and wool.
Height: 210.8 cm (83). Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit,
Michigan. Founders Society Purchase with funds from
Lee and Tina Hills.
A grid is based on regular rhythm.
It is a regular arrangement of parallel
lines. A football field is laid out in a grid,
as is a checkerboard. Windows form a
grid pattern on the side of a building.
Maya Lin used a grid to lay out her Wave
Field in Figure 8.10. It is a series of 50
grass waves in eight rows. The texture
of the grasses and curved forms engage
the viewer. The field was built with a
combination of soil and sand and cov-
ered with green sod. The crest of each
wave is three feet high. Lin has created
an interesting space for relaxing, study-
ing, or playing.
The tunic in Figure 8.11 was woven
to be part to the formal dress of the
ancient Peruvian people known as the
Huari. It was worn at court and placed
on the body for burial. Another strong
example of regular rhythm is Figure
1.18 on page 20.
Alternating
Pattern
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Using a pen or pencil,
draw a checkerboard grid on a sheet of
white paper. Create an alternating pattern
using one motif.Turn the motif upside
down in every other box. Next, draw a
checkerboard grid and create an alternat-
ing pattern using two motifs.
Computer Option. Design two motifs
using the tools of your choice. Use the
Select tool and the Copy and Paste
options to create an alternating pattern
using both motifs. On a new screen,
create an alternating pattern using only
one motif. In this design, you can change
the placement of the motif—for example,
turn it upside down, or change the spaces
between the motifs. Label and save both
designs.
208 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
F
IGURE
8.13 Tr y
to find all the alternating
patterns in this design.
Can you detect white
flowers formed from the
hexagon motif in the bag’s
bottom section? What
other patterns can you
find on this bag?
Ojibwe. Bandolier Bag.
Beaded cloth. 108 33.7 cm
(42
1
2
13
1
4
). Courtesy
National Museum of the
American Indian, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Alternating
Alternating rhythm and pattern can
be created in several ways. One way is
to introduce a second beat or motif.
Another way is to make a change in the
placement or content of the original
beat or motif. A third way is to change
the spaces between the beats or motifs.
Sometimes, alternation is created simply
by changing the position of the motif.
For example, the motif may be turned
upside down. The native Venezuelan
artist used alternation to make the
beaded apron in Figure 8.12 more
interesting. The Ojibwe Native Ameri-
can who sewed the beads on the ban-
dolier bag in Figure 8.13 made the
design interesting by alternating the
colors of the beaded flowers.
Flowing
Flowing rhythm is created by repeat-
ing wavy lines. Curved shapes, such
as rolling hills or ocean waves, create
F
IGURE
8.12 Notice how this artist has switched the
direction of every other column so that the designs seem to
reverse as you look across the row of designs.
Upper Orinoco River, Venezuela. Yekuana muaho (woven beaded apron).
Early twentieth century. 25.1 33.7 cm (9
7
8
13
1
4
). Courtesy National
Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
F
IGURE
8.14 Borsky captured the white flow of this
waterfall in his photograph by increasing the amount of time
he exposed the film to light.
David Borsky. Waterfall. Photograph. Courtesy of the artist.
flowing rhythms. In Figure 8.14, the
artist was able to capture the flowing
movement of the waterfall as it rolled
over the rocks. Your eyes follow the
curving path as it changes direction grad-
ually. There are no sudden breaks in the
line. In Figure 8.15, the artist has used
flowing rhythm to arrange the heads of
the singers to create the mood of the
flowing melody coming from the harp.
Flowing rhythm is created using
upward swells and downward slides.
You might think of the upward moves
as the beats and the downward moves
as the rests. Allan Houser has used flow-
ing rhythms symbolically in his sculp-
ture, Coming of Age (Figure 8.16). The
work expresses the symbolic union of
nature and femininity. The thick, rhyth-
mically flowing strands of hair suggest
motion and the act of running. They
also suggest the movement
of the wind, of water,
or even the blaz-
ing motion of
flames.
F
IGURE
8.16 This sculpture was created to celebrate
feminine youth and beauty. The upturned head symbolizes
the girl’s desire to run to the four directions of the earth.
The small shape above her forehead represents an abalone
shell, a fertility symbol. The feather in her hair signifies a
long life.
Allan Houser. Coming of Age. 1977. Bronze, edition of 12. 19.2
39.4 17.8 cm (7
1
2
15
1
2
7). Denver Art Museum, Denver,
Colorado.
LESSON 2 Types of Rhythm and Pattern 209
F
IGURE
8.15 This sculpture was inspired by
the song Lift Every Voice and Sing, which was a
popular song among African Americans in the
1930s. This is a cast-iron souvenir version of the
original sculpture, a 16-foot plaster work exhibited
at the 1939 World’s Fair.
Augusta Savage. Lift Every Voice and Sing. 1939. Cast iron.
27.6 23.5 11.4 cm (10
7
8
x 9
1
4
x 4
1
2
). Countee
Cullen Collection, Hampton University Museum, Hampton,
Virginia.
210 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
Progressive
In progressive rhythm, there is a
change in the beat each time it is
repeated. The change is a steady one.
Each time the beat appears, it is slightly
different (Figure 8.17). A progressive
rhythm may start with a square. The
size of the square may be changed by
making it slightly smaller each time it is
repeated, or each square may be made a
different color of the spectrum or a dif-
ferent step on the value scale each time
it is repeated. Shapes can be progres-
sively changed. The sides of a square can
be gradually rounded until the square
becomes a circle.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Explain the difference between
random and regular rhythm and
pattern.
2. In what ways can an alternating
rhythm and pattern be created?
3. Compare and contrast the use of
pattern in Figures 8.12 and 8.13
on page 208.
F
IGURE
8.17 In this etching, Escher creates a progressive
rhythm of reptiles climbing out of a flat drawing and evolving into
fully formed creatures. The progression ends with a fully three-
dimensional reptile standing on the polygon, steam blowing from its
nostrils. Then the reptile reenters the two-dimensional drawing.
M. C. Escher. Reptiles. 1943. Lithograph. 33.3 40 cm (13
1
8
15
3
4
).
© 2003 Cordon Art, Baarn, Holland. All rights reserved.
Progressive
Rhythm
Applying Your Skills. Start with a sim-
ple geometric shape, such as a square, for
your motif. Create a progressive rhythm
by gradually changing the square into a
free-form shape. Next, draw a picture
using simple shapes. Change the shapes
gradually, using progressive rhythm, to tell
a visual story.
Computer Option. Look around the
room and select a simple handmade
object such as a stapler, a chair, or a
faucet. Use the tools of your choice to
draw the outline of this shape, adding
details. Consider what shapes can be used
to simplify and represent the object
circles, squares, rectangles, or triangles.
Gradually change the image using a mini-
mum of six or seven steps so that the
transition appears smooth. Begin in black
and white but later you may explore
changes in size, value, or color to enhance
the progression.Tip: After completing
each step, make a copy of it and place it
next to the one you are about to alter, or
use the tracing paper option, if available,
to guide your changes.
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Rhythm to Create Movement 211
Vocabulary
visual movement
kinetic
A
rtists use rhythm in a work of art just as they use the elements and
other principles of art—to convey feelings and ideas. Rhythm, which
can be comforting and predictable, can also be monotonous, symbolic, or
graceful, depending on the artist’s goals. Rhythm can also create visual
movement.
Visual Movement
Visual movement is the principle of art used to create the look and feeling of
action and to guide the viewer’s eyes throughout the work of art. In Figure 8.18,
the artist has used visual movement to tell her story. Xiong has arranged
the figures and objects in her art using visual rhythm to create the sense
of movement. The main beat is Xiong’s family. Notice how the figures
change slightly from one appearance to the next. Is the rhythm random,
alternating, or progressive?
How Artists Use Rhythm
to Create Movement
LESSON
3
F
IGURE
8.18 This
story cloth tells the story
of the artist’s flight from
Laos, across the Mekong
River, to an American
refugee camp in Thailand.
The story starts in the
upper right corner. Can
you follow the family as it
moves toward safety?
Chaing Xiong. Hmong Story
Cloth. 1987. Pieced and
embroidered polyester,
cotton blend. 140.3
145.4 cm (55
1
4
57
1
4
).
Wadsworth Atheneum,
Hartford, Connecticut.
Florence Paull Berger Fund.
212 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
One group of artists tried to do more
than control the way in which viewers
looked at works of art. This group of
artists, called the Futurists, used rhythm
to capture the idea of movement itself.
The Futurists used the word dynamism to
refer to the forces of movement. They
believed that nothing was solid or stable
and that art should show such dyna-
mism. In their artworks, the dynamic
movement of forms is shown by slanting
F
IGURE
8.19 What kind of rhythm does Stella use to create this celebration of movement and light at the
Coney Island Amusement Park? Which elements does he use to create his rhythms?
Joseph Stella. Battle of Lights, Coney Island, Mardi Gras. 1913–14. Oil on canvas. 1.9 2.2 m (6471). Yale University Art Gallery,
New Haven, Connecticut.
and overlapping shapes. In Figure 8.19,
the artist, Joseph Stella, captures the
excitement and movement of the
Amusement Park at Coney Island. A
frenzy of movement is created through
the use of rhythms and patterns of colors
and shapes. Can you find indications of
amusement park rides such as a Ferris
wheel and a roller coaster? Do you rec-
ognize any other rides? Can you find
indications of people?
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Rhythm to Create Movement 213
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define visual movement.
2. Which group of artists used
rhythm to capture the idea of
movement itself?
3. Describe a kinetic sculpture.
4. Compare and contrast the use of
rhythm in Figure 8.18 on page
211 and Figure 8.19 on page 212.
F
IGURE
8.20
Look closely at the
places where the rods
are joined by a
carefully planned set
of loops. Calder’s
works are so carefully
balanced that the
slightest movement of
air will set the
sculpture in motion.
Watching a Calder
sculpture is like
watching a graceful
dancer.
Alexander Calder. Untitled.
c. 1942. Painted
aluminum sheet, steel
sheet, and steel wire.
147.3 182.9 114.3
cm (58 72 45).
Amon Carter Museum,
Fort Worth, Texas. 1999.6.
© 2003 Estate of
Alexander Calder/Artists
Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
You can also see movement in the
visual art of Alexander Calder. He was
a mechanical engineer who believed in
what the Futurists were doing. In his
work he repeated abstract shapes and
put them into real motion. He did this
using the real forces of air currents and
gravity. Calder’s creations were dubbed
kinetic sculpture, because they actually
move in space (Figure 8.20). Artist Mar-
cel Duchamp gave Calder’s moving
sculptures another name, mobiles. Mov-
ing sculptures of this kind have been
called mobiles ever since.
8–1
Historical and Cultural
Context
Jewelry is the making or use of
objects for body adornment and decora-
tion. Among ancient peoples, the wear-
ing of jewelry was often limited to
royalty and/or tribal leaders. Materials
were specific to the environment of the
craftsperson. These might include bone,
stone, shell, claws, hair, plant fibers,
ceramic, metal ores, and semiprecious
gems. As trade between cultures
increased, so did the availability of
materials. Jewelry began to show
more variety and became available
to commoners.
The necklace pendant in Figure 8.21
was crafted by Ramona Solberg, a con-
temporary jewelry maker, but bears
resemblances to jewelry crafted long
ago. Not the least of the similarities is
the use of found objects. Notice the title.
What do you think was the source of
the found object central to this work?
What You Will Learn
You will create a jewelry design for
practical application using found objects,
alternative materials, and simple cold
connection techniques. Cold connec-
tions are usually wire, loops, glue, or
any means of connection without the
use of a torch or heat. Your work will
make use of visually compatible or
related objects organized in a balanced
composition. The arrangement of your
chosen design-related components will
make use of random, regular, alternat-
ing, or flowing rhythm.
SUPPLIES
Assorted found objects
Sketchbook and pencil
Small piping cord for wire coiling and/or hanging neck pieces
Scrap or precut metal shapes, such as copper
Wire (copper, brass, nickel silver) in a variety of gauges
Wire cutters, needle nose pliers, screwdrivers
Jeweler’s saw and blades
Hand files and/or abrasive papers
Drill and bits
Super-strength adhesives
Pin backs, chain, or cord for necklaces
STUDIO
PROJECT
Found Objects
Jewelry
214 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
F
IGURE
8.21
Ramona Solberg. Cracker Jack Choo Choo. 1995. Cast and forged silver, compass,
map, button, Lucite, leather. 66 cm long, 8.2 10.2 cm (26 long, 3
1
4
4).
Collection of Jean Anderson.
Creating
Brainstorm with classmates about
materials and sources for found objects
appropriate to this project. Locate items
at home, make a trip to a local hardware
store, or acquire materials from donated
sources. Share extra parts and items not
needed with classmates. This creates a
wider variety of materials from which to
choose. (Note: This activity is not about
restringing broken necklace beads or
buttons.)
Select approximately seven
items of similar shape, color, or texture.
This will help establish a sense of
rhythm and unity in your arrangement.
Experiment with arranging
your found items in interesting ways.
Attempt to “view” a grouping that
might be suitable for a pin or a sus-
pended neckpiece. Make sketches of
arrangements that appeal to your design
sense. Determine whether additional
items are needed to complete an idea for
which you are missing components.
Choose your best design.
Problem-solve ways to
attach your items. Possible solutions
might include drilling holes and
“sewing” with wire, super-strength
adhesives, wire jump rings, and so on.
Be flexible if an idea is not successful,
and rethink your strategy. (Note: If
using super-strength adhesives, you
might try putting a small amount on a
scrap of mat. Then you can apply the
glue with a toothpick.)
Attach a pin back or cord to
present your piece when finished.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Identify the objects you used
in your art object. How were these objects
connected in the final work?
ANALYZE Compare and contrast the use
of color, texture, and form to create rhythm
in your work. Describe how balance was
used in your composition.
INTERPRET What feeling is conveyed by
the materials, use of rhythm, and composi-
tion of your piece? Give your piece a title.
What type of person might enjoy wearing
this piece? Explain your answer.
JUDGE What aesthetic theory is best applied
to your work? Are you satisfied with your
finished art object? What might you change
if you were to do this activity again? Explain
your answer.
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
8.21A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Found Objects Jewelry 215
8–2
Historical and Cultural
Context
Some art captures a moment in time.
Jacob Lawrence, the artist who painted
the work in Figure 8.22, captured many
moments—all in the life of one person.
That person was Harriet Tubman, the
heroic African American who led countless
fellow enslaved persons to freedom via her
“Underground Railroad.” Take a look at
the figures in this painting. Notice their
body language and facial expressions. Can
you sense what point they are at in their
long journey to freedom?
What You Will Learn
The success of Lawrence’s painting
depends on the use of two art principles—
rhythm and movement. In this activity,
you will do the same. You will create a
mixed-media work using active figures
organized in a repeated rhythm to
express visual movement. A secondary
rhythm of background shapes will be
painted in a color scheme that contrasts
with that of the main figures.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and drawing pencils
Scissors
12 8" watercolor paper
Watercolor paints
Watercolor brushes
Colored pencils
STUDIO
PROJECT
Rhythm and
Movement Painting
216 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
F
IGURE
8.22
Jacob Lawrence. Harriet Tubman Series Number 4. 1939–40. Casein tempera on
gessoed hardboard. 30.5 45.4 cm (12 17
7
8
). Hampton University Museum,
Hampton, Virginia.
Creating
Working in groups of at least five,
brainstorm ideas for poses from activi-
ties that have strong movement. Possi-
bilities include sports, cheerleading,
dance, and running. Each group mem-
ber is to take turns doing an action pose.
Others in the group will meanwhile
make gesture drawings of the model,
trying to get the proportions as accurate
as possible (Technique Tips Handbook,
page 428). Each group member should
end up with at least five sketches.
Select at least two drawings
to use multiple times. Cut the figures
out. Then plan how you will arrange
the repeated shapes on a sheet of water-
color paper. When you are satisfied with
a figure’s placement, lightly trace
around the shape with pencil. Remem-
ber to emphasize a flowing, rhythmic
movement that pulls the viewer’s eyes
throughout the composition.
Divide the background into
shapes that create a secondary rhythm.
Leave about a quarter of an inch of
white space between the shapes.
Choose a color to paint the
main figures. Proceed with the painting.
While the paint is drying,
plan a background color scheme that
will contrast harmoniously with the fig-
ures you painted. Once the paint is dry,
paint the background shapes.
Plan an alternating pattern
using lines and shapes that can be used
throughout the unpainted areas. Select
two shades of colored pencil that are
reflected in the background color
scheme. Using these, apply alternating
patterns. Place your lines and shapes
close together when creating your pat-
tern. Fill all the white areas.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What action poses are repre-
sented in your finished painting? Tell why
you chose the poses you did.
ANALYZE Did you use rhythm and repeti-
tion in arranging the active figures? Does
the background show a secondary rhythm?
Compare and contrast the use of color and
line organized by the principles of rhythm
and pattern. Does your work seem to convey
visual movement?
INTERPRET What kind of mood does your
work express? Name a song you know that
would fit the mood of your work.
JUDGE How well do you feel your artwork
shows rhythm and visual movement? If you
were to do it over again, how would you
improve your work? Which of the three
aesthetic theories would you use to judge
this work?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
8.22A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Rhythm and Movement Painting 217
8–3
F
IGURE
8.23
M. C. Escher. Day and Night. 1938. Woodcut in black and gray,
printed from two blocks. 39.1 67.7 cm (15
2
5
26
2
3
).
© Cordon Art, Baarn, Holland.
Historical and Cultural
Context
The unusual image in Figure 8.23
is by twentieth-century Dutch graphic
artist M. C. Escher. It is one of many
the artist did in which one set of objects
or shapes gradually changes—or meta-
morphoses—into another. In this case,
the objects undergoing this transforma-
tion are two flocks of birds, one white
and one black. Notice how the figures
(the birds) on one side of the image
little by little become the ground (the
land) for the other side. In fact, the two
sides of the work are mirror images of
each other. At least they would be if it
weren’t night on one side and day on
the other.
What You Will Learn
You will create a complex image
using repeated reflections of the same
objects within the artwork. You will use
a 3-D modeling program (Digital Media
Handbook, page 451). Your composition
is to be arranged such that there is pro-
gressive rhythm throughout the work.
Creating
Think of as many highly reflective
objects as you can, such as mirrors,
puddles, sunglass lenses, and chrome
bumpers. Sketch several of these items.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencils
Computer
3-D modeling program
Scanner (optional)
Color printer
Digital Rendering
of Reflections
STUDIO
PROJECT
218 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
Choose your two best
sketches. These forms will be the basis
of your artwork.
Using a 3-D modeling pro-
gram, model these forms, using basic
geometry. You may, if you like, scan in
your sketches. Make sure you name
all of the surfaces, especially the areas
that will have the reflection properties
applied to them. Be sure to save your
work often.
Once you have modeled and
named each surface, import the forms
into the program’s layout area.
Arrange and angle multiple
instances of one or both forms into a
composition in which each is reflected
at least once. There should a minimum
of nine reflections altogether. At least
some of the images should be reflected
in such a manner as to show progressive
rhythm.
Set your surface properties
for each surface area to Maximum
Reflection. Then set your Lighting by
determining the type of light (for exam-
ple, Spotlight, Diffused Light), how
many lights you will use, and from what
direction each light source will be com-
ing. You cannot have reflection if you
have no light to reflect.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Tell what objects you modeled
for your artwork. Explain how you modeled
your objects and arranged them in layout.
ANALYZE Compare and contrast your use
of form and rhythm. Did your forms change
at all with each reflection, and if so, how?
Did you create a natural progressive rhythm?
INTERPRET What mood does your artwork
express? Give a title to your work that sums
up the feelings you are trying to express in
your work.
JUDGE Were you successful at creating a
work of art using progressive rhythm?
Evaluate and justify your artistic decisions.
F
IGURE
8.23A
Student work.
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Digital Rendering of Reflections 219
Save your layout of the
scene. Then test render the scene.
Repeat steps 4 through 6 as needed
until you are satisfied with your output.
Once satisfied, set the
antialiasing to low, and render your
final picture.
Step 7
Step 6
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
Rhythm in art, as in music, gives stability to a composition.
By repeating a visual "beat" or motif, the artist creates
movement and interesting patterns. As you examine the
student artworks on these pages:
Compare and contrast them in terms of their use of rhythm, pattern, and
movement.
Analyze the works, forming precise conclusions about the type of rhythm
or pattern each displays.
Rhythm, Pattern,
and Movement
220 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movementt
Activity 8.24 Visual rhythm.
Analyze this student artwork to form
a conclusion about pattern. Which
objects carry the visual “beat”?
Describe the repeating pattern of
these objects.
Activity 8.25 Regular rhythm.
Compare the rhythm in this painting
and Figure 4.18 (page 79). Identify
the repeated lines or shapes that
contribute to the movement in each.
F
IGURE
8.24
Student work. Untitled. Black and white yarn
woven on copper frame with beads and
metal nuts.
F
IGURE
8.25
Student work. The Culture of Salt. Watercolor and ink.
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Select and Analyze Exhibitions. Add a critical
review to your portfolio.With your teacher’s guidance,
organize class exhibitions at your school. Select and ana-
lyze these peer exhibitions to form conclusions about
formal qualities, historical and cultural contexts, intents,
and meanings. Compile your critical analysis into a
four-part report that you can add to your portfolio.
Become a “student” of
visual rhythms in the
world around you. Illus-
trate ideas for artworks
by directly observing
objects that you handle
on a daily basis, such as
paper money. Find motifs
on these objects. Notice
the type of repetition
each pattern uses. Prac-
tice sketching various
rhythms in your visual
journal, noting their types.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement 221
Activity 8.27 Repetition and motif.
This artwork illustrates how direct
observation of rhythms in everyday objects
can form the basis of art. Evaluate the main
focus of the work. How many motifs can
you find? Explain.
F
IGURE
8.27
Student work. Glasses. Color pencil.
Activity 8.26 Pattern.
Analyze the motif that is
repeated in this painting. Would
you describe the repetition as
regular or random? Explain.
F
IGURE
8.26
Student work. Butterflies. Acrylic.
F
IGURE
8.28
Alfredo Arreguin. Nuestra Señora de la Selva. 1989. 182.9 121.9 cm (72 48).
Collection of the artist.
222 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
What do you see in the foreground?
What do you see in the background?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
During this step you will collect information about
the way the elements of art are organized using the
principles of rhythm, pattern, and movement.This is
still a clue-collecting step, so do not make guesses.
What geometric shapes can you find in this painting?
Identify them.
Where do you see patterns? What kinds of repetition
do they show? What relationship can you find between
the patterns on the floor and the woman’s skirt?
Where do you see visual rhythms that create visual
movement?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
Form conclusions about the meaning of this work.
What do the floor tiles in the foreground represent?
What does the background represent?
Notice that the woman stands behind the tile floor but
in front of the nature scene. What does this mean?
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Decide if this is a successful work of art.
Did the artist use the principles of rhythm and pattern
successfully?
Do you think the artist has successfully expressed his
beliefs in this painting? Why or why not? Defend your
opinion using one or more of the aesthetic theories.
Alfredo Arreguin was born in
Mexico. As a child, Arreguin
loved to explore the tropical
forests of Mexico. In the summer
of 1955, he met an American
family. A strong friendship grew
between them. Arreguin’s new
friends invited him to visit them
at their home in Seattle. He
remained to study at the Univer-
sity of Washington, ultimately
settling in Seattle. Many of his
paintings, like Figure 8.28, express
his concern for natural conserva-
tion in an age of industrialization.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 223
Alfredo Arreguin
(b. 1935)
With The Lion King, director
Julie Taymor brings the
movement of art to theater.
ulie Taymor had a challenge. She was hired to
turn the animated movie The Lion King into a
play with real actors. Luckily, Taymor, a renowned
theater director, is a wizard at puppetry, costumes,
and illusion. She put a jungle full of animals
onstage without using a single live beast.
In the stage version of The Lion King,
actors use puppets and masks to
portray animals. A headpiece and
four stilts turn an actor into a
long-legged giraffe. A cheetah
prowls the stage, pushed by an
actor behind the puppet.
Life-size elephants, moved
by actors in each leg, lumber
down the aisles of the theater.
By having the actors recre-
ate the movements of these
animals, Taymor brought
an African habitat to life.
Taymor uses different types of movements to create
emotions, moods, and settings. When the lionesses
cry over the death of their leader, they show tears
by pulling ribbons of fabric from their eyes. Actors
shake long lengths of blue silk to make a rushing
waterfall. These visual movements serve the
purpose of theater: they create visual effects
that transport the audience into another world.
224 CHAPTER 8 Rhythm, Pattern, and Movement
TIME to Connect
Theater and film directors often ask actors to use
body language and movement to communicate ideas
and feelings.
Watch a television show or a movie and notice how the actors communicate
through gestures, movements, and body language.Then write a critical review
of the show, discussing the acting, writing, directing, costumes, and sets.
As part of your review, include your reaction to the nonverbal techniques
the actors use to express meaning. Is the “unspoken” as powerful as the
“spoken”? Can movements speak louder than words?
J
BRYAN-BROWN/MARCUS/TIME PICTURE COLLECTION
By using movement and
donning a mask, an actor
transforms into a lion.
JOAN MARCUS/TIME PICTURE COLLECTION
Actors portraying animals join with puppets
to create graceful stage movements.
Explore rhythm and movement
with Chuck Davis and the
African American Dance
Ensemble in the Performing Arts Handbook on
page 420.
CHAPTER
8
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The principle of art that indicates move-
ment by the repetition of elements and
objects.
2. Rhythm you receive through your eyes
rather than through your ears.
3. The principle of art concerned with decora-
tive surface design.
4. A unit that is repeated in visual rhythm.
5. A three-dimensional motif.
6. The principle of art used to create the look
and feeling of action and to guide the
viewer’s eyes throughout the work of art.
7. A work of art that actually moves in space.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
8. In general, how is visual rhythm created?
9. How does rhythm add a sense of move-
ment to a work of art?
10. How are different rhythms and patterns
created?
11. What is the difference between a module
and a motif?
12. Name and describe four types of rhythm
and pattern.
13. What is dynamism and with what group is
it associated?
Pattern is used in
many everyday mate-
rials and objects.
Fabric designers are
responsible for creating fabric patterns.Their
designs can be found in everything from rugs
and sheets to high-fashion clothing.Visit
art.glencoe.com to compare and contrast
career opportunities in art.
ART
Chapter 8 Review 225
Thinking Critically About Art
14. Compare and Contrast. Study the
subject matter of the Poor Man’s Cotton
(Figure 8.6 on page 203) and Hmong Story
Cloth (Figure 8.18 on page 211). List the
similarities and differences you find. Are
the themes of the two works similar or
different? Explain your answer.
15. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Read
about Rosa Bonheur’s lifelong love of
animals in the Meet the Artist feature on
page 201. Animals and their relationship
to humans were a major theme in Bon-
heur’s work. Compare and contrast her
depiction of man’s attempt to dominate
animals in Figure 8.3 on page 201 with the
depiction of a similar scene in Figure 7.4
on page 174. How did both artists use
movement in their works?
Linking to the
Performing Arts
226 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.1 This art object, a painted portable scroll, uses different kinds of balance.There is a border at
the top of the scroll that is balanced by one at the bottom. Likewise, the four large circles are balanced side by
side and top and bottom. Compare and contrast the balance used in the images within the four largest circles.
Central Tibet, Tsang (Ngor Monastery), Sakya order. Four Mandalas of the Vajravali Series. c. 1429–56. Thangka, gouache on
cotton. 88.9 73.7 cm (35 29). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.
Figure 9.1 dates to the
fifteenth century. It is a
thangka, a portable scroll. It was used during the 1400s for meditation
by followers of Vajrayana (vahj-ree-ah-na) Buddhism. Also known as
the Diamond Path to spiritual knowledge, Vajrayana was the main
Buddhist sect in the Asian country Tibet. The four large circles on this
thangka are mandalas. In Hindu and Buddhist religion, a mandala is seen
as a symbolic map of the spiritual universe. It is believed that worship-
pers actually entered this mystic realm during prayer.
Describe. Examine an art object from another culture and time in
Figure 9.9 on page 232. Describe the general characteristics of the art-
works in Figures 9.1 and 9.9.
H
ave you ever lost your balance, perhaps while skating or
bicycling? Maintaining your balance in such situations is
critical to your well-being. Balance is important, not only to
life but also to art. It is used by artists to bring a sense of
wholeness, or unity, to their works.
In this chapter, you will:
Describe types of balance and why balance is impor-
tant in a work of art.
Compare and contrast the use of different types of
balance in artworks.
Create visual solutions using direct observation and
imagination to explore the art principle balance.
Analyze the expressive qualities of balance in artworks.
CHAPTER
9
Balance
227
Visual Balance
A
work of art must contain balance. Balance is the principle of art concerned
with equalizing visual forces, or elements, in a work of art. Visual balance
causes you to feel that the elements have been arranged well.
If visual balance creates a feeling that the elements have been arranged
just right, visual imbalance creates the opposite feeling. It causes a feeling of
uneasiness. It makes you feel that something is not quite right. The Leaning
Tower of Pisa (Figure 9.2) attracts
attention because it is out of balance.
It had tilted into a danger zone and was
closed to the public in January 2000.
Engineers corrected the tilt by 17
1
/2
inches. (See page 252 for more details.)
In order to know whether two objects
are of equal weightthat is, if they
balancea balance scale can be used.
In the visual arts, however, balance
must be seen rather than weighed. The
art elements become the visual forces,
or weights, in an art object. A central
axis is a dividing line that works like the
point of balance in the balance scale. Many
works of art have a central vertical axis
(Figure 9.3) with equal visual weight
on both sides of the dividing line. Works
of art can also have a horizontal axis. In
this case, the visual weight is balanced
between top and bottom (Figure 9.4).
Vocabulary
balance
central axis
formal balance
symmetry
radial balance
228 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.2
This building is
known throughout
the world, not
because of its
beauty or because
the architect is
well known, but
because it leans—
it is off balance.
The many diagonal
lines tell the
viewer that this
building must
either straighten
up or fall down.
Bell Tower of the
Cathedral at Pisa (The
Leaning Tower of
Pisa). Begun in 1174.
LESSON
1
F
IGURE
9.3
With a vertical
axis, there is equal
visual weight on
both sides.
F
IGURE
9.4
With a horizontal
axis, there is equal
visual weight
above and below.
LESSON 1 Visual Balance 229
Formal Balance
One type of balance is called formal
balance. Formal balance occurs when
equal, or very similar, elements are placed on
opposite sides of a central axis. The axis can
be vertical or horizontal. It may be a real
Diego Rivera, the son of two teachers, was born in 1886 in the small town of
Guanajuato, Mexico. As a young man, Rivera received a government grant to
study art in Spain. He also studied with Picasso in France and traveled to Italy to
study the works of Raphael and Michelangelo.
When he returned to Mexico, he decided to paint only Mexican subjects. He
used the simplified forms of pre-Columbian art in his work. His concern for the
workers, the poor, and the illiterate influenced all of his art. He painted many
murals with political themes, considering them a way to teach people who could
not read. In his art, he combined the techniques of European painters with the
history of Mexico to create a new way to portray his ideas about the people and
culture of Mexico.
MEET THE
ARTIST
DIEGO
RIVERA
Mexican, 1886–1957
F
IGURE
9.5 Rivera used his art to show his
serious concern for the Mexican working people.
Many of his works depicted the labors of the
Mexican peasants. His work reflects the style of the
solid-looking, pre-Columbian artwork of the Mayans.
Diego Rivera. Flower Day. 1925. Oil on canvas. 147.3
120.7 cm (58 47
1
2
). Los Angeles County Museum of
Art, Los Angeles, California. Los Angeles County Fund.
Reproducción autorizada por el Instituto Nacional de Bellas
Artes y Literatura.
Diego Rivera. Self-Portrait. 1941.
Oil on canvas. 61 43.2 cm (24
17). Smith College Museum of
Art, Northampton, Massachusetts.
part of the design, or it may be an imag-
inary line, as in Figures 9.3 and 9.4. For-
mal balance is the easiest type of balance
to recognize and to create (Figure 9.5).
After you find the axis, all you have to
do is place similar objects on each side,
equally distant from the center.
230 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.7 This view of the White House expresses the dignity and importance of the home of the
president of the United States. The use of symmetry makes the building appear secure and stable.
James H. Cromartie. View of the White House, South Portico. 1980. Acrylic on canvas. 50.8 76.2 cm (20 30"). Private
Collection.
F
IGURE
9.6 This urn shows a young man
wearing a headdress depicting his guardian spirit,
the goddess Quetzal, an unforgettably beautiful bird.
The artist who created this urn used symmetry to
emphasize the seriousness of this work.
Mexican, Zapotec (from Monte Alban). Figural Urn.
A
.
D
. 500700. Painted earthenware. 63.5 63.5 31.8 cm
(25 25 12
1
2
"
). Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,
Kansas City, Missouri. Purchase: Nelson Trust 61-16.
Symmetry
Symmetry is a special type of formal
balance in which two halves of a balanced
composition are identical, mirror images of
each other. Another term for this is bilat-
eral symmetry (Figure 9.6).
Symmetry appeals strongly to us,
probably because of the bilateral sym-
metry of the human body. Objects
closely associated with our bodies, such
as clothing and furniture, are usually
symmetrical. Most traditional architec-
ture, especially public architecture, is
symmetrical (Figure 9.7).
LESSON 1 Visual Balance 231
Symmetry can be very stiff and for-
mal. Artists use it to express dignity,
endurance, and stability. Because formal
balance is so predictable, however, it
can be dull. Many artists avoid boring
the viewer by using approximate sym-
metry, which is almost symmetrical.
F
IGURE
9.8 Van Eyck used approximate symmetry to depict this wedding
portrait. The halves of the picture are not quite the same. However, the work
still has the dignity of perfect symmetry, only the composition is more
interesting and less monotonous than if he had used perfect symmetry.
Jan van Eyck. The Arnolfini Wedding. 1434. Oil on panel. 83.8 57.2 cm (33 22.5).
National Gallery, London, England.
Using
Symmetry
Creating Visual Solutions
Using Direct Observation.
Arrange a symmetrical still life.
Carefully observe the arrange-
ment before making a pencil
drawing on a small sheet of
paper.Then rearrange or change
the objects slightly to create
approximate symmetry. Make a
drawing of the second arrange-
ment. Mount the drawings side by
side on a sheet of construction
paper and label each drawing.
Which one do you prefer? Survey
your friends to find out their
preferences.
Computer Option. If available,
use the Symmetry menu and
Brush or Pencil tool to create a
symmetrical landscape.Vary the
Brush shape, thickness, pattern,
and color. If the Symmetry menu
is not available, determine the
central axis or line of symmetry.
Draw half of the scene. Use the
Select tool and Copy, Paste, and
Flip commands to make the
matching second half.Title and
save the work.Try rearranging the
shapes in your scene so that it is
not perfectly symmetrical.
Compare the two drawings.
Which do you prefer?
Approximate symmetry has the stabil-
ity of formal balance (Figure 9.8). Some
small differences make it more interest-
ing than perfect symmetry. If you look
carefully in a mirror, you may discover
that your face has approximate symme-
try. The two sides do not match perfectly.
F
IGURE
9.10 This dish was once
used as a serving bowl. The center of
the design is a replica of the family coat
of arms. Notice how the thin gold lines
decorate the empty spaces between the
thick blue lines.
Valencia, Spain. Dish c. 1430. Tin-glazed earthenware
painted in cobalt blue and lustre. Height: 6.7 cm
(2
5
8
); diameter of mouth: 48.2 cm (19). Hispanic
Society of America, New York, New York.
232 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.9 The use of radial balance adds to the
decorative quality of this design. This print is based on
the stained-glass dome found in the main synagogue of
Szeged, Hungary.
N. Anderson, Israel. Blue Dome–House Blessing. 1995. Etching.
43.2 43.2 cm (17 17). Private Collection.
Radial Balance
Radial balance occurs when the forces
or elements of a design come out (radiate)
from a central point. The axis in a radial
design is the center point. In almost all
cases, the elements are spaced evenly
around the axis to form circular patterns
(Figure 9.9).
Radial balance is a complex varia-
tion of symmetry. While symmetry
requires only two matching units,
designs with radial balance usually
involve four or more matching units.
In Figure 9.10, notice that the center
of the design is the family shield sur-
rounded by a blue circle of zigzag
lines. Four petal-like shapes and four
bars radiate from the center of the
bowl to its rim. On the rim, wide blue
and thin gold lines continue to form a
circular design. Notice how all the
blue line designs resemble Arabic writ-
ing but do not form any real letters.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is a central axis?
2. What is the easiest type of balance to
recognize and create?
3. Which type of balance can be found
frequently in nature and in archi-
tecture?
4. Compare and contrast the use of
balance in Figure 9.6 on page 230
and Figure 9.10 on page 232.
LESSON 1 Visual Balance 233
Creating Radial
Balance
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Imagination. Draw on your creativity
to design five objects that exhibit radial
balance. Make a drawing of each imaginary
object, using pen or pencil. Emphasize the
radial balance of each object, using line,
form, and color.
Computer Option. Choose from a
variety of Shape tools. Determine the
center of the computer page. Use a dot,
an X, an addition sign (), or other shape
to mark this spot. Copy and Paste a shape
four times around the center point. Con-
tinue to add and arrange shapes to main-
tain radial balance.Try a variety of sizes to
add interest but make sure each set of
four shapes is identical.Title and save
your work. Now explore a more complex
radial design. Combine lines and shapes
and use more than four repeated combi-
nations to complete the design.
F
IGURE
9.11 Torivio, a Native American potter,
has developed her own style for decorating her
pots. She repeats the designs in radial patterns. The
motif starts out small at the top rim and then
expands to the widest part of the vessel.
Dorothy Torivio. Vase. c. 1984. Clay. Height about 20.3 cm
(8"). Heard Museum Collection, Phoenix, Arizona.
Radial balance occurs frequently in
nature. Most flower petals are arranged
around a central axis and radiate out-
ward. Many plants follow radial pat-
terns of growth. For instance, if you cut
an apple in half horizontally, you will
see a radial star design. Cut an orange
the same way and you will notice the
radial pattern of segments.
You can find many examples of radial
balance in architecture. Domes are
designed on the principle of radial bal-
ance. Manufactured items such as gears,
wheels, tires, dials, and clocks are also
radial in structure. Radial designs are
used by many potters to decorate the
surfaces of their work because they
adapt well to the rounded forms of
pottery (Figure 9.11).
LESSON
2
Informal Balance
I
nformal balance gives the viewer the same comfortable feeling as formal
balance, but in a much more subtle way. Informal balance, or asymme-
try, involves a balance of unlike objects. While informal balance can express dig-
nity, endurance, and stability, these qualities are less pronounced. Informal
balance seems more realistic because it is closer to what appears in your
everyday environment. It does not consist of two equal or nearly equal
halves or sides. Instead, it relies on the artistic arrangement of objects to
appear balanced.
Using Informal Balance in Art
Informal balance creates a casual effect (Figure 9.12). Although it seems
less planned than formal balance, it is not. What appears to be an accidental
arrangement of elements can be quite complicated. Symmetry merely
requires that elements be repeated in a mirror image. Informal balance is
more complex. Artists must consider all the visual weight factors and put
them together correctly. Many factors influence the visual weight, or the
attraction, that elements in a work of art have to the viewer’s eyes.
Vocabulary
informal balance
234 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.12 Pippin balanced the large, simple form of the log cabin near the center of the work with a complex shape
formed by two trees and a shed near the edge of the work.
Horace Pippin. Cabin in the Cotton. Mid-1930s. Oil on panel. 46 84.1 cm (18
1
8
33
1
8
). The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. In
memoriam: Frances W. Pick from her children Thomas F. Pick and Mary P. Hines, 1996.417.
LESSON 2 Informal Balance 235
Size and Contour
A large shape or form appears to be
heavier than a small shape. Several
small shapes or forms can balance one
large shape.
An object with a complicated contour
is more interesting and appears to be
heavier than one with a simple contour.
A small, complex object can balance a
large, simple object (Figure 9.13).
Color
A high-intensity color has more
visual weight than a low-intensity color.
The viewer’s eyes are drawn to the area
of bright color. What does this mean in
terms of balance? It means that a small
area of bright color is able to balance a
larger area of a dull, neutral color
(Figure 9.14).
F
IGURE
9.13 The objects in this painting
appear balanced because the complex shape of the
creature on the right is counteracted by the large,
thin spiral shape on the left. Also, the background
space is informally balanced by the areas of orange
and brown.
Joan Miró. Landscape (The Hare). Autumn 1927. Oil on
canvas. 129.5 194 cm (51 76
3
8
). The Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York. © 2003
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York, ADAGP/Paris.
F
IGURE
9.14 The bright red color of the cloth
wrapped around the child helps it stand out against
the larger, low-intensity color of the enlarged head
and the neutral colors of the forms on the ground.
David Alfaro Siqueiros. Echo of a Scream. 1937. Enamel on
wood. 121.9 91.4 cm (48 36). Museum of Modern Art,
New York, New York. Gift of Edward M. M. Warburg
(633.193a). © Estate of David Alfaro Siqueiros/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY/SOMAAP, Mexico City.
236 CHAPTER 9 Balance
Texture
A rough texture, with its uneven pat-
tern of light highlights and dark, irregu-
lar shadows, attracts the viewer’s eye
more easily than a smooth, even surface
does. This means that a small, rough-
textured area can balance a large,
smooth surface. In a poster or advertise-
ment, a block of printed words has the
quality of rough texture because of the
irregular pattern of light and dark.
Graphic designers must keep this in
mind when balancing words with other
visual elements.
F
IGURE
9.15 Notice
how the artist used small
areas of bright, warm
yellow and orange to
balance cool greens and
blues as well as neutral
and low-intensity colors.
Emily Carr. A Rushing Sea of
Undergrowth. 1932–35. Oil on
canvas. 112.8 x 69 cm (44
3
8
27
1
8
). Vancouver Art Gallery,
Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada. Emily Carr Trust,
VAG 42.3.17.
Warm colors carry more visual weight
than cool colors. Red appears heavier
than blue, and yellow/orange appears
heavier than green (Figure 9.15).
Value
The stronger the contrast in value
between an object and the background,
the more visual weight the object has
(Figure 9.16). Black against white has
more weight than gray against white.
Dark values appear heavier than light
values. A dark red seems heavier than a
light red.
LESSON 2 Informal Balance 237
Position
Children playing on a seesaw quickly
discover that two friends of unequal
weight can balance the seesaw by
adjusting their positions. The heavier
child moves toward the center; the
lighter child slides toward the end. The
board is then in balance (Figure 9.17).
F
IGURE
9.16 Elijah’s
white beard is the lightest
area in the illustration.
The use of this bright, light
color emphasizes Elijah, who
otherwise might blend in
with the neutral, dull colors
of the background. Compare
and contrast this use of
color and balance with
Figure 9.15 on page 236.
Jerry Pinkney. Illustration from
Journeys with Elijah.
F
IGURE
9.17 Does the seesaw look balanced?
Using Informal
Balance
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Create small designs
using cut paper and/or fabric shapes to
illustrate five weight arrangements that
create informal balance. In each design
keep all of the elements as alike as possi-
ble. Vary only the weight factors. For
example, to illustrate differences in size,
a large red circle could be balanced by
several small red circles.
Computer Option. Use the drawing
tools of your choice to make a series of
small compositions that show informal bal-
ance. Use both lines and shapes. Explore
changes in size, color, texture, value, con-
tour, and position to create these asym-
metrical compositions. Make several of
each kind.Title, save, and print your best
examples. Display them and compare with
your classmates.
238 CHAPTER 9 Balance
In visual art, a large object close to
the dominant area of the work can be
balanced by a smaller object placed far-
ther away from the dominant area (Fig-
ure 9.18). In this way, a large, positive
shape and a small, negative space can be
balanced against a small, positive shape
and a large, negative space.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is the effect of informal balance?
2. Name the six factors that influence
the visual weight of an object.
3. Which has a heavier visual weight,
an object with a simple contour or
one with a complicated contour?
F
IGURE
9.18 In the foreground, two dancers placed side by side create a busy, large shape that draws the viewer’s
attention. How do the four small dancers in the distance create balance with the dancers in the foreground?
Edgar Degas. Before the Ballet. 1890/1892. Oil on canvas. 40 88.9 cm (15
3
4
35). National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Widener Collection.
LESSON 3 The Expressive Qualities of Balance 239
LESSON
3
T
he type of balance an artist uses to organize a work of art affects the
feeling expressed by that work. Artists choose balance based on the feel-
ing they wish to convey. An artist who wants to present a calm arrangement
will use formal balance. Formal balance can be used to present a person in a
dignified portrait (Figure 9.19).
The Expressive Qualities
of Balance
Using Formal Balance To Organize
A Composition
LOOKING
CLOSELY
Frida Kahlo has used formal balance to organize
this painting to give it a sense of dignity and impor-
tance. In the diagram you can see that if the painting
were folded in half along the vertical axis the shapes
would match. Notice, however, that there are a few
small variations.They would not match perfectly
because she has used approximate symmetry. Can
you find any matching shapes that were not included
in the diagram?
F
IGURE
9.19
Frida Kahlo. Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky. 1937. Oil on Masonite.
76.2 61 cm (30 24). National Museum of Women in the Arts,
Washington, D.C. Gift of the Honorable Clare Boothe Luce.
240 CHAPTER 9 Balance
Formal balance can also be used in
religious paintings to evoke feelings of
dignity and endurance. In the past,
paintings used as altarpieces in churches
were designed to fit in with the formal
balance of the church altar. The artist
Ferdinand Hodler developed a personal
aesthetic theory called Parallelism that
relied on symmetry and repetition to
create images that expressed stability
(Figure 9.20).
Many government buildings, hospi-
tals, and office buildings are designed
using formal balance. One purpose of
this type of balance is to imply that the
business conducted in these buildings is
serious and solemn.
With approximate symmetry, artists
express the same sense of calm stability,
but they avoid the rigid formality of
pure symmetry. Georgia O’Keeffe used
approximate symmetry in her paintings
of large close-ups of flowers. This
impresses the viewer with feelings
about the importance of the natural
world. The use of approximate symme-
try lends dignity to the flowing curves
and alternating pastel colors of her
painting, White Rose with Larkspur, No. 2
(Figure 9.21).
Radial design, on the other hand, is
almost purely decorative. It appears in
architecture, jewelry, pottery, weaving,
F
IGURE
9.21 How has O’Keeffe arranged the
shapes in this painting to create approximate, not
absolute, symmetry? Would you like the painting more
if it were perfectly symmetrical? Why or why not?
Georgia O’Keeffe. White Rose with Larkspur, No. 2. 1927. Oil
on canvas. 101.6 76.2 cm (40 30). Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston, Massachusetts. Henry H. and Zoe Oliver
Sherman Fund, 1980.207. © 2003 The Georgia O’Keeffe
Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
9.20 Ferdinand Hodler used formal
balance to create a stiff, stable portrait of his friend.
The line from the sculptor’s nose through the line
in his shirt divides the portrait vertically into almost
perfectly matching halves.
Ferdinand Hodler. James Vilbert, Sculptor. 1907. Oil on canvas.
65.4 66.4 cm (25
3
4
26
1
8
). The Art Institute of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial
Collection, 1926.212
and textile design. It is not often used by
painters in its pure form. You can, how-
ever, find loose arrangements of radiat-
ing lines in many paintings. Artists use
this technique to focus attention on an
important part of an artwork.
Informal balance has a more natural
look. When you look around your nat-
ural environment, you seldom find
objects arranged with formal balance.
To capture this natural quality in their
works, artists use informal balance in
arranging landscapes or groups of peo-
ple (Figure 9.22).
Architects are using informal balance
in many modern structures (see Figure
14.16, page 399). Single-family subur-
ban homes have become the symbol of
casual living. These houses are often
designed using informal balance.
F
IGURE
9.22 Notice how
Carr has used informal balance
by placing most of the raven to
the right of center in this
landscape. She made many trips
to the Northwest Coast of
Alaska to record images of the
Native American villages. This
work was made in her studio
based on sketches she had done
on her trip to Queen Charlotte
Island. The Haida village had
been deserted and the large
carving of the raven remained.
She has balanced the raven,
flowers, and trees near the
foreground against the blue
mountain in the distance.
Emily Carr. Cumshewa. c. 1912.
Watercolor over graphite on wove
paper. 52 75.3 cm (20
1
2
29
5
8
).
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What feeling does formal balance
convey?
2. What kind of buildings use formal
balance? Why?
3. Why might an artist prefer approxi-
mate symmetry over pure symmetry?
Identifying
Balance
Applying Your Skills. Look around
your neighborhood for buildings that
have been constructed using formal or
informal balance. Make a rough sketch of
one building and describe the feeling it
gives you. If you live in a city and the
buildings are too tall to sketch, look at
the entrances to the buildings and sketch
one of them.The entrance includes the
door and all the decorative shapes
around the doorway.
Computer Option. Use the tools of
your choice to create a complex design
illustrating one of the following: formal
balance, informal balance, symmetry,
approximate symmetry, radial balance.
Save your work and then print it. If your
printer is black and white, use colored
pencils to add color. Evaluate your design.
Does it meet the criteria for the kind of
balance you chose to illustrate?
LESSON 3 The Expressive Qualities of Balance 241
9–1
F
IGURE
9.23
Zaire, Kuba Culture. Mukenga Mask. Wood, animal fur, raffia cloth, cowrie shells,
glass beads, string. 49.5 43.2 55.8 cm (19
1
2
17 22). Virginia Museum
of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. The Arthur and Margaret Glasgow Fund.
Historical and Cultural
Context
Did you recognize the object in
Figure 9.23 to be a mask? This mask is
one of three that tells the story of the
Kuba culture. The Kuba are an indige-
nous people of the Democratic Republic
of Congo (formerly Zaire). According to
Kuba legend, royalty descended from
divine beings. The face on this object is
meant to represent a king named Woot,
who founded the kingdom. Different
aspects of this mask are hints to the sta-
tus of the figure depicted. The elephant-
trunk shape with its patterns of beads
and shells refers to a king’s commanding
power. The animal fur covering his face
and the raffia encircling his neck signify
a king’s strength. The cowrie-shell collar
signifies a king’s wealth and power.
Notice that the mask is organized by
means of symmetrical balance. The ele-
ments of color and visual texture are
used to suggest this symmetry.
What You Will Learn
You will create a symmetrical ceramic
mask representing a real or imaginary
leader. You will add textures and pat-
terns around the facial features, using
clay. To add these facial features, you
will demonstrate the effective use of
sculpting media and tools. The mask is
to be embellished, using paint and other
decorative materials including raffia,
wire, beads, and fabric.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Newspaper
Clay (can be self-hardening)
Clay modeling tools
Acrylic paint and brushes
Raffia
Thin wire
Beads
Fabric scraps
Glue
STUDIO
PROJECT
Ceramic Mask
242 CHAPTER 9 Balance
STUDIO PROJECT Ceramic Mask 243
Creating
List in your sketchbook the qualities
you want your leader to show. Draw
preliminary sketches that illustrate these
qualities. Plan how you will use texture
and color to organize your work accord-
ing to the principle of symmetrical
balance.
Crumple newspaper into a
tight ellipse (oval). Roll a slab of clay
about 3/8-inch thick, and drape the
clay over the newspaper bundle. Form
a face by modeling the clay. Cut away
unneeded clay from around the edges.
Using your modeling tools,
add clay and sculpt the features of the
face. (See Technique Tips Handbook,
pages 433–434.) Cut holes into the clay
in order to attach the wire, beads, or
other decorative materials later. Add tex-
tures to the face by adding small pieces of
clay or by carving gently into the slab.
(Remember to score and moisten the
clay before joining two pieces.)
Allow the clay to dry com-
pletely before it is fired in the kiln.
Using a No. 2 pencil, lightly
sketch your designs on the face, espe-
cially the forehead and cheeks. Create
simple patterns of repeating shapes.
Again, arrange these symmetrically to
echo the overall symmetric organization
of your object. Use acrylic paint to color
the patterns. Allow the paint to dry.
Attach the raffia, if desired,
by tying it through the holes you cut in
the clay. Using wire, string beads over
and around the face. These may also be
tied through the same holes. Additional
beads can be glued on the surface. Fab-
ric strips, which you could fringe, could
also be glued along the underneath edge
to add more layers of texture.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE List and describe the characteris-
tics of the leader portrayed in your mask.
How did you symbolize these characteristics?
What materials did you use to embellish the
mask?
ANALYZE Explain how you used symmetry
in creating the form of the face. Compare and
contrast how you used texture and color to
reinforce the symmetrical balance of the
design.
INTERPRET What does your mask say
about the person represented? Give your
mask a title. Interpret your artistic decisions.
JUDGE Did you demonstrate the effective use
of clay and clay modeling tools in sculpting the
face? Which aesthetic theories would you use
to judge this work? Are there any improve-
ments you would make to your design?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
9.23A
Student work.
9–2
F
IGURE
9.24
Himachal Pradesh. Chamba Rumal. India. Early nineteenth century.
Cotton with colored embroidery (silk). 66 cm (26") diameter.
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Historical and Cultural
Context
The Himalayas in Asia are known as
home to the planet’s highest mountain,
Mount Everest. To the people of India,
however, the range holds an additional
significance. Deep within the mountains
is the village of Chamba, which for the
past thousand years has been turning
out exquisite examples of a native art
form known as the rumal (roo-mall).
Created by the women of the village,
rumals are richly intricate paintings
embroidered with fine needlework. Tra-
ditionally, they were used as ceremonial
handkerchiefs or scarves.
The rumal in Figure 9.24 is typical.
Note that this object exhibits radial bal-
ance. The design begins with the small
red circle at the center. A pattern of
flower petals radiates out from this cen-
tral point, each petal pointing to a circle
of male and female figures that are
notable in Hindu tradition. An interlac-
ing pattern of flower petals continues
the design along the outer border.
What You Will Learn
You will illustrate ideas for a mandala
design from personal experiences. In
Hindu writing, mandala is the word for
circle. The basic pattern of a mandala is
a circle with a center. Like the rumal in
Figure 9.24, the mandala will exhibit
radial balance. Your mandala will use
three symbols. One should be a symbol
of your personal heritage—something
with special meaning to your family or
cultural group. A second should be a
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Vellum finish bristol paper or heavy white drawing paper
Compass
Protractor
Colored pencils
Clean scrap paper
Fixative (optional)
STUDIO
PROJECT
Radial Balance
Mandala
244 CHAPTER 9 Balance
personal symbol of your everyday life
(for example, a schoolbook or symbol
of a sport or activity you enjoy). The
third should be a symbol of art, such a
paintbrush. You will layer and blend
colors in your work to create gradual
changes in value.
Creating
Think about the three symbols you
will use. You may want to talk with
family members about the cultural
symbol. Make visual and verbal notes
in your sketchbook. Produce several
thumbnail sketches. Select your best
sketches.
On a sheet of drawing
paper, draw a circle approximately
9 inches in diameter, using a compass.
Line up a protractor over the center
point, and divide the circle into three
equal wedges. In each third, enlarge
one of your three symbol sketches.
Decide on a color scheme.
For each color moving outward from
the center, select a color that is one step
warmer or lighter or one step cooler or
darker. The object ultimately is to layer
and blend these colors together to create
gradual changes in value. Choose col-
ored pencils to match each color you
will use in your design.
Begin coloring your man-
dala. Keep a sheet of clean scrap paper
beneath your hand as you work. This
will prevent your hand from smearing
your work.
When you have finished
your mandala, spray it with fixative—
if your teacher provides it—to keep
the colors from smearing. Safety note:
Do the spraying outside or in a well-
ventilated area.
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Describe the three symbolic
images you have chosen. Identify the mean-
ing of each.
ANALYZE Did you use radial balance?
What color scheme did you use? Compare
and contrast your use of value. Is there a
gradual progression from the center out?
INTERPRET What does your personal
mandala express about you as a person?
Write a brief paragraph or a poem expressing
the meaning of your work.
JUDGE Which aesthetic theory would you
use to judge this work? If you were to do
another mandala, what, if anything, would
you change?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
9.24A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Radial Balance Mandala 245
9–3
Historical and Cultural
Context
Figure 9.25 is a woodblock print
created by nineteenth-century Japanese
artist Katsushika Hokusai. The print is
from one of Hokusai’s best-known
series, Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. In
this asymmetrical composition, your eye
is first drawn to one of the blue areas,
perhaps in the lower right corner. From
there, your gaze drifts diagonally to the
snow-capped peak, Mount Fuji. You
might expect a work so designed to be
terribly lopsided, but this composition is
not. The intense blue areas are neatly
balanced by the large amount of water
on the left.
What You Will Learn
In this lesson, you will create a digital
image that has asymmetrical balance.
The central figures in the work (the pos-
itive space) are to be a person and one
or two pieces of furniture or objects
from nature. There will be a large, open,
negative space, as in Figure 9.25, that
creates asymmetrical balance. Photo-
graph the staged composition using a
digital camera. After importing the
images into a computer paint program,
alter the work—selecting among the
tools and menus. Print the image. Then
create a painting based on the digital
print. (See Digital Media Handbook,
page 449.)
SUPPLIES
Digital camera
Image-editing or paint program
Computer
Printer
Sketchbook and pencil
Large sheets of heavy white paper
Acrylic, tempera, or watercolor paints
Brushes, water containers, and towels
Asymmetrical
Balance Painting
STUDIO
PROJECT
246 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.25
Katsushika Hokusai. Shichiri Beach in Sagami Province from Thirty-Six Views of
Mount Fuji. 1823–31. Woodblock print. 26.4 x 38.4 cm (10
3
8
15
1
8
).
Honolulu Academy of Art, Honolulu, Hawaii. Gift of James A. Michener. 1985.
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Asymmetrical Balance Painting 247
Creating
Using direct observation, sketch set-
tings in and around your school that
include one or two large objects, such as
a bench, a tree, or a staircase. Use a
classmate as a model. Have your model
pose near—not necessarily in front of—
the objects you have selected. Try to
visualize a composition that includes
just the person and the objects against a
backdrop of negative space. Attempt to
achieve asymmetrical balance.
Place the model in the set-
ting you have selected. Take several pic-
tures of the scene from different angles
and distances. Pick arrangements that
emphasize asymmetrical balance.
Import the digital images
into a computer. Open the images in a
paint program. Select and save the best
composition.
Use the paint program’s
tools and menus to improve the compo-
sition by selecting and moving the fig-
ure or objects. Crop the work, if needed,
to emphasize asymmetrical balance.
Explore and adjust the
color settings. Increase color saturation;
increase the contrast and change the
settings to emphasize foreground
images. Alter some colors. Although
these changes will give the image a flat-
ter appearance, like a woodcut, many
striking, colorful, and unusual effects
can be achieved on the computer that
are otherwise not possible.
Save and print your image.
Select a paint medium.
Make a freehand painting based on your
digital image.
When the paint is dry, mat
and display both artworks.
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What settings did you record in
your sketchbook? What objects appear in
your work? What software tools did you
use to change your original digital image?
What media did you choose to create your
painting?
ANALYZE How are objects arranged in
the digital image and the painting to show
asymmetrical balance? What contributes to
the asymmetrical balance created between
positive and negative space? Describe how
camera angle, position of objects, and crop-
ping support this kind of balance.
INTERPRET What feelings does your fin-
ished work express? Give your painting a
title that reflects these feelings.
JUDGE Do both artworks show asymmetri-
cal balance? If you were to redo any part of
the work, what would you do differently to
improve the work? How would a different
color scheme affect the work? Evaluate and
justify your artistic decisions.
F
IGURE
9.25A
Student work (photograph).
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
9.25B
Student work (painting).
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
Whether balance is symmetrical, radial, or informal, it is
essential to an artwork’s success. Formal balance can add
dignity; informal balance, excitement. As you examine the
student artworks on these pages:
Compare and contrast them in terms of their use of the principle
of balance.
Analyze the works, forming precise conclusions about the type of
balance used.
Balance
248 CHAPTER 9 Balance
Activity 9.26 Type of balance.
Analyze the balance used in this art
object. Form a conclusion as to
whether it is formal or informal.
Does the object appear to have a
practical use, or is it purely
decorative?
F
IGURE
9.26
Student work. Untitled. Copper wire, coiled copper,
rubber, electronic armature.
F
IGURE
9.27
Student work. Untitled. Stoneware, beads, wire, raffia.
Activity 9.27 Expressive qualities of balance.
What feeling or idea does this mask communicate
through its use of balance? Explain.
STUDIO ART PORTFOLIO Balance 249
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Analyzing Peer Artworks. Many art students nowa-
days maintain online or digital art portfolios. With your
teacher’s guidance, organize online exhibitions of stu-
dent artworks.You may also research online exhibi-
tions of student art at other high schools. Select and
analyze these peer exhibitions to form conclusions
about formal qualities, historical and cultural contexts,
intents, and meanings. Compile your analysis into a
four-part report that you can store in your portfolio.
One way to sharpen
your skills at perceiving
balance is to tour your
city. Notice the buildings
and type of balance used
in their designs. Make
notes and sketches about
these and other objects.
See whether you can
find at least one example
of each of the following
types of balance: radial,
symmetrical, approxi-
mate symmetrical, and
informal.
Activity 9.29 Comparing balance.
Compare and contrast the use of
balance in this student work with
Figure 12.30 on page 343. What
other differences and similarities can
you detect?
Activity 9.28 Type of balance.
Describe the type of balance used in
this earth artwork. How are textures
and colors used to reinforce balance?
F
IGURE
9.28
Student work. Earth Wheel. Soil, flowers, sand.
F
IGURE
9.29
Student work. Bear. Acrylic.
250 CHAPTER 9 Balance
F
IGURE
9.30
Arthur Shaughnessy, Native American, Dzawada’enuxw. Dla’ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear Beneath Kolus. c. 1907.
Red cedar, and paint. 457.2 335.3 86.4 cm (180 132 34). The Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington.
Gift of Mr. John H. Hausberg.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
Describe the general characteristics of this house post.
Provide as many visual details as you can.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
During this step you will collect information about
the way the elements of art are organized using the
principle of balance. This is still a clue-collecting step,
so do not make guesses.
Is this a two- or three-dimensional object? Explain.
What kind of balance has the artist used to organize
this house post? Compare and contrast examples of
how and where this balance is used.
Where do you see patterns? Where do you see visual
movement caused by repeated rhythms?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
How do the forms, shapes, and colors on this post
make you feel? Explain your reaction.
What do you think is the purpose of this post?
Write an imaginary dialogue between these creatures
that explains the legend of their creation.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Decide if this is a successful work of art.
Did the artist use the principles of rhythm and balance
to organize the elements of art to communicate a feel-
ing or an idea? Explain.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theories to
defend your judgment.
Arthur Shaughnessy
(1884–1945)
The Dzawada’enuxw (duh-
zuh-wah-dah-ee-noocks-wa) are
a native people of the Pacific
Northwest.This totem pole was
one of four decorative house
posts carved by Arthur Shaugh-
nessy around 1907. Such carvings
were traditionally done to dedi-
cate new homes built for families
of stature.The posts, which carry
the family’s history, were viewed
as spiritual in nature. In 1966, a
collector purchased the weather-
beaten posts and had them
restored. He donated them to
the Seattle Art Museum. In 1992,
the posts were rededicated in a
ceremony led by the descendants
of the original owners.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 251
Balance is more than an important characteristic
in art. For a world-famous building, maintaining
its balance means preserving the past.
n 1989, visitors climbed the 294 steps to the top of Italy’s
Leaning Tower of Pisa. They could look out from the
famous tilting tower at the surrounding countryside that
has inspired so many artists. Not all was well, though.
Experts warned that the off-balance tower, which began
leaning soon after it was built in 1173, had leaned too far.
The tower is built directly on an ancient riverbed of soft,
sandy soil, and the foundation is too shallow for a structure
that weighs 32 million pounds. By 2009, it could fall.
So engineers spent $25 million—and took 12 years—
setting the 192-foot tower a bit straighter. Not, of course,
entirely in balance. That would have destroyed its appeal.
It was made straight enough, however, to keep it stable
for another 300 years.
Nearly 2 million pounds of lead weights were placed
on one of the tower’s sides. A giant belt was looped
around the tower and connected to large weights a
block away. These two steps stopped the tilting. Two
million pounds of soil were removed from around
part of the foundation. This created cavities into
which the tower could settle. When it was all over,
Pisa had gone from an angle of 5.5 degrees back to
an even 5 degrees. That’s where it was 200 years ago.
By 2001, tourists were climbing to the top to enjoy
the sight as well as the tilt.
252 CHAPTER 9 Balance
TIME to Connect
The Leaning Tower of Pisa tilts because it was built on sandy soil.
What other environmental factors can change a building over time?
Using your school’s media center or the Internet, investigate an
engineering marvel—such as the pyramids of Egypt or Mexico, the
Acropolis in Greece, or the Taj Mahal in India.Write a brief report,
including the following data and information:
What materials were used to build the structure?
What natural and human-made factors—such as weather,
geological events, and pollution—are affecting the structure? To
what degree has the structure been damaged by these factors?
What efforts, if any, are taking place to preserve the structure?
DAVID BUFFINGTON/GETTY IMAGES
I
Turn to the Performing Arts
Handbook on page 421 to
learn how Eth-Noh-Tec uses
a balance of music, movement, and words
to present their unique style of theatre and
storytelling.
CHAPTER
9
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The principle of art concerned with equal-
izing visual forces, or elements, in a work
of art.
2. A dividing line that works like the point of
balance in the balance scale.
3. The type of balance that results when
equal, or very similar, elements are placed
on opposite sides of a central axis.
4. A special type of formal balance in which
two halves of a balanced composition are
identical, mirror images of each other.
5. When the forces or elements of a design
come out (radiate) from a central point.
6. A balance of unlike objects.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
7. Why is balance important to a work of art?
8. What are the visual forces, or weights,
in art?
9. What is the difference between symmetry
and approximate symmetry?
10. What factors in a work of art influence the
visual weight of the art elements?
11. Which carry more weight, warm or cool
colors?
12. How can value affect visual weight?
13. What does a formally balanced building
express?
Like other fine artists,
sculptors need to con-
sider balance as they
design their sculptures.
Tr y your hand at creating a balanced sculpture
design at the education Web site of the Smith-
sonian Institution. Simply follow the Web
Museum Tour link at
art.glencoe.com.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
14. Research. The Zapotec people, a pre-
Columbian civilization in Mexico, left
behind some interesting artifacts, as shown
in Figure 9.6 on page 230. Using online or
print resources, write a one-page research
report on whether or not the use of sym-
metry is common in Zapotec architecture
and art.
15. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Analyze
the painting of Mexican peasants in Figure
9.5 on page 229. After reading the Meet
the Artist feature on Diego Rivera on the
same page, identify the general theme of
this artwork. Then compare and contrast
Rivera’s style with Figure 9.14 on page 235
by David Alfaro Siqueiros. Describe the
differences between the works of the two
Mexican contemporaries.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 9 Review 253
254 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
F
IGURE
10.1 This painting is a fresco. Italian for “fresh,” fresco is an art technique in which paint is applied to a fresh,
or wet, plaster surface. Examine the size of the figures depicted in this fresco. Is this depiction always realistic?
Diego Rivera. The Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City. 1931. Fresco. 6.9 x 9 m (22’7” 29’9”). Located at the
San Francisco Art Institute, San Francisco, California. Gift of William Gerstle.
Figure 10.1 was painted
by the Mexican artist
Diego Rivera (1886–1957). At age 21, Rivera went to study art in
Europe, where he met Paul Cézanne and Pablo Picasso. Returning to
Mexico in 1921, Rivera rejected what he had learned. He chose instead
to imitate the simplified forms of his pre-Columbian ancestors in
Mexico. Rivera also became a champion of the rights of the working
class. Social themes inspired him to create large mural paintings. His
murals, which adorn the walls of public buildings, all have political or
historical themes.
Analyze. The mural in Figure 10.1 shows scenes of urban construction.
Notice the large male figure in the center. Form a conclusion about the
meaning and historical context of this figure. Who or what does he
represent?
Y
ou may be taller than some students in your art class,
shorter than others. Distinctions like these involve
proportion, or relative size. As an art principle, proportion
can direct the viewer’s eye to a specific area or object in
an artwork.
In this chapter, you will:
Explain and recognize the Golden Mean.
Identify scale and proportion in artworks.
Create visual solutions using direct observation
to reflect correct human proportions.
Compare and contrast the use of proportion in
personal artworks and those of others.
CHAPTER
10
Proportion
255
The Golden Mean
T
hrough the ages, people have sought an ideal of harmony and beauty.
One way they have tried to capture this ideal is through correct propor-
tion. Proportion is the principle of art concerned with the size relationship of one
part to another. Artists and architects have looked for a ratio (a mathematical
comparison of sizes) that would produce an ideal form for figures and struc-
tures.
The ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras found that he could apply
mathematical equations to both geometric shapes and musical tones. If
this was so, he thought, there must also be a way to explain other things
even the universein mathematical terms.
Euclid, a Greek mathematician, discovered what he considered a perfect
ratio, or relationship of one part to another. He called this ratio the Golden
Section, or Golden Mean, a line divided into two parts so that the smaller line has
the same proportion, or ratio, to the larger line as the larger line has to the whole line
(Figure 10.2). With this ratio, the ancient Greeks felt they had found the
ideal proportion. It was used to control the relationship of parts in their sculp-
ture, architecture, and pottery. In math, this ratio is written 1 to 1.6 or 1:1.6.
The Golden Rectangle (Figure 10.3)
had sides that matched this ratio. The
longer sides were a little more than one
and a half times as long as the shorter
sides. This ratio was thought to be the
most pleasing to the eye. If you look
closely at Leyster’s The Concert (Figure
10.4), you can see that the wall and the
two figures on the right side of the work
is a square, while the wall and the sin-
gle figure on the left is the smaller sec-
tion of the Golden Rectangle.
The Golden Mean is also related to the
human figure. If you divide the average
adult male body horizontally at the navel,
the two body measurements that result
(head to navel a and navel to toes
b) have a ratio of 1 to 1.6 (Figure 10.5).
256 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
LESSON
1
F
IGURE
10.2 The ratio of the Golden Mean is
1 to 1.6.
F
IGURE
10.3 The Golden Rectangle is interesting
to study. If you divide it into two shapes, one of which
is a square, the remaining shape will always be a smaller
Golden Rectangle. This new Golden Rectangle can be
divided again and again.
Vocabulary
proportion
Golden Mean
The secret of the Golden Mean was
forgotten with the fall of Ancient
Greece. The ratio was rediscovered,
however, during the Renaissance, and a
book was written about it. This time the
ratio was called the Divine Proportion,
and it was thought to have magical
qualities.
Since that time, some artists have
chosen to use the Golden Mean as the
basis for their compositions. Others,
unaware of the mathematical ratio,
used the Golden Mean just because that
arrangement of parts looked good. Most
artists now reject the idea that only this
one rule can define the “correct” pro-
portions for all works of art. The ratio,
however, is found in visual art so often
that it is hard to ignore its importance
(Figure 10.6, on page 258).
1a
1.6 b
F
IGURE
10.5
The relationship of
the Golden Mean to
the human body.
Section a extends
from head to navel
and section b
extends from navel
to toes.
F
IGURE
10.4 Judith Leyster has used the proportions of the Golden Mean to organize this
painting. Look at the line dividing the back wall. The section on the right forms a perfect square.
The section on the left is a Golden Rectangle. It can be divided just like the smaller section of
the diagram in Figure 10.3.
Judith Leyster. The Concert. c. 1633. Oil on canvas. 109.2 167.6 cm (43 66). The National Museum of Women
in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift of Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay.
LESSON 1 The Golden Mean 257
258 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Notice how Bellows
has used the Golden Rec-
tangle and the diagonal of
the square in the rectangle
to give this action painting
stability. He has used the
vertical line for his stand-
ing figure and the diagonal
line to help him place the
leaning figure. Can you find
the square in the small
rectangle? Can you find
any other artworks that
use the Golden Mean?
Many of them are very
subtle and hard to notice.
Using the Golden Mean
to Organize an Active Painting
LOOKING
CLOSELY
F
IGURE
10.6
George Bellows. Both Members of
This Club. 1909. Oil on canvas. 115
160.3 cm (45
1
4
63
1
8
).
National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. © 1998 Board of
Trustees. Chester Dale Collection.
LESSON 1 The Golden Mean 259
Many people looked to the human
body as a source for perfect proportions.
Artists during the Golden Age of Greece
believed that the human body was the
true expression of order. Statues created
during that time were not realistic por-
traits of real people. The artists of the
period showed the ideal form rather
than the real form (see Figure 13.3,
page 353).
In the first century
B
.
C
., Vitruvius, a
Roman writer, determined typical ratios
for human proportion. These were later
used by Leonardo da Vinci and other
Renaissance artists. The twentieth-
century architect Le Corbusier (luh-kor-
boo-see-ay) applied human dimensions
to architecture and city planning
(Figure 10.7).
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is the Golden Mean?
2. Describe the Golden Rectangle.
3. What is the ratio of the Golden
Mean?
4. How does the Golden Mean apply
to the body?
F
IGURE
10.7 Le Corbusier has been called the poet of the apartment house. This building has many
of the features of a resort, such as a kindergarten and nursery, a roof garden, children’s swimming pool,
gymnasium, and snack bar. Lead sheets were placed between the walls to soundproof the apartments.
Le Corbusier. Unité d’Habitation. Marseille, France. 194752.
LESSON
2
Scale
S
cale is much like proportion, but there is a difference. Proportion refers to
the relationship of one part to another. Scale, on the other hand, refers to
size as measured against a standard reference, such as the human body. A 7-foot
basketball player may not look tall next to other basketball players. The player
will look tall, however, when you see him in scalethat is, compared with a
crowd of people of average height.
In art there are two kinds of scale to consider. One is the scale of the work
itself. The other is the scale of objects or elements within the design.
The pyramids of Egypt are of such large scale that people are overwhelmed
by their size. These pyramids were designed to be large to express the eternal
strength of Egypt.
Wall paintings inside a pyramid depict important people in a larger scale
than less important people. The tomb painting Nakht and Wife (Figure 10.8)
depicts stories about the priest Nakht and his wife. They watch their busy
servants hunting, fishing, and farming on the priest’s land. In the painting,
the figures of the priest and his wife are much larger than the servants. When
figures are arranged in a work of art so that scale indicates importance, the artist is
using hierarchical proportion. This
arrangement disregards the actual size
of figures and objects in order to indi-
cate rank in a society. Use of scale to
emphasize rank appears in the art of
many cultures (see Figure 10.10,
page 262).
Actual works of art are usually much
larger or much smaller than they appear
to be when you look at photographs of
them. You may have seen photos with a
human hand or a human figure added
for the purpose of showing the size of
the objects in relation to human scale.
Without some sort of measure, no illus-
tration in any book can convey the
effect of the scale of a work of art.
Some works that seem monumental
are really quite small in size. This is why
the dimensions are always listed in the
credit line of the work. Try to visualize
the size of a work in relation to your
size. Imagine how it would look if it
were in the room with you.
Vocabulary
scale
hierarchical
proportion
foreshortening
260 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
F
IGURE
10.8 The servants in this painting are not all the same
size. Two figures are as large as the priest and his wife, some are half
their size, and some are even smaller. The painting uses hierarchical
proportion. The more important figures are larger than the less
important figures.
Egyptian, Thebes. Nakht and Wife. Copy of a wall painting from the Tomb of Nakht.
c. 1425
B
.
C
.2 1.5 m (6.5 5). Egyptian Expedition of The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, New York. Rogers Fund, 1915 (15.5.19 e).
Claes Oldenburg often uses scale to
make you look at ordinary objects with a
new perspective. He created a 45-foot-
tall pair of binoculars, a soft saxophone
that is 69 inches tall, and a 45-foot-tall
clothespin (Figure 10.9). Can you imag-
ine what it would feel like to stand in
front of a clothespin that is over eight
times taller than you?
Variations in scale within a work can
change the work’s total impact. For
example, interior designers are con-
cerned with the scale of the furniture
that is to be placed in a room. The
designer considers the scale of the space
into which the furniture will be placed.
The needs of the people who will use the
space must also be considered. An over-
sized, overstuffed sofa would crowd a
small room with a low ceiling. However,
the same sofa would fit comfortably in a
large hotel lobby with a four-story ceil-
ing. The large scale of the lobby would
make the size of the sofa look right.
LESSON 2 Scale 261
Experimenting
with Scale
Applying Your Skills. Create a small col-
lage scene using magazine cutouts of peo-
ple, furniture, and hand-held objects such as
books, combs, pencils, hair dryers, and
dishes. Arrange the cutouts on a small
sheet of paper using realistic, accurate
scale. All of the objects in the scene should
be in scale with the people, and all of the
people should be in correct proportion to
each other. Use perspective techniques and
arrange things in depth to create an accu-
rate scale. Draw a background environ-
ment for the scene using water-base
markers, colored pencils,or crayons.
Computer Option. Use digital hard-
ware such as a camera, scanner, or video
camera and accompanying software to
capture a variety of photographs of peo-
ple and objects. Use the Selection tool
and Copy and Paste commands to assem-
ble a computer collage that shows unreal-
istic scale. Apply the tools of your choice
to manipulate the images. Images can be
selected from many other sources such
as a CD-ROM or the Internet. If you do
not have these capabilities, use the draw-
ing and painting tools of your choice to
create a surrealistic scene.
F
IGURE
10.9 An ordinary clothespin takes
on a whole new meaning when it is 45 feet tall
and installed in a plaza in front of the Philadelphia
City Hall.
Claes Oldenburg. Clothespin. 1976. Cor-Ten Steel. Height:
13.7 m (45’). Centre Square, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
262 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Drawing Human
Proportions
In Western art, realistic representation
of people has been the dominant style
from the Renaissance to the twentieth
century. However, many artists around
the world use symbolic proportions
rather than representational accuracy.
To the Benin people of West Africa, the
head represented life and intelligence.
The prosperity of the Benin people
depended on the head of the Oba, the
divine ruler. In Figure 10.10 the head
of the Oba is one third of the whole
body. This demonstrates its symbolic
importance.
Figures
People come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. Categories for clothes sizes
husky, petite, tallare just one indica-
tion of the many different shapes and
sizes of people.
Although they vary in height and
width, most people do not vary with
regard to proportion. Many basketball
players, such as Wilt Chamberlain, are
tall. Jockeys, such as Willie Shoemaker,
are usually small and light. In Figure
10.11, notice that Chamberlain’s arms,
legs, and torso have the same propor-
tions as those of Shoemaker. Body pro-
portions cannot be defined in inches or
F
IGURE
10.10 In the art of the Benin people, symbolic
proportions were used. Notice how large the head of the
Oba (in the center of the work) is in proportion to the rest
of his body.
Nigeria, Edo. Court of Benin. Mounted King with Attendants. Sixteenth to
seventeenth centuries. Brass. Height: 47.9 cm (18
7
8
). The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Klaus G. Perls, 1990.
(1990.332).
F
IGURE
10.11 Wilt Chamberlain, an NBA
star, was a seven-time consecutive winner of the
NBA scoring title from 1960 to 1966. He retired
in 1974. Willie Shoemaker, an American jockey,
won 8,833 races in his career and is considered
the best rider in thoroughbred racing history.
Chamberlain is over 7 feet tall, while Shoemaker is
approximately 5 feet tall.
Annie Liebovitz. Wilt Chamberlain and Willie Shoemaker.
Photograph.
LESSON 2 Scale 263
F
IGURE
10.12
Average body proportions.
F
IGURE
10.13 Giotto was the
first artist to make a flat surface appear
three-dimensional by using shading. He
was the first to attempt realism. The
child in this painting looks awkward, like
a little adult. This is because Giotto
used incorrect proportions to depict
the child.
Giotto. Madonna and Child. 132030. Paint on
wood. 85.5 62 cm (33
5
8
24
3
8
). National
Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. © 1998
Board of Trustees. Samuel H. Kress Collection.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
centimeters. They can only be defined
in ratios of one part of the body to
another.
The unit usually used to define the
proportions of an individual figure is
the length of the head from the chin to
the top of the skull. The average adult is
seven and one-half heads tall (Figure
10.12); a young child is five or six heads
tall; and an infant is only three heads
long. Many artists use adult proportions
when drawing an infant, and the paint-
ing looks strange because the head is
small in relation to the rest of the body.
In Giotto’s (jot-toe) painting Madonna
and Child (Figure 10.13), the child
looks like a miniature adult because of
proportion.
264 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Sometimes an artist may purposely
distort proportion to make a drawing
look more realistic. If a person is point-
ing at you, the arm from the fingertips
to the shoulder will look shorter than it
actually is. In a painting, an artist will
use a technique to visually shorten the
arm. Foreshortening is to shorten an
object to make it look as if it extends back-
ward into space (Figure 10.14).
Human
Proportions
Applying Your Skills. Use the length of
your head (from the bottom of your chin
to the top of your skull) as a unit against
which to measure the rest of your body.
In this way you can calculate the relation-
ship, or ratio, of all parts of your body to
your head.You may need a friend to help
you obtain accurate measurements.
Determine the number of head lengths
that each of the following represents:
total height, chin to waist, waist to hip,
knee to ankle, ankle to bottom of bare
heel, underarm to elbow, elbow to wrist,
wrist to tip of finger, and shoulder to tip
of finger. Record the ratios and create a
diagram or chart to show your findings.
Compare your findings with those of
F
IGURE
10.14 Siqueiros used foreshortening in
this painting to dramatically exaggerate his reach. It
is as if the artist wants to grab everything he can.
His hand becomes a burst of superhuman energy.
David Alfaro Siqueiros. Self-Portrait (El Coronelazo). 1945.
Pyroxylin on Masonite. 91 121 cm (35
13
16
47
5
8
). Museo
de Arte Moderno, Mexico City, Mexico. © Estate of David
Alfaro Siqueiros. Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY/
SOMAAP/Mexico City.
Heads and Faces
As you read this section, look in a
mirror or at a classmate to check the
examples discussed.
The front of the head is approxi-
mately oval. No one has a head that is
perfectly ovalsome people have nar-
row chins, and some have square jaws.
A face is approximately symmetrical.
It has a central vertical axis when
viewed from the front (Figure 10.15). If
the face turns away from you, the axis
curves over the surface of the head. You
can divide the head into four sections
along the central axis. This is done by
drawing three horizontal lines that
divide the axis into four equal parts, as
shown in Figure 10.15.
your classmates. Find averages for the
class, because the ratios will not be
exactly alike.
Computer Option. Use video digitiz-
ing software and a video camera or a
scanner to capture a variety of pho-
tographs of people and objects. Clip art
and CD-ROMs can also be used. If you
do not have these capabilities, use the
drawing tools of your choice to create
your images. Use the Selection tool and
the Copy and Paste options to assemble
a computer collage using unrealistic scale.
Use the tools of your choice, such as
Resize, to manipulate the images. Create
a surrealistic scene.
LESSON 2 Scale 265
The top fourth of the head is usually
full of hair. The hair may start above the
top horizontal line, or it may fall below
it if the person wears bangs.
The eyes usually appear on the cen-
tral horizontal line. They are at the cen-
ter of a person’s head. Notice the width
of the space between the eyes. How
does it relate to the width of one eye?
The bottom of the nose rests on the low-
est horizontal line, and the mouth is
closer to the nose than to the chin. Use
the sighting technique to determine
other relationships, such as nose width,
mouth width, and ear placement.
When you view a head in complete
profile, or from the side, all of the verti-
cal proportions remain the same as in
the front view. However, both shape
and contour change. Try to discover the
new ratios (Figure 10.16). Notice the
relationship between the distance from
the chin to the hairline and the distance
from the front of the forehead to the
back of the head. Can you find a ratio to
help you locate the ear in profile? Study
the contour of the front of the face.
Which part protrudes the most? Notice
the jawline from the chin to the ear and
the relationship of the neck to the head.
In Figure 10.17, the artist has drawn
F
IGURE
10.15 Facial proportions.
F
IGURE
10.16 Profile proportions.
F
IGURE
10.17 The center face in this drawing is a
young woman whom Gauguin painted on his first visit to
Tahiti. These serene faces with blank eyes look like ancient
stone heads sculpted in Egypt or Mexico. The local Tahitian
people were the inspiration for many of Gauguin’s paintings.
Paul Gauguin. Tahitians. c. 189193. Charcoal on laid paper. 41
31 cm (16
1
8
12
1
4
"
). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
New York. Purchase, The Annenberg Foundation Gift. 1996. (1996.418).
266 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is scale?
2. What are the two kinds of scale pre-
sent in a work of art?
3. Describe hierarchical proportion.
4. How does the credit line help you
understand the scale of an artwork?
5. Explain foreshortening.
Drawing
the Head
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Direct Observation. Improve your
observation skills. Look through maga-
zines for large photographs of heads.
Look for adults, children, and babies.
Remember that a head is not flat, and
when it is turned, the central axis moves
and curves around the shape of the head.
You can always find the axis because it
goes through the center of the nose, lips,
and between the eyes. Draw the central
axis and the three horizontal dividing
lines on each face. What are the propor-
tional differences among the faces of
adults, children, and infants?
Computer Option. Gather some pic-
tures of the faces of adults,children, and
babies. Notice that facial proportions
change with age. Use the drawing tools of
your choice to draw a human face using
average facial proportions. Save your
work. Use the Selection tool and the
Copy and Paste options to duplicate the
first face you drew.To experiment with
the size of facial features, use the Selection
tool to select the features of the face but
not the outline of the head itself. Use the
Resize option to create the correct fea-
ture size for a young child.Save your
work. Reduce the size even more to cre-
ate the correct feature size for an infant.
The features need to be small and in the
lower third of its face. If possible, save all
three faces on the same screen. Finally,
compare the three faces you have created.
F
IGURE
10.18 Even though Bonnard has
flattened and simplified this work, the differences in
the proportions between the profile of the father
and the infant are easily measured. The skull of the
infant is very large, and the baby’s features seem to
be squeezed down into the lower part of the head.
Pierre Bonnard. Family Scene. From an album of L’Estampe
Originale. 1893. Color lithograph on heavy cream wove
paper. 31 17.8 cm (12
1
4
7). The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, New York. Rogers Fund, 1922.
(22.82.1-3). © Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADAGP, Paris.
both the front and two profile views of a
woman’s head.
Notice that the facial proportions of
infants are different, as shown in the
print by Bonnard (Figure 10.18).
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Proportion and Distortion 267
M
any artists use correct proportions in their work. They want every
viewer to recognize the person, place, or thing being shown. These
artists use correct proportion to create illusions of reality. This ability to show
objects as though they were real seems magical to many viewers. Other artists
choose exaggeration and distortion to create works with unusual expressive
qualities.
Realistic Proportion
During the Renaissance in Italy, there
was a renewed interest in art and litera-
ture. Ancient Greek and Roman sculp-
tures were discovered, and artists were
inspired to create works with the realis-
tic proportions of the ancient masters. To
better understand the human body, the
artists Leonardo da Vinci and Michelan-
gelo Buonarroti dissected cadavers in
secret because dissection was illegal at
that time.
Michelangelo’s statue of David is an
outstanding example of Renaissance pro-
portional accuracy. The artist was asked
to create a bigger than life size figure of
David (Figure 10.19) for the façade of
the Cathedral in Florence. When it was
finished, the people decided that it was
too important to be placed high up on
the cathedral. Instead, it was placed in
the main square and became a symbol
of the city of Florence.
How Artists Use Proportion
and Distortion
LESSON
3
Vocabulary
exaggeration
distortion
F
IGURE
10.19 One unusual feature of Michelangelo’s David is
the fiery intensity of the young man’s facial expression. He is staring
at an enemy, the giant Goliath. What do you think David is thinking?
Michelangelo. David (detail). 1501–1504. Marble. Galleria dell’ Accademia,
Florence, Italy.
268 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Before the invention of photography,
artists were hired to paint portraits to
record accurate information about real
people (Figure 10.20). A contemporary
American artist, Marisol, painted in the
Pop style in the 1960s. In Figure 10.21,
she has used an unusual combination of
materials, yet she still uses accurate pro-
portions for all of the figures.
F
IGURE
10.21 This mixed-media work is based on a
photograph that Marisol found among waste papers near
her studio. She uses realistic painting on the flat surfaces of
rectangular solids and recycled doors, and combines it with
carved wooden forms to create a realistic portrait of the
unknown family. Notice the different accurate proportions
in this work. Use a ruler and you will see that the head-
to-body ratio is appropriate for each figure.
Marisol. The Family. 1962. Painted wood and other materials in three
sections. 209.6 166.4 39.4 cm (82
1
2
65
1
2
15
1
2
).
Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York, New York. Advisory
Committee Fund. © Marisol Escobar/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
F
IGURE
10.20 Vigée-Lebrun painted this
wealthy princess without indications of her material
wealth so that she could emphasize her subject’s
beauty. Do the facial and body proportions of the
princess seem realistic?
Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun. Portrait of Princess
Belozersky. 1798. Oil on canvas. 81.3 66.7 cm (32
26
1
4
). National Museum of Women in the Arts,
Washington, D.C.
Exaggeration and Distortion
Some artists use exaggeration and
distortion rather than realistic propor-
tion to convey their ideas and feelings.
Exaggeration and distortion are devi-
ations from expected, normal proportions.
They are powerful means of expression.
Artists can lengthen, enlarge, bend,
warp, twist, or deform parts or all of the
human body. By making these changes,
they can show moods and feelings that
are easily understood by viewers. The
exaggeration used by the artist in
Figure 10.22 lets us know how the
woman feels.
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Proportion and Distortion 269
In the past, movie stars of the silent
screen had to exaggerate facial expres-
sions and body language to convey
meaning without words. If you have
ever seen an old silent movie, you have
probably laughed at the exaggerated eye-
lid movements used to express meaning.
It takes study and skill to use exagger-
ation and distortion effectively. Before
an artist can distort a person or an
object, he or she must study perception
drawing and anatomy of the human fig-
ure. It takes knowledge to know what
to exaggerate and how to distort images
effectively.
In Single Family Blues (Figure 10.23),
Twiggs has used exaggeration to express
the feeling of “the blues” that engulf this
family. Notice that the hand is twice
the size of the child’s blue head or the
mother’s blue-purple, or violet, face. This
distortion allows the viewer to see how
dominant “the blues” are in this family.
F
IGURE
10.22
The proud anxiety of
the mother is expressed
through the exaggerated
stretch of her arms and
body. She encourages
her daughter to walk,
yet she is ready to catch
her if she falls.
Napachie Pootoogook. My
Daughter’s First Steps. 1990.
Lithograph. 55.8 85.8 cm
(22 33
3
4
"
). Permission
courtesy of the West Baffin
Eskimo Co-operative Limited.
F
IGURE
10.23 Tw iggs uses exaggeration to emphasize the hand
playing the blues for this family.
Leo Twiggs. Single Family Blues. 1996. Batik on cotton. 26.7 34.3 cm (10
1
2
13
1
2
"
). Courtesy of the artist.
270 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Pablo Picasso (pah-bloh pee-cah-so) was born in Malaga, Spain, in 1881.
One day his father, a painter and teacher, came home to a surprise. His son had
finished a portrait. After examining the work, Pablo’s father gave the boy all his
art materials. So great was Picasso’s work that his father vowed never to paint
again. Picasso was just eight years old.
He went to Paris in 1904. There he met other artists and writers. The creative
climate encouraged him to develop a new style, which he called Cubism. Com-
bining his appreciation of African art with his interest in geometrical forms, he
created a unique and innovative form. His aim was to shock viewers into visual
awareness. His intensity drove him to experiment with all media, discovering new
forms and new ideas. He painted Cubist works as well as realistic representations
of people. He also created prints and collages throughout his long and full life.
MEET THE
ARTIST
PABLO
PICASSO
Spanish 1881–1973
F
IGURE
10.24 Picasso exaggerates the thinness
of this old man, elongates his limbs, and places him in
an impossibly angular position to create a painting
that expresses sympathy for his condition. How does
the contrast between the thin, angular man painted in
blue and the warm brown, rounded guitar affect the
meaning of this work?
Pablo Picasso. The Old Guitarist. 1903. Oil on panel. 122.9
82.6 cm (48
3
8
32
1
2
). The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago,
Illinois. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection. © 2003
Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Picasso was also a master of distorting
proportion to express an idea or feeling.
The works he painted during the early
twentieth century are known as his
“Blue Period.” During this time he
painted poor and tragic people. Despite
the sorrowful condition of the figures,
there seems to be a sense of optimism in
the works. In The Old Guitarist (Figure
10.24), the grotesquely thin old man
seems unaware of his condition. His
head is bent toward the instrument as if
nothing matters but the beautiful sound
of his music.
that stand out as masterpieces of Russ-
ian literature. A message in Russian, “To
Gogol from Chagall,” is incorporated
into the design.
Artists can create feelings of great sta-
bility and calm by placing a small head on
a large body. A monumental, or large and
imposing, quality results. The monumen-
tal quality of Gaston Lachaise’s Walking
Woman (Figure 10.26 on page 272) is
created through exaggerated proportions
rather than through large scale.
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Proportion and Distortion 271
F
IGURE
10.25 This watercolor represents a design for a backdrop commissioned by a Moscow theatre.
The backdrop was used as scenery for a play by the famous Russian nineteenth-century writer Gogol.
Marc Chagall. Homage to Gogol. 1917. Watercolor on paper. 39.4 50.2 cm (15
1
2
19
3
4
). Museum of Modern Art, New York,
New York. Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest. Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York/ADAGP, Paris.
In his painting Homage to Gogol (Fig-
ure 10.25), Chagall used exaggeration
and distortion to emphasize his love of
the theatre. Some say that the huge
black figure who is stretched and
twisted into an exaggerated bow is Cha-
gall himself. He is holding a laurel
wreath in one hand and balancing a
church on his foot while bowing to
Gogol. Chagall greatly admired Nikolay
Vasilyevich Gogol, a nineteenth-century
author of plays, short stories, and novels
272 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Another use of exaggeration can be
seen in the features of a mask. Masks
have been used in all societies, from
early primitive tribes to our modern
computer age (Figure 10.27). A mask
allows a person to hide his or her real
self and become someone, or some-
thing, else.
Masks are used in many cultures as
part of religious ceremonies and rituals.
In many cases the features of the mask
are exaggerated for expressive purposes.
Each culture has specific traditions and
procedures that are followed for making
and using masks. Sometimes the mask
appears to the person in a dream. Some-
times the mask is part of a cultural tradi-
tion. In most cases the mask is intended
to aid efforts in communicating with the
spirit world.
Cartoons are another way in which
exaggeration can be used. Editorial car-
toonists use this technique to make cari-
catures of famous people. (See page 284
for more about how cartoonists use
exaggeration.) The caricatures empha-
size unusual facial features. Similarly,
characters in comic strips are often
made by using proportions that are
larger than life. The most distorted
comic-strip characters are often the
funniest ones.
F
IGURE
10.26 This sculpture is only 19
1
4
inches (48.8 cm) high and
yet it has a monumental quality because Lachaise has made the head small
in comparison to the body.
Gaston Lachaise. Walking Woman. 1922. Bronze. 48.8 26.9 18.9 cm (19
1
4
10
5
8
7
1
2
). Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966.
LESSON 3 How Artists Use Proportion and Distortion 273
Check Your
Understanding
1. How do exaggeration and distortion
affect proportion?
2. Why do artists use distortion?
3. How can artists create monumental
qualities without using a large scale?
4. Compare and contrast the proportion
of the heads in Figure 10.19 on page
267 and Figure 10. 26 on page 272.
F
IGURE
10.27 Imagine sitting in the dark
around a fire when a mysterious figure jumps out of
the dark into the dim flickering light wearing one of
these masks. How would you feel? How does
exaggeration and distortion affect the expressive
qualities of these masks?
(right) George Walkus. Secret Society Mask. (Four Headed
Cannibal Spirit) 1938. Wood; cedar bark, shredded; string.
53.3 129.5 cm (21 51). Denver Art Museum,
Denver, Colorado.
(bottom right) New Ireland, South Pacific Islands. Mask.
c. 1920. Wood, paint, fiber, seashells. Height: 38.1 cm (15).
Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Distorting
Proportions
Applying Your Skills. Cut two ovals
about 9 inches long from any color of
construction paper. Using parts cut from
magazines, create one face using accurate
proportions. On the second oval, create a
distorted face.
Computer Option. Use the drawing
tools of your choice to draw a human
face using average facial proportions. Use
the Select tool and the Copy and Paste
options to make four or five copies of the
head and face on the same screen. Use
the Select tool to experiment with the
whole head and with individual facial fea-
tures. Resize, Distort, Rotate, and Bend
are some options that may prove useful
to you. If your software does not have
these options, draw the changes with the
drawing tools of your choice. Save your
work. Compare the faces you have dis-
torted and changed. How does the dis-
tortion affect the way you would use
each face in a piece of artwork?
10 1
F
IGURE
10.28
George Bellows. Both Members of This Club. 1909. National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C.
Historical and Cultural
Context
In his painting Both Members of This
Club (Figure 10.28), turn-of-the-
twentieth-century American artist
George Bellows brings us ringside to
view the action of a boxing match. Take
a moment to study this work. Notice in
particular the straining muscles of the
fighters. Observe the bloodied face of
the boxer on the left. The viewer is
almost able to feel, as much as see, the
impact of the blows in this contest of
brute strength.
One particularly important device
worth noting is the artist’s use of the
Golden Mean to organize the composi-
tion. (See Figure 10.6, page 258.) By
breaking up the two-dimensional space
using this classical mathematical for-
mula, the composition is stabilized. The
fighters and spectators—both real and in
the painting—are locked in an intense
moment of time. Which member of the
club will break the clinch? Only time
will tell.
What You Will Learn
You will create a nonobjective tissue
paper collage, following the proportions
of the Golden Mean (see page 256). You
will then make a contour drawing of a
student model in a classroom studio set-
ting that includes furniture and objects.
The drawing is intended to convey the
atmosphere of an art classroom studio.
You will unify the composition by
adding acrylic glazes in a color scheme
related to the collage colors.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Ruler
Large sheet of heavy drawing paper
Tissue paper, light to medium values
Diluted white school glue or matte medium adhesive
Black permanent felt-tip markers, thick and thin point
Tray or palette for color mixing
Acrylic paints and assorted brushes
STUDIO
PROJECT
The Golden Mean
and Mixed Media
274 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Creating
Members of the class are to take turns
modeling. Other students are to position
the model and suggest different poses.
Do several quick gesture drawings in
your sketchbook of various poses. Set
aside the sketch you like best. Decide on
the mood your work will convey. Jot
down the names of colors that suggest
this mood.
Choose a horizontal or
vertical format for your paper. Using a
ruler, divide your paper using the 1 to
1.6 ratio of the Golden Mean. Decide
where your figure will be placed. Make
a light pencil mark at the focal point of
your figure.
Gather sheets of tissue
paper according to your color scheme.
Tear varying shapes and sizes of paper.
Use these to create a composition that
leads the eye to the focal point. Overlap
shapes and glue these down using matte
medium or diluted white glue that dries
clear. (See Technique Tips Handbook,
pages 440–441.)
When the glue has dried,
transfer your sketch to the collage. The
center of your figure should be at the
focal point. Using a fine-tipped marker,
reinforce the contour lines of your fig-
ure as well as important details. Add
elements of the environment, such as
furniture.
Select one of the colors in
the tissue paper collage. Using acrylic
paint, glaze over portions of the back-
ground in order to define the figures
and unify the composition. Keep the
paint thin and transparent. Do not
cover the entire surface. Vary the val-
ues. There should be a balance between
the drawn and painted areas of the
composition.
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Tell what objects are depicted in
your work. Point to areas of your work that
are nonobjective.
ANALYZE Explain and describe how you
used the Golden Mean in your composition.
Compare and contrast the use of color, pro-
portion, and unity in your artwork.
INTERPRET Does the composition create
a mood that represents the art studio and the
model? Does the color scheme fit the mood
you were trying to create? Give your work a
title that sums up the expressive quality of
your work.
JUDGE Is there anything you would change
to make the work more successful? Which of
the three aesthetic theories would you use to
judge your work?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
10.28A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT The Golden Mean and Mixed Media 275
102
Historical and Cultural
Context
When you first look at Figure 10.29,
you almost mistake the work for a pho-
tograph. This work is an example of
photorealism, art created with the preci-
sion found in photographs. Note that
the work was created in the late 1800s,
just as photography was coming into its
own right.
Take a moment to study this painting.
It is more than a simple portrait. It is a
tribute to a musician. You can tell from
the symbols in the painting—which
include Apollo, the god of music, who is
depicted standing on a column. The
golden lyre behind the main subject also
represents Apollo. What other objects
can you find that appear to have sym-
bolic value?
What You Will Learn
You will paint a realistic self-portrait.
You will add symbolic images that
reflect aspects of your personality, inter-
ests, culture, and/or dreams for the
future. You will enhance the realistic
quality of your work by using water-
color and pen-and-ink techniques to
create values and textures.
Creating
In your sketchbook write a list of
words you would use to describe your-
self, your personality, your interests,
and so on. Choose the words that fit you
best, and think of symbols to represent
those words. Be creative.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Soft eraser
Mirror
Hot press watercolor paper or heavy white paper
Masking tape
Drawing board
Watercolors, brushes, and water jars
Fine-line, nontoxic black ink pen
STUDIO
PROJECT
Symbolic
Self-Portrait
276 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
F
IGURE
10.29
Gustav Klimt. Portrait of Joseph Pembaur. 1890. Oil on canvas. 69
55 cm (27
1
8
21
2
3
). © Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. Tiroler
Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck, Austria.
Select three to five ideas
from your list. Practice drawing the
symbols you have thought of, using
pen-and-ink shading techniques. (See
Technique Tips Handbook, page 429.)
When drawing your symbolic objects,
try to work from direct observation.
Using a mirror, practice
drawing self-portraits in your sketch-
book in pencil. See pages 264–265 for
specific directions for drawing heads and
faces in correct proportions.
Begin planning a composi-
tion that combines your portrait with
the symbols you have selected. Make
small rough drawings in your sketch-
book, trying different arrangements of
the head and symbols. Think about the
focal point and the use of negative space
in your composition. Choose your best
rough sketch for your final work.
Tape a sheet of drawing
paper onto your drawing board. Draw
the composition you have selected. Fill
the page. Use a very light pencil line
that will not show through the water-
colors. Draw your symbols.
Switching to watercolors
and brush, start painting your face.
Continue using the mirror to help you
see the hues and values of your face.
Start with the lightest colors first. Grad-
ually add the darker colors. You will
need to work in layers, letting one layer
dry before adding the next. Use value to
make your face as three-dimensional as
possible. You can always make a water-
color area darker, but it is almost impos-
sible to make it lighter.
Next, paint the symbols and
background.
Once the paint has dried,
add pen-and-ink details.
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What symbolic imagery did you
use? What does each symbol represent about
you? Does your work bear a likeness to you?
ANALYZE Did you paint your portrait using
accurate proportions? Did your use of water-
color and pen and ink enhance the portrait?
Did you include light and dark values to give
the face three dimensions? Does your face
dominate the composition or do the symbols
dominate?
INTERPRET What does your painting tell
about you? What do the symbols reveal?
Give your painting a title that sums up what
you were trying to express about yourself.
JUDGE If you were to do this painting over,
what changes would you make? Justify your
artistic decisions.
Evaluating Your Work
STUDIO PROJECT Symbolic Self-Portrait 277
F
IGURE
10.29A
Student work.
103
Historical and Cultural
Context
The early-twentieth-century art
movement known as Surrealism took
the unreal and made it plausible. One
of the masters of this movement was
Salvador Dali, who drew the unworldly
creatures in Figure 10.30. These fantas-
tic elephants are relatively ordinary
compared to Dali’s other creations.
Many of his works, rendered with pho-
torealistic quality, present a nonsensical
world where anything goes—where up
is down, night is day, and so on.
One recent art development that is
similar in spirit to Surrealism is digital
fine art. It, too, draws on a world that
defies the laws of nature, and where
anything is possible.
What You Will Learn
Using your imagination, you will cre-
ate a fantasy creature with exaggeration
and distortion. You will combine differ-
ent insect, animal, and human body
parts to produce a new, imaginary crea-
ture with the help of a paint or image-
editing program. (See Digital Handbook,
page 449). You will then create an envi-
ronment in which to place this creature.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Magazines, clip art, or original photographs
Computer
Scanner
Paint or image-editing program
Graphics tablet, optional
Digital Fantasy
Creature
STUDIO
PROJECT
278 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
F
IGURE
10.30
Salvador Dali. The Elephants (Design for the Opera La Dama Spagnola e il
Cavaliere Romano). 1961. Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis,
Indiana. © 2003 Salvador Dali, Gala-Salvador Dali Foundation/
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Creating
Start by drawing an image of a person
or an animal in your sketchbook. Con-
sult nature magazines or other art
resources for ideas. Experiment with
exaggerating or distorting various physi-
cal features such as arms and legs. Try
lengthening, shortening, thickening,
thinning, and multiplying body parts.
Find unexpected combinations of shapes.
Use a paint or image-editing
program to recreate the insect, animal,
or human figure. Use the software’s
drawing tools or a graphics tablet (see
Digital Handbook, page 448), if one is
available. If you like, combine your
drawing or painting with scanned
images from magazines, clip art, or
original photographs.
Experiment with copying
and pasting different parts of your crea-
ture. Use the program’s tools to stretch,
shrink, or otherwise alter these parts.
Try changing and distorting the propor-
tions. Save your work frequently.
If filters or special effects
menus and tools are available, continue
to alter your image. Add contrasting
textures, shapes, and colors. Zoom in
occasionally to clean up any rough lines,
stray pixels, or other mistakes.
Once you are satisfied with
the imaginary creature, create a surpris-
ing and illogical background for it. Once
again, choose the tools available in the
software program to add interest to the
setting you design. If your software
offers Layering, create multiple layers.
You can create the illusion of depth and
atmospheric perspective using layers.
After you have saved your
final composition, print it. Prepare your
final copy for display.
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What animal, insect, or human
part(s) did you use to create your imaginary
figure? Identify the features you have dis-
torted and exaggerated. Describe the things
you have added to create an illogical back-
ground. List, in order, the specific hardware
and software you used.
ANALYZE Explain how you used exaggera-
tion and distortion to create your creature.
Describe the colors and textures you used to
enhance the creature and background.
INTERPRET Describe the mood, theme,
or idea you have created. Is your creature
funny? Frightening? Give your work a
descriptive title that sums up the feeling or
mood it conveys.
JUDGE Have you successfully combined,
exaggerated, and distorted the features of
your creature to emphasize an idea or mood?
Is there anything you would change? What
aesthetic theory would you use to judge this
artwork?
F
IGURE
10.30A
Student work.
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Digital Fantasy Creature 279
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
You wouldn’t think twice if a car drove by. You might
do a double take, however, if the car were 90 feet long.
Proportion in art, as in life, can command your attention.
As you examine the student artworks on these pages:
Compare and contrast them in terms of their use of the principle of
proportion.
Analyze the works, forming precise conclusions about the type of
proportion used.
Analyze the works, forming precise conclusions about the artist’s intent.
Proportion
280 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
Activity 10.31 Form and proportion.
Notice how this artist has used circular forms
of varying sizes. Compare and contrast the
forms in this art object. Which ones receive
the most emphasis?
F
IGURE
10.31
Student work. Untitled. Cabinet hinge, lock washers, rubber
disks, and wire connectors on a satin cord, spray-painted black.
88.9 x 101.6 mm (3
1
2
4").
Activity 10.32 Golden Mean.
Compare and contrast this artwork
with Figure 9.19 on page 239. Analyze
each artist’s use of the proportions of
the Golden Mean.
F
IGURE
10.32
Student work. Red and Blue Figure Study. Monoprint.
22.9 304.8 mm (9 12").
To view more student artworks
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Analyze Personal Artworks. As you build your art
portfolio, compare and contrast the use of proportion
in your artworks. Make sure to include some human
figure drawings.These will reflect your understanding
of the Golden Mean. Be sure to attach notes that detail
the principles used in an artwork’s design. Also, identify
the art elements that these principles organize.
Evaluate the portfolios
of other artists and keep
these notes in your art
journal. Work with your
teacher to gather a collec-
tion of artists’ portfolios.
Select and analyze the
portfolios to form conclu-
sions about formal quali-
ties, historical and cultural
contexts, intents, and
meanings. Add sketches to
your evaluations to illus-
trate your conclusions.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Proportion 281
F
IGURE
10.33
Student work. Portions of Me. Pen and ink, watercolor.
457.2 457.2 mm (18 18").
Activity 10.34 Exaggeration and distortion.
Evaluate this sculpture in terms of the artist’s
probable intent. Do you think the student artist’s
goal was to achieve realism? Explain.
F
IGURE
10.34
Student work. All Alone in the Moonlight. Clay,
acrylic, mixed media. 127 x 177.8 x 76.2 mm
(5 7 3").
Activity 10.33 Scale. Analyze this student artwork,
noting its actual size. Compare the scale of these facial
features with those of a life-size face. Form conclusions
about the artist’s intent.
F
IGURE
10.35
Marc Chagall. The Green Violinist. 1923–24. Oil on canvas. 198 108.6 cm (78
42
3
4
). The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York. Gift, Solomon
R. Guggenheim, 1937. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
282 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
List all the information found in the credit line.
Describe the main figure in this painting. Do the man’s
feet appear to be touching the ground? Explain.
Can you find any other figures or objects in the work?
Describe everything that you see.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This is a clue-collecting step about the elements and
principles of art.
Compare the artist’s use of bright colors for some
objects and pale colors for others. Explain why he has
used the element of color in this fashion.
Compare and contrast the artist’s use of color and form
and the art principle of proportion.
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
Notice that the violinist cradles his violin almost as
though it were a baby. What does this tell you about
his feelings toward the violin? About the music that he
makes?
Does everyone in the painting seem to hear the music?
Explain.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Decide if this is a successful work of art.
After analyzing this work, form a conclusion about the
artist’s intent. Did he intend to create a lifelike work of
art? Which aesthetic theory would be most applicable
to this work? Explain your answer.
Marc Chagall was born in a
small town in Russia to a poor,
Jewish family. He studied art in
St. Petersburg, and moved to
Paris upon graduation. In 1914,
he returned to Russia for a visit
but was unable to leave when
World War I broke out. In 1918,
he was appointed Commissar of
Art. After the war, Chagall
returned to Paris. His subject
matter ranges from personal
experiences and folklore to Bibli-
cal stories. In addition to his
painting, he is noted for his
mosaics and stained-glass win-
dows. Some of his murals hang in
the Metropolitan Opera House
in New York City.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 283
Marc Chagall
(1887–1985)
Political cartoonists draw
the world as they see it—
just off center.
Q. What is a political
cartoon?
A. It’s a drawing that
comments—often in a humorous way—on people, events, and ideas in
the news. Political cartoonists have to amuse their readers and address
complicated issues using just ink and a few words.
Q. How do political cartoonists create their humor?
A. One way is by exaggerating the physical features or proportions
of the people they draw—a technique called caricature. For example, a
political cartoonist may take the symbols of the American political parties,
the donkey and the elephant, and draw them the size of a person,
complete with coat and tie. Or a cartoonist may poke fun at politicians
by shrinking them down to the size of a baby.
Q. How does a political cartoonist get started?
A. Signe Wilkinson draws cartoons for the Philadelphia Daily News
and other newspapers. Her career began with doodling—something
she started doing as a child. Her first job was reporting for a news-
paper in Pennsylvania. Wilkinson began drawing the people she
was supposed to be writing about. Back in the newsroom, she
fine-tuned her doodles and convinced some editors to pub-
lish her work. “I realized that I liked drawing more than
writing,” Wilkinson says. She also realized that cartooning
combined her interests in art and politics. “[We] take a topic, like
gun control, and express how we feel through our drawings.”
TIME to Connect
Using your school’s media center or the Internet, find political cartoons
that were published during one of these significant points in American his-
tory: World War II, the Vietnam War, and the corporate scandals of 2002.
What was the significance or importance of each of the events and/or people
shown in the cartoons? Where were they originally shown? What are the
points of view of the cartoonists regarding the subject, event, or politician?
As a class, create a display that shows copies of the cartoons, organizing them
by subject matter and time period. Discuss the cartoonists’ points of view.
Signe Wilkinson takes on the
medical profession and health
insurance companies in this
political cartoon.What examples
of exaggeration can you find in
her drawing?
284 CHAPTER 10 Proportion
©2003, THE WASHINGTON POST WRITERS GROUP. REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION.
Self-portrait of Wilkinson
at work.
SIGNE WILKINSON
Chapter 10 Review 285
Use the Performing Arts
Handbook on page 422 to
discover how Eugene Friesen
explores the elements of exaggeration and
distortion of human proportions through
the use of masks in his performance of
“Cello Man”.
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The principle of art concerned with the size
relationship of one part to another.
2. A line divided into two parts so that the
smaller line has the same proportion, or
ratio, to the larger line as the larger line
has to the whole line.
3. Size as measured against a standard
reference.
4. Figures arranged in a work of art so that
scale indicates importance.
5. To shorten an object to make it look as if
it extends backward into space.
6. Deviations from expected, normal
proportions.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
7. What is the Golden Mean ratio?
8. Explain the difference between scale and
proportion.
9. What was the name for the geometric form
that had sides matching the ratio of the
Golden Mean?
10. What are the two kinds of scale in art?
11. What unit is usually used to define the
proportions of any individual figure?
Thinking Critically About Art
12. Extend. Do some library research to deter-
mine how hierarchical proportions have
been used in the art of different cultures.
Photocopy examples to show and report
your findings to the class.
Fashion designers
need to understand
the rules of human
body proportions.
These artists illustrate their designs with figure
drawings. Not only must the illustrations
reflect realistic human proportions but also
their clothing must fit the human body. Visit
art.glencoe.com to compare and contrast
career opportunities in art.
ART
13. Compare and Contrast. Siqueiros’s paint-
ing, Self-Portrait (Figure 10.14, page 264)
uses a distortion called foreshortening to
create a symbolic proportion. The Oba figure
(Figure 10.10, page 262) also uses symbolic
proportion. Compare the two works. List the
similarities and differences. Explain what the
distortion conveys in each artwork.
14. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review the
Meet the Artist feature on Pablo Picasso on
page 270. Picasso both initiated and fol-
lowed many art trends throughout his long
career. Compare and contrast Figure 10.24
on page 270 with Figure 6.26 on page 154.
These artworks were created within a ten-
year span of each other. Identify the general
trend that both paintings reflect in their use
of color and proportion.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
CHAPTER
10
REVIEW
F
IGURE
11.1 Notice how the variety of colors and patterns in this painting create a harmonious whole. Observe
how the artist emphasizes the baby’s head by surrounding it with white and placing it at the top of the canvas.
Gustav Klimt. Baby (Cradle). 1917. Oil on canvas. 111 110 cm (43
5
8
43
1
3
). National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Gift of
Otto and Franziska Kallir with the help of the Carol and Edwin Gaines Fullinwider Fund.
286 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
Austrian painter Gustav
Klimt (1862–1918) was a
leader of the Art Nouveau school. Art Nouveau was a highly ornate,
or decorative, art style. It found expression in both the fine arts and
crafts such as glassmaking. Klimt’s earliest works, theatrical murals,
received little critical attention. He is best known for his portraits.
Like his other mature works, these reflect an emphasis on rich pat-
terns of curving lines. Notice the abundance of curved patterns in
Figure 11.1.
Interpret. Notice that Figure 11.1 has two titles. Why do you think the
artist gave the work a second title? Which title do you think best captures
the main focus of the work?
A
rt principles such as balance, rhythm, and proportion
do not operate in isolation. They work as a team. In
the pages ahead, you will learn about three additional
principles: variety, emphasis, and harmony. You will also
learn about unity, or “oneness.” Unity is achieved when
the elements and principles are used together to create a
sense of wholeness.
In this chapter, you will:
Describe variety, emphasis, harmony, and unity in
your environment and in art.
Compare and contrast the use of the art principles
emphasis and unity in artworks.
Explain how artists create unity through effective
use of the elements and principles of art.
Use variety, emphasis, and harmony to create
unified artworks.
CHAPTER
11
Variety, Emphasis,
Harmony, and Unity
287
LESSON
1
Variety, Emphasis, and
Harmony
V
ariety is a principle of art that adds interest to an artwork. Emphasis is a
principle of art that enhances variety because it creates areas that draw
your attention. The eye-catching, or dominant, area is usually a focal point
that first attracts the attention of the viewer. The viewer then looks at the less
dominant, or subordinate, areas. Harmony makes variety and emphasis work
together in a piece of art. Variety and harmony complement one another in
the same way that positive and negative spaces complement each other.
Variety adds interest to an artwork while harmony prevents variety from
causing chaos.
Variety
People need variety in all areas of their lives. Imagine how boring it would
be if daily routines were exactly the same every day of the week for a whole
year. Imagine how visually boring the world would be if everything in it
everythingwere the same color.
People put a great deal of time and
effort into creating variety in their envi-
ronment. They may buy new furniture
or paint the walls, not because the fur-
niture is old or the paint is peeling, but
simply because they need a change.
They add variety to other aspects of
their lives as well. New clothes, new
foods, new friendspeople make end-
less changes to relieve the sameness or
add interest to life.
Just as people must add variety to
their lives to keep it interesting, so
must artists add variety to their works.
Variety is the principle of art concerned
with difference or contrast.
Vocabulary
variety
emphasis
focal point
harmony
288 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.2 The artist has used only one
shape (an isosceles triangle) and two colors to
create this print. How has he used variety to
change these two elements of art into an
interesting design that has the illusion of three
dimensions?
Miroslav Sutej. Ultra AB. 1966. Color silkscreen. 49.2 45
cm (19
1
3
17
3
4
). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Pennell Fund, 1970.
LESSON 1 Variety, Emphasis, and Harmony 289
A work that is too much the same can
become dull and monotonous. For
example, a work composed of just one
shape may be unified, but it will not
hold your attention. Variety, or contrast,
is achieved by adding something differ-
ent to a design to provide a break in the
repetition (Figure 11.2). When differ-
ent art elements are placed next to each
other in a work of art, they are in con-
trast (Figure 11.3). This type of con-
trast, or variety, adds interest to the
work of art and gives it a lively quality.
Almost every artist uses contrasting
elements to balance unifying elements.
Wide, bold lines complement thin, deli-
cate lines. Straight lines contrast with
curves. Free-form shapes differ from
geometric shapes. Rough textures add
interest to a smooth surface. Colors can
contrast in limitless ways. The degree of
contrast may range from bold to subtle.
The amount of difference between the
elements depends on the artist’s purpose.
F
IGURE
11.3 Which elements of art has Pereira used to
create variety in this painting? Which element of art do you think
shows the strongest contrast?
Irene Rice Pereira. Pillar of Fire. 1955. Oil on canvas. 145.7 94.9 cm (57
3
8
37
3
8
). San Antonio Museum of Art, San Antonio, Texas. Purchased with funds
provided by Charles M. Knipe by exchange; 95.3.
Variety and
Contrast
Applying Your Skills. Look through
ArtTalk and find works of art that show
bold contrast of line, shape, color, value,
and texture. List one work for each kind
of contrast. Explain how the contrast was
created.
Computer Option. Make a simple
design using five or six shapes. Overlap
some shapes. Choose the Selection tool
and Copy and Paste commands to make
five copies of the design on the same
page. Leave the original design unchanged
but alter the rest to show a type of vari-
ety. Change color schemes, contrasts, and
value as well as line thickness and tex-
tures. Use the Bucket fill or Selection tool
to make changes quickly.
Emphasis
Have you ever underlined an impor-
tant word or phrase several times in a
letter? Have you ever raised the volume
of your voice to make sure the person
you were talking to understood a key
point? These are just two ways that
people use emphasis to focus attention
on the main points in a message.
In advertisements, music, news stories,
your lessons at school, and your day-
to-day communications, you see and
hear certain ideas and feelings being
emphasized over others.
Emphasis is the principle of art that
makes one part of a work dominant over the
other parts. Artists use emphasis to unify
a work of art. Emphasis controls the
sequence in which the parts are noticed.
It also controls the amount of attention
a viewer gives to each part.
There are two major types of visual
emphasis. In one type, an element of art
dominates the entire work. In the other
type of emphasis, an area of the work is
dominant over all the other areas.
Emphasizing an Element
If the artist chooses to emphasize one
element, all the other elements of the
work are made subordinate, or less
important. The dominant, or most
important, element affects the viewer’s
perception of the total work. This ele-
ment also affects the way in which all
the separate items and elements in the
work are perceived.
Sometimes the dominant element is so
strong that the whole work seems to be
drenched in that element. Rauschen-
berg’s Red Painting (Figure 11.4) is satu-
rated with the color red. Even though he
has used a variety of textures to create
different areas, the redness takes on a
meaning all its own. It affects the
viewer’s perception of the painting as a
whole. It also affects the viewer’s percep-
tion of the separate parts of the work.
Emphasizing an Area
Sometimes a specific area in a work of
art is emphasized. This area, called the
focal point, is the first part of a work to
attract the attention of the viewer. The other
areas are subordinate to the focal point.
Beaux used value like a spotlight to
emphasize one important areaa focal
pointin her painting Ethel Page
(Figure 11.5).
290 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.5 This artist has used value
contrast to create a strong focal point. Compare
and contrast the use of emphasis in this work to
Rembrandt’s painting, Figure 5.36 on page 124.
Cecilia Beaux. Ethel Page (Mrs. James Large). 1884. Oil on
canvas. 76.2 63.8 cm (30 25
1
8
). National Museum of
Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C.
F
IGURE
11.4 Many
different values of red are
present in this work. In this
way, the artist has created
variety and added interest
to a painting that might
otherwise be boring. Locate
areas of the painting that
use different values of red.
Robert Rauschenberg. Red
Painting. 1953. Oil, cloth, and
newsprint on canvas with wood.
200.6 84.1 cm (79 33
1
8
).
The Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York, New York.
Gift, Walter K. Gutman, 1963.
© Robert Rauschenberg/Licensed
by VAGA, New York, NY.
LESSON 1 Variety, Emphasis, and Harmony 291
It is possible for a work of art to have
more than one focal point. Artists must
be careful about this, however. Too many
focal points cause the eye to jump around
and will confuse the viewer. Artists must
also determine the degree of emphasis
needed to create a focal point. This usu-
ally depends on the purpose of the work.
Of course, a focal point is not neces-
sary. Many artists don’t create a focal
point in their works (Figure 11.6).
When artists do create focal points, they
are usually careful not to over-emphasize
it. They make certain that the focal point
is unified with the rest of the design.
F
IGURE
11.6 In this painting the
artist used three different greens, three
values of brown, and white to make a
net of colors. She used thick and thin
brushstrokes as well as curves, lines, and
dots squeezed straight from the tube.
No one color or line advances toward
the viewer. All are equal in importance.
Lee Krasner. The Springs. 1964. Oil on canvas.
109.2 167.6 cm (43 66). National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington,
D.C. Gift of Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay.
© 2003 Pollock-Krasner Foundation/Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
11.7 Rubens has created
contrast between the light, smooth skin
of Daniel against the dark rocks and the
rough fur of the lions. Daniel sits in a
closed position while the lions growl
and stretch in active poses.
Peter Paul Rubens. Daniel in the Lions’ Den.
c. 1615. Oil on linen. 224.3 330.4 cm
(88
1
4
130
1
8
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. © 1998 Board of Trustees.
Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund.
Artists use several techniques to create
a focal point in a work of art. Following
are some examples of these techniques.
Contrast. One way to create a focal point
is to place an element that contrasts with
the rest of the work in that area. One
large shape, for example, will stand out
among small ones. One angular, geomet-
ric shape will be noticed first among
rounded, free-form shapes. A bright
color will dominate low-intensity colors,
while a light area will dominate a dark
design (Figure 11.7). An object with a
smooth texture becomes a focal point in
a design filled with rough textures.
292 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
Isolation. Artists sometimes use isola-
tion to create a focal point and thereby
emphasize one part of their work. They
do this by putting one object alone,
apart from all the other objects (Figure
11.8). This draws the viewer’s eye to the
isolated object.
Location. Location is another method
used to create a focal point for empha-
sis. A viewer’s eye is normally drawn
toward the center of a visual area. Thus,
something near this center will probably
be noticed first. Because the exact cen-
ter is a predictable location, most artists
place the objects they wish to emphasize
a bit off center. They select a location a
little to the left or right of center and a
little above center (Figure 11.9).
F
IGURE
11.8 This was
painted after the artist’s father
died. Wyeth said that the hill
represents the father and the
boy represents himself. The arm
floating aimlessly in the air was
his free soul trying to find
something to hold on to. Wyeth
eliminated all details so that the
viewer sees the jagged shape of
the boy against the smooth,
lonely background.
Andrew Wyeth. Winter 1946. 1946.
Tempera on composition board.
79.7 121.9 cm (31
3
8
48).
North Carolina Museum of Art,
Raleigh, North Carolina.
F
IGURE
11.9 The 12-year-old subject looks
as if she were standing in the center of the
painting. If you measure, you will find that the
artist, Anguissola, has placed most of the face and
body left of the center of the work.
Sofonisba Anguissola. Portrait of the Infanta Isabella Clara
Eugenia. c. 1578. Oil on canvas. 115.9 101.9 cm (45
5
8
40
1
8
"). Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain.
created with a very obvious radial
arrangement of lines. It can also be
achieved through a more subtle arrange-
ment of elements (Figure 11.10).
LESSON 1 Variety, Emphasis, and Harmony 293
Convergence. When many elements
in a work seem to point to one item,
that item becomes the focal point. This
technique, called convergence, can be
Many lines lead your eyes toward the
brightly lit, yellow area of the café. Notice
the ruts in the cobblestones, the edge of the
awning, and the top of the blue door frame
all point to the yellow area. How many more
objects can you find that point to that area?
Creating a Focal Point
LOOKING
CLOSELY
F
IGURE
11.10
Vincent van Gogh. Café Terrace at Night. 1888. Oil on canvas.
81 65.5 cm (31
7
8
25
3
4
). Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller,
Otterlo, the Netherlands.
294 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.11 At first glance, you might think you are looking at an ordinary painting of a
Mexican figure. The clothes are depicted with realistic pleats and folds. The smooth skin of the hands
and woven texture of the sombrero are also painted realistically. However, when you look at the face,
it seems to be wearing a wooden Olmec mask. The mask is the unusual focal point of this work.
David Alfaro Siqueiros. Ethnography. 1939. Enamel on composition board. 122.2 82.5 cm (48
1
8
32
1
2
). Museum
of Modern Art, New York, New York. © Estate of David Alfaro Siqueiros/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY/SOMAAP,
Mexico City.
LESSON 1 Variety, Emphasis, and Harmony 295
Check Your
Understanding
1. Describe the principle of variety.
2. What is a focal point?
3. Name the five ways emphasis can be
created.
4. What is harmony?
5. Compare and contrast the use of
emphasis for the central figure in
Figure 11.7 on page 291 and Figure
11.8 on page 292.
F
IGURE
11.12 Scully has used related shapes and colors to create
harmony in this work. What has he done to introduce variety?
Sean Scully. White Robe. 1990. Oil on linen. 243.8 304.8 cm (96 120). High
Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia. Purchase in honor of Richard A. Denny, Jr., President
of the Board of Directors, 1991–94, with funds from Alfred Austell Thornton Sr. in
memory of Leila Austell Thornton and Albert Edward Thornton Sr. and Sarah Miller
Venable and William Hoyt Venable, 1992.5 a-b.
The Unusual. In a work of art, an object
that is out of the ordinary can become
the focal point (Figure 11.11). In a row
of soldiers standing at attention, the one
standing on his head will be noticed
first. The unexpected will always draw
the viewer’s attention.
Harmony
Harmony is the principle of art that
creates unity by stressing the similarities of
separate but related parts. In musical har-
mony, related tones are combined into
blended sounds. Harmony is pleasing
because the tones complement each
other. In visual harmony, related art
elements are combined. The result looks
pleasing because the elements comple-
ment each other.
Used in certain ways, color can pro-
duce harmony in a work of art. Repeti-
tion of shapes that are related, such as
rectangles with different proportions,
produces harmony (Figure 11.12). A
design that uses only geometric shapes
appears more harmonious than a design
using both geometric and free-form
shapes. Even space used in a certain
way can produce harmony. If all the
parts in a work of art are different sizes,
shapes, colors, and textures, the space
between the parts can be made uniform
to give the work a sense of order.
Using
Emphasis
Creating Visual Solutions Using
Imagination. Draw from your imagina-
tion to make a series of small designs
with strong focal points. Use each of the
following: contrast of shape, contrast of
color, contrast of value, contrast of tex-
ture, isolation, location, convergence, and
the unusual.
Computer Option. Use the drawing
tools of your choice to create a series of
small designs with strong focal points,
using each of the following: contrast of
shape, contrast of color, contrast of
value, contrast of texture, isolation, loca-
tion, convergence, and the unusual.
You will be able to transform some
designs to others by using the Fill Bucket
tool. Others can be changed by using the
Selection tool and rearranging the
shapes. See if you can create all seven
designs by starting with only three
designs and making alterations to them.
Save your work.
LESSON
2
Unity
U
nity is oneness. It brings order to the world. Without it, the world
would be chaotic.
Countries made up of smaller parts are political unities: the United States is
such a country. Its 50 states are joined by a single federal government. As a
unit, the United States is a world power far stronger than the combined
power of the separate states (Figure 11.13).
A tree is an example of unity in nature. It is composed of roots, trunk,
bark, branches, twigs, and leaves. Each part has a purpose that contributes to
the living, growing tree. An electric lamp is a manufactured unit composed of
a base, electric wire, sockets, bulbs, shades, and so on. The parts of the lamp
work together as a unified whole to provide light. If any part does not work,
the unity of the lamp is impaired.
Creating Visual Unity
In art, unity is the quality of wholeness or oneness that is achieved through the
effective use of the elements and principles of art. Unity is like an invisible glue. It
joins all the separate parts so that they look as if they belong together.
Unity is difficult to understand at first because it is not easily defined. It is a
quality that you feel as you view a work of art (Figure 11.14). As you study
an artwork, you may think that you would not change one element or
object. You are receiving an impression that the work is a unified whole.
296 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.13 Johns
combines the loose
brushwork of Abstract
Expressionism with the
commonplace objects of
American Realism. His
map of the United States
could be pulled apart by
the wild action painting,
but it is unified by the
harmonious, limited color
scheme of a primary triad.
Jasper Johns. Map. 1961. Oil
on canvas. 198.2 312.7 cm
(78 123
1
8). Collection,
Museum of Modern Art,
New York, New York. Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Robert C. Scull.
© Jasper Johns/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
Vocabulary
unity
LESSON 2 Unity 297
Unity helps you concentrate on a
visual image. You cannot realize how
important this is until you study a work
that lacks unity. Looking at a work that
lacks unity is like trying to carry on a
serious discussion while your little sister
is practicing the violin, your brother is
listening to the stereo, and your mother
is running the vacuum cleaner. It would
be difficult to concentrate on your con-
versation with all these distractions. It is
the same with a work of art that lacks
unity. You can’t concentrate on the
work as a whole, because all the parts
demand separate attention.
To create unity, an artist adjusts the
parts of a work so they relate to each
other and to the whole work. A potter
plans decorations for ceramic ware to
complement the shape, size, and pur-
pose of the work. Notice the birdlike
decoration in the center of the vase in
Figure 11.15. This creature, the
phoenix, was often used to symbolize
rebirth in Buddhism. It is assumed that
the vase was one of a set of altar vases
in a Buddhist temple. Clothing designers
F
IGURE
11.14 The title of
this work does not tell the viewer
that the three children and two
adults are related, but the artist
reveals this in his use of line,
form, color, and unity. The clothing
and skin of all five figures are
divided into similar, unusual free-
form shapes. The children’s bodies
fit within the outlines of the
adults. The woman’s large, clapping
hands are the focal point of the
work. How do her hands add to
the sense of unity?
Robert Gwathmey. Children Dancing. c.
1948. Oil on canvas. 81.2 101.6 cm
(32 40”). The Butler Institute of
American Art, Youngstown, Ohio. ©
Estate of Robert Gwathmey/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
F
IGURE
11.15 The designs for this vase were first
outlined with a trail of raised slip, filled in with glaze, and
then fired. Overglaze enamels were added, and a second,
lower temperature firing was done. What art elements did
the artist use to create unity?
China, Shanxi or Henan Province. Jar. Late fifteenth century, Ming
Period. Stoneware with trailed slip under glaze and overglaze enamels.
Height 35.2 cm (13
7
8
), diameter 30.2 cm (11
7
8
). Asia Society, New
York: Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection.
298 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
choose fabrics that complement the
design and purpose of each outfit. Artists
adjust the elements in a work to each
other. A “busy” work with a variety of
shapes and textures can be unified with
a limited color scheme, for example
(Figure 11.16).
Simplicity
Another way to create unity is
through simplicity. Simplicity is not easy
F
IGURE
11.16 The
Kuba men cut thin strips
from raffia palm leaves and
wove the basic cloth. Women
embroidered the black plush
designs onto the cloth. The
finished cloth is as flexible
and soft as silk. Sometimes,
two or more finished cloths
are sewn together to make a
ceremonial skirt.
Kuba Group, Western Kasai
Province, Congo. Ceremonial Robe.
1950–75. Cut pile and linear
embroidery on plain-weave raffia
palm. 58.4 64.8 cm (23
25
1
2
). Museum of International
Folk Art, Museum of New Mexico,
Santa Fe, New Mexico.
F
IGURE
11.17 Johnson used simplification by limiting the materials for his Water Garden to
concrete and water. He also limited the forms of the structure to geometric forms.
Philip Johnson. Water Garden. 1976. 17,000 cubic yards of concrete, 19,000 gallons of water. Fort Worth, Texas
(downtown).
to achieve. An artist must plan carefully
to create a good, simple design. This is
done by limiting the number of varia-
tions of an element. The fewer varia-
tions the artist uses, the more unified
the design will seem (Figure 11.17).
A painting in which the entire surface
is covered with a single, even layer of
one hue will appear strongly unified. A
sculpture of a single unit expresses a
simple unity (Figure 11.18).
LESSON 2 Unity 299
Allan Houser created contemporary Apache sculpture. As a child, he listened
to his father’s stories about the adventures of Chief Geronimo. This gave him a
deep attachment to his ancestral background, an attachment that is shown in his
artwork. Houser studied at the Indian School in Sante Fe, New Mexico, and
then remained in Sante Fe, where he worked as a freelance artist. During World
War II, he traveled to California, where he became interested in the media of
sculpture. He created works in a variety of styles and mastered bronze, metal,
and stone sculpture. Houser’s designs are modern, yet firmly rooted in the
special tradition of his Native American forefathers. He drew inspiration from
both past and present, but like all successful artists, his sculpture transcends race
and language. The sculpture Reverie (Figure 11.18) shows a distinct Native
American influence, but it can be appreciated by anyone, regardless of his or
her background.
MEET THE
ARTIST
ALLAN
HOUSER
Native American,
1914–1994
F
IGURE
11.18 Notice how the artist has
used simple lines and few details to create this
artwork. The simplicity serves to emphasize
the faces of the mother and child, which
become focal points. The unity of the design
shows the connection between mother and
child. What feeling does this piece evoke?
Allan Houser. Reverie. 1981. Bronze, edition of 10.
63.5 58.4 33 cm (25 23 13). Collection
of the Duke and Duchess of Bedford. The Glen
Green Galleries, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Copyright Allan Houser Inc.
300 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.19 The artist has collected different found objects and assembled them together.
What has the artist done to unify this work and make the objects look like they belong together?
Can you identify any of the found objects?
Louise Nevelson. Dawn. 1962. Wood painted gold. 323 240 19 cm (127 94
1
2
7
1
2
). The Pace Gallery, New
York, New York. © 2003 Estate of Louise Nevelson/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Repetition
The repetition of objects and elements
can be an effective way to unify a work
of art. Louise Nevelson’s assemblages
are good examples. She collects objects
that are not alike. This presents a prob-
lem of unity, which she solves in one or
more ways. Often, she places the objects
in a series of boxlike containers (Figure
11.19). The boxes help to unify the
work. She sometimes paints the entire
structure the same color. Sometimes she
repeats both container shape and color
to unify her assemblages.
Most architects are concerned with
unity. Their goal is to design structures
LESSON 2 Unity 301
that blend with the surroundings (Fig-
ure 11.20). They may use materials that
repeat the colors and textures found in
the structure’s environment. They may
also use materials that reflect the sur-
roundings. For instance, mirrored outside
walls have been used on skyscrapers. The
mirrors reflect the shapes and colors of
the clouds and sky, and the buildings
seem to blend with their surroundings
and the atmosphere.
Proximity
Proximity, or closeness, is another
way of unifying very different shapes in
a work (Figure 11.21). This is achieved
by limiting the negative space between
the shapes. Clustering the shapes in this
way suggests unity and coherence. The
sense of unity can be made even
stronger if the cluster of unlike items is
surrounded by an area of negative space.
F
IGURE
11.20 Wright was a genius who dared to be different. In
1936 he was asked to design a house close to this waterfall. Instead, he
placed the house right over the falls. Concrete terraces hang suspended
over the running water. The stones that make up the walls come from
the building site, which ties the house more closely to its surroundings.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater House. Bear Run, Pennsylvania. 1936. Photography
by Sandak, Inc., Stamford, Connecticut. © 2003 Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation/
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
11.21 The artist has used
proximity by grouping the children close
together. What do the children appear to
be doing? What kind of meeting are they
having?
Marie Bashkirtseff. A Meeting. 1884. Oil on canvas.
190.5 172.2 cm (75 67
3
4
). Musée d’Orsay,
Paris, France. Art Resource, New York, New York.
302 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
How Artists Use
Variety, Emphasis, and
Harmony to Enhance
Unity
As you know, artists use variety,
emphasis, and harmony to make their
works more interesting and appealing. If
carried to extremes, however, these prin-
ciples can destroy the unity of a visual
work. This means that artists must be
careful to balance contrasting qualities of
F
IGURE
11.22 Wilson has
created a unified composition, using
several techniques. What has she
simplified, and what has she repeated?
Jane Wilson. Tempest. 1993. Oil on linen.
177.8 177.8 cm (70 70”). Courtesy DC
Moore Gallery, New York.
Creating
Unity
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Suppose you have been
hired to create a window display for a gift
shop that sells many unrelated objects.
From magazines, cut out photographs of 15
unrelated objects that represent the mer-
chandise to be displayed. Use as many unify-
ing techniques as you can to create the
display. Using pencil and then darkening with
a black, felt-tip marker, draw the window
and the design for the display. Glue the
cutouts where the objects would be placed
in the design.
Computer Option. Arrange three or
four different objects close together on a
table. Use the Pencil or small Brush tool to
draw the outline of all the objects using a
continuous line. Another option is to draw
the objects as individual shapes but extend
the lines into the background. Select, copy,
and repeat a few of the shapes but vary
their sizes. Arrange the shapes to empha-
size a focal point. Add a simple back-
ground. Now, choose and apply a limited
color scheme with no more than four or
five colors.Title, save, and print your work.
variety and emphasis with harmonizing
and unifying techniques to create a uni-
fied work.
Jane Wilson has successfully balanced
the harmonizing and varying devices in
Tempest (Figure 11.22). The entire work
is composed of waves of color. Although
a contrasting color scheme of cool and
warm colors is used, the work is unified
by simple wavelike forms. The bright yel-
low streaks of sunlight are the focal point.
LESSON 2 Unity 303
Look closely at the work in Figure
11.23. The artist, Chryssa, left her home
in Greece when she was 20 to study art.
She arrived in New York City in the
1950s and was inspired by the materials
of modern technology—especially the
flashing neon signs in Times Square.
Within the letter A form in Figure
11.23, Chryssa has placed different
kinds of shapes transformed from letters
of the alphabet. Some are neon outlines.
Others are flat metal. Everything is col-
ored with blue light except the two
Plexiglas rectangular forms near the top.
They contain wiggly curved forms that
are a very pale, low-intensity orange.
F
IGURE
11.23 Why do you think Chryssa used the letter A as a form to contain
all her active lines, shapes, and forms?
Chryssa. The Gates to Times Square. 1966. Welded stainless steel, neon, and Plexiglas. 3.04 3.04 3.04 m
(10 10 10’). Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Albert List, 1972.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define unity.
2. What is simplicity?
3. How is proximity used to create unity?
4. Compare and contrast the use of
unity in Figure 11.14 on page 297
and Figure 11.19 on page 300.
What art elements were used to
create unity?
What do you think the different parts
represent? Which art principles has she
balanced to give this work unity?
11–1
F
IGURE
11.24
Julia Russell. Jaguar Chair. 2002. Back 106.7 cm (42”) tall,
seat 48.3 48.3 43.2 cm (19 19 17”). Gessoed linen,
acrylic paint, polymer glaze. Private Collection.
Historical and Cultural
Context
All art is meant to appeal to the eye,
to delight. Some art goes beyond that
requirement, serving a practical func-
tion as well. An example is the object in
Figure 11.24. Its practical function is to
provide a place to sit. The artist, Julia
Russell, transformed an ordinary chair
into a one-of-a-kind art object by giving
it a new “skin.” Notice the variety of
lively colors and shapes. The artist has
depicted tropical foliage, a jaguar, a but-
terfly, and a monkey—images common
to Central American cultures. Do you
find your eye moving over and around
the chair covering? Observe that no
matter where your eye begins its jour-
ney, it always ends with the soft-eyed
monkey grasping a flower. What feel-
ings does this painting-within-a-chair
evoke?
What You Will Learn
You will create a design for a practical
application. You will revive an old,
worn, functional object by painting it
with a variety of images and designs
typical of a particular culture, past or
present. Research your chosen culture
and study its distinctively unique
designs in art books, your school’s
media center, and the Internet. Make
both visual and verbal notes in your
sketchbook of the images, designs, and
colors that are distinctive of that culture.
SUPPLIES
Any ordinary, old, or worn object with a paintable surface
Sketchbook and pencils
Sandpaper, medium and fine
Colored pencils or crayons
Acrylic paints and a variety of paintbrushes
Kraft paper
Chalk
Spray acrylic (gloss or matte) finish (optional)
STUDIO
PROJECT
Decorated
Found Object
304 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
Creating
Sketch your object from different
points of view. In a small group, brain-
storm cultures that you have learned
about in art or other classes. Select a
culture that might be appropriate for
this project. Your object itself may sug-
gest a culture. Do outside research, as
needed, finding pictures and descriptions
of typical designs, images, and colors.
Begin, if necessary, by sand-
ing the surface of your object to remove
any finish and to make it smooth.
Incorporate images or indi-
vidual art elements—such as lines,
forms, and shapes—into the sketchbook
drawings of your object. Vary the place-
ment of objects by size or shape to add
visual interest and variety.
Choose a color scheme
typical of your culture. Using colored
pencils or crayons, add color to your
final sketchbook designs.
On large pieces of kraft
paper, practice painting your designs and
patterns with acrylic paint. Experiment
with different brushes. Decide on a base
(background) color. Choose a color that
will unify the images or designs to be
painted over it. Using a broad brush,
apply the base color to all visible surface
areas. Allow the paint to dry.
Using soft pencil or chalk,
draw the contours (outlines) of the
images from your sketch on the dried
base coat. Working with one color at a
time, paint your images and designs.
When your object is com-
pletely dry, apply a protective spray
acrylic finish if your teacher provides it.
This will protect the new “skin” you have
added to your found object. Safety Note:
Spray outside or in a well-ventilated area.
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What found object did you use
for your project? What is its primary func-
tion? What cultural style did you select for
your design? Describe the different images
you used in your overall design.
ANALYZE Compare and contrast the use of
line, form, and color in your art object. Were
your colors consistent with those of the cul-
ture you had selected? Did you use variety to
make your work interesting? Explain.
INTERPRET Describe the theme of your
project. Does your design complement the
object, or is it a surprising design that one
wouldn’t expect to see on the object? Give
your work a title that sums up its meaning.
JUDGE Did your painted design transform
or enhance the expressive quality of the orig-
inal object? Justify your artistic decisions. If
you were starting over, what would you do
differently?
Evaluating Your Work
F
IGURE
11.24A
Student work.
STUDIO PROJECT Decorated Found Object 305
11–2
Historical and Cultural
Context
An old riddle asks “When is a door
not a door?” For contemporary artist
Mary Proctor, the riddle might be
rephrased “When is a door more than a
door?” To her, a door is a symbol. It rep-
resents a passage from one moment of
life to the next and to the opportunities
and challenges that may lie on the other
side. Her obsession with painting doors
began when her grandmother, who
raised her, died in a fire, trapped by a
door that would not open.
The work in Figure 11.25 is a mixed-
media collage by Mary Proctor. Like the
many doors she has painted, this collage
carries a message of hope. What do you
think lies beyond the “door” in this
work of art?
What You Will Learn
You will design and create a high-relief
collage—one that stands out vividly in
three-dimensional space. Your collage
will express your visual interpretation
of an inspirational line from a favorite
poem, song, or saying. As in Figure
11.25, the words must be incorporated
into the design. You will unify the dif-
ferent materials and letters, using the
principles of variety, emphasis, and
harmony.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Unusual found objects: beads; old and/or broken jewelry;
holiday decorations; buttons; fibers; ribbons; fabrics; screws;
washers; computer parts; mosaiclike pieces of broken china,
glass, or pottery
Mat board, canvas panels, or a scrap of plywood
Acrylic or house paint
Scissors
Glue
Permanent markers or paint pens
STUDIO
PROJECT
Multimedia High-
Relief Collage
306 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
F
IGURE
11.25
Missionary Mary L. Proctor. Like a Butterfly. 1999. Acrylic, leather, hot glue,
painted on wood. 22.9 30.5 cm (9 12”). Collection of Ted and Ann Oliver.
Creating
In small groups, brainstorm ideas
from poetry you have studied, lines
from songs you like, and famous say-
ings. Choose one line or phrase that is
most meaningful to you. Write it in
your sketchbook. Make rough sketches
of images that you feel illustrate these
words. In each sketch, work at incorpo-
rating the words themselves into the
design. Select your best idea.
Collect unusual materials
that you think you can use in your
collage. A piece of mat board, canvas
panel, or a scrap of plywood is to serve
as the base.
Using acrylic or house paint,
add a layer of background color to your
base. Allow the paint to dry before
continuing.
Switching to pencil, transfer
the large shapes from your sketches to
your backdrop in their relative posi-
tions. Plan to use found objects to fill
each shape. Think about variety,
emphasis, and harmony as you select
colors and textures. Think also about
what sense the materials themselves
convey. What feelings do you associate,
for example, with discarded jewelry?
With holiday decorations such as tinsel?
With broken glass or ceramic?
Fill in the collage shapes by
gluing in your found materials. Once
the glue is dry, print your inspirational
line of text.
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE What line of text served as the
inspiration for your collage? What objects did
you choose? Why did you choose these?
How was the use of words incorporated into
the overall design?
ANALYZE Compare and contrast your
selection of colors and textures to create
variety and emphasis in your work. Is your
design harmonious? If so, how? Do the
found objects in your collage stand out in
high relief?
INTERPRET Does your collage reflect the
meaning of the words you have chosen? Give
your work a short title, other than the words
included within the image, that expresses
your feelings about the work.
JUDGE Were you successful in unifying the
words and objects in your image? Which
aesthetic theory would be best to judge
your work?
Evaluating Your Work
STUDIO PROJECT Multimedia High-Relief Collage 307
F
IGURE
11.25A
Student work.
11–3
F
IGURE
11.26
David Feiss. Thrown for a Curve. 1998. Cartoon Network.
Historical and Cultural
Context
David Feiss (b. 1959) is an award-
winning American animator. He started
his professional career as an animator
with Hanna-Barbera Studios in 1978.
Since then, he has worked with various
studios as an animator, storyboard artist,
director, and producer on television
series, feature films, and commercials.
Look closely at Figure 11.26, titled
Thrown for a Curve. This is a cel, a single
sheet of celluloid that is drawn on and
colored to make animated cartoons. The
repetition of curves dominates the com-
position and creates harmony, which
unifies the layout of the cel. Notice the
repetition of curves that radiate from
the pitcher’s knee: the edges of the sta-
dium, the signs atop the stadium, the
swirl above the pitcher’s head, and
the curve of the batter’s body and bat.
The clouds and the placement of each
ballplayer also mirror the curved path of
the ball as it moves toward the catcher’s
glove.
What You Will Learn
Using a computer paint program
(Digital Media Handbook, page 449),
you will create a poster for an anima-
tion movie. Create visual unity in your
poster by arranging and drawing the
movie’s characters, using any or all of
the unifying devices of harmony, sim-
plicity, repetition, or proximity.
SUPPLIES
Sketchbook and pencil
Fine-tip black marker
Computer
Scanner
Any computer paint program
Color printer
Mat board
Animation
Movie Poster
STUDIO
PROJECT
308 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
Creating
Plan and write the outline for the
movie. In your outline, introduce,
name, and describe each character.
Describe the main conflict, the climax,
and the resolution of your story. This
outline will help you plan your movie
poster.
Using your sketchbook and
a pencil, draw rough sketches of the
characters, including their names and
notes describing their characteristics.
Create rough sketches of
different layouts for your poster, using
as many of the unifying devices (har-
mony, simplicity, repetition, and prox-
imity) as possible.
Select your best layout
drawing. Ink the lines in this drawing.
Then scan the inked drawing into a
computer.
Open your scanned image
in a paint program. Insert the scanned
image into your working file, but save
the original in a different file so that you
can go back to it later, if necessary.
Add a layer to your file. Use
a line tool to trace the original drawing
onto this new layer. Make sure all areas
to be painted are enclosed by solid lines.
Using various paint tools—
such as paintbrush, paint bucket, or
airbrush—you can begin coloring your
poster. Make sure that the color stays
within the lines of character. Most paint
programs have a gradient option for
coloring. By applying gradient values
to your colors, your characters will
look more three-dimensional in form.
Add the movie’s title to your
poster. When finished, save, print, and
mat your poster for display.
Step 7
Step 6
Step 5
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
DESCRIBE Explain the concept or story of
your movie. Describe the characters in your
layout. What type of paint program and
which tools did you use?
ANALYZE How many unifying devices
(harmony, simplicity, repetition, and proxim-
ity) did you use in your poster? Compare and
contrast how you used the various elements
of your poster to create a sense of visual
unity.
INTERPRET Does your poster express the
mood of the movie? Does it tell what type of
movie it is? Do the images and title express
the same message about the characters and
story?
JUDGE Were you successful in creating a
sense of visual unity? Does your poster rep-
resent the concept or story of the movie?
Which of the three aesthetic theories would
you use to judge this work?
F
IGURE
11.26A
Student work.
Evaluating Your Work
DIGITAL STUDIO PROJECT Animation Movie Poster 309
STUDENT
ART
PORTFOLIO
Variety is not only the spice of life but of art. Along with
emphasis, harmony, and unity, this principle gives works
visual interest. As you examine the student artworks on
these pages:
Analyze them to form precise conclusions about their use of variety,
emphasis, and unity.
Compare and contrast them in terms of their use of color, form, or line
to achieve unity.
Variety, Emphasis,
Harmony, and Unity
310 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
Activity 11.27 Variety.
Analyze this item of found-object
jewelry in terms of variety. Describe
which art elements the student artist
has varied to add visual interest.
Activity 11.28 Harmony and unity.
Compare the use of art elements.
Which element contributes to a sense
of harmony and unity? Analyze the
details in this peer artwork to form a
conclusion about its historical or
cultural context.
F
IGURE
11.27
Student work. Untitled. Copper and brass coiled wire
on paint can opener with aluminum can ring snap
and other components. 12.1 8.9 cm (4
3
4
3
1
2
).
F
IGURE
11.28
Student work. Even the Kitchen Sink. Oil pastel
and graphite. 30.5 45.7 cm (12 18”).
To view more student artworks,
visit the Glencoe Student Art
Gallery at art.glencoe.com.
ART
For Your Portfolio
Evaluate Personal Artworks. The principles you
have studied in this chapter can be found in any suc-
cessful artwork. Review artworks that you have added
to your portfolio previously in terms of these princi-
ples. Evaluate the artistic decisions you made to
achieve unity. Unity is the goal of most artists. Be sure
that your notes are attached to the works.
Sketch or photograph
two different rooms in
your home or school.
Number the sketches or
photos 1 and 2. Next,
divide a page of your art
journal into three col-
umns. Label one column
Variety, one Emphasis, and
one Harmony. Write an
analysis of each picture in
terms of the three art
principles. Note which
art elements contribute
in each case.
STUDENT ART PORTFOLIO Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity 311
Activity 11.29 Emphasis.
Analyze this student artwork, to form a
conclusion about how the artist has used
the formal qualities to emphasize the
subject. What art elements contribute to
the emphasis on the subject?
Activity 11.30 Harmony and variety.
Compare the way harmony and variety
have been used to balance each other in
this student artwork.
F
IGURE
11.30
Student work. Untitled. Watercolor, pen and ink.
25.4 35.6 cm (10 14”).
F
IGURE
11.29
Student work. Leah. Oil pastel. 30.5
45.7 cm (12 18”).
F
IGURE
11.31
Elizabeth Catlett. Singing Their Songs, from For My People. 1992. Color lithograph on paper.
40 35 cm (15
3
4
13
3
4
). National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C.
© Elizabeth Catlett/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
312 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
This is a clue collecting step. If you are not sure of
something, do not guess.
Describe what you see in this fine art print.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with the formal qualities.You will
gather information about how the principles of art
are used to organize the elements of art.
How has the artist used variety in organizing this print?
Is one part of the work emphasized over the others?
What has the artist done to harmonize the separate but
related parts?
What unifies this work?
3
INTERPRET What message does this artwork
communicate to you?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
What kind of sound do you think you would hear from
each person? Explain your reaction.
What emotion is expressed on each face?
Write a sentence or two that you think each person is
expressing.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgment
of the work.
Do you think the artist has organized the elements and
principles of art to achieve a unified composition?
Explain.
Is this a successful work of art? Why or why not? Use
one or more of the aesthetic theories to defend your
decision.
Elizabeth Catlett
b. 1915
Elizabeth Catlett was born in
Washington, D.C. She studied
painting and design at Howard
University. She became the first
person to receive an MFA degree
from the University of Iowa in
1940. Grant Wood was her
painting teacher. Wood encour-
aged his students to focus on
subjects they knew best and to
experiment with different media.
Catlett spent the rest of her
career following his advice. Her
subjects have been almost exclu-
sively African American women.
She has made lithograph and
linoleum prints as well as sculp-
tures from wood, stone, clay, and
bronze. She won a grant to study
printmaking in Mexico in 1946.
Since then, she has divided her
time between her studios in
New York City and Cuernavaca,
Mexico.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 313
TIME to Connect
How have famous Americans been
depicted in painting, sculpture, photographs,
and other media?
Choose and research an important figure
from American history. What was he or
she famous for? What contribution to
United States history or society did the
person make?
What symbols would you include to
emphasize the person’s contributions to
history? Why did you choose the symbols
you did? Incorporate them into a collage
to create a unified design.
Share your work with the class.
A Southwestern artist celebrates his heritage.
uis Jimenez is a Texas-born sculptor and artist whose
colorful work in a variety of media celebrates Chicano life
and history. Raised in El Paso, Jimenez worked in his father’s
sign shop. It was there that he first came in contact with
fiberglass—a lightweight material that Jimenez later used
for some of his large-scale figurative sculptures.
As a young boy, Jimenez read art books and visited
art museums. He also traveled to Mexico, where he was
inspired by the Mexican people and the huge murals about
Mexican history.
As an adult, Jimenez first studied architecture but then
switched to sculpture, drawing, and painting. His works
emphasize the Southwest and working
class Mexican-Americans, subjects that
are close to his geographic and
cultural roots. His art celebrates the
contributions of Mexican-Americans
to American history. Mexican
cowboys, Native Americans,
farmers, and even rodeo queens
are some of his favorite subjects.
Jimenez continues to live in
the Southwest, where the region
and its people inspire him.
Jimenez created Fiesta
Jarabel,a fiberglass
sculpture, in 1986.
Howl, a color lithograph
completed in 1977.
L
TERRY GUGLIOTTA
314 CHAPTER 11 Variety, Emphasis, Harmony, and Unity
©SMITHSONIAN AMERICAN ART MUSEUM, WASHINGTON, DC/ART RESOURCE, NY
Read how the “Vocalworks
Radio Hour” presents variety
and harmony in the re-creation
of a live radio broadcast from the 1930s era.
Showcasing swing music, comedy, and drama
programs,Vocalworks swings us back to the
past in the Performing Arts Handbook on
page 423.
CHAPTER
11
REVIEW
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. The principle of art concerned with differ-
ence or contrast.
2. The principle of art that makes one part of
a work dominant over the other parts.
3. The first part of a work to attract the atten-
tion of the viewer.
4. The principle of art that creates unity by
stressing the similarities of separate but
related parts.
5. The quality of wholeness or oneness that
is achieved through the effective use of
the elements and principles of art.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
6. Why do artists use variety in artworks?
7. Name the two major types of visual
emphasis.
8. What is the most important part of an
artwork called?
9. Name and describe the five ways in which
artists create a focal point.
10. Name and describe three techniques that
artists use to create unity in a work of art.
11. What can happen if variety, emphasis,
or harmony is carried to an extreme in
an artwork?
Now that you have
mastered the principles
of variety, emphasis,
harmony, and unity,
challenge yourself with an interactive composi-
tion game. Simply follow the Web Museum
Tour link at
art.glencoe.com to visit the
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts in Canada.
ART
Thinking Critically About Art
12. Compare and contrast. Notice the vari-
ety used in Figure 11.2, page 288. Com-
pare this with the variety used in Figure
11.3, page 289. Explain how each artist
used variety and point out the similarities
and differences between the two works.
13. Analyze. Look through the other chapters
of this book to find three examples of works
in which the artist has emphasized one ele-
ment, making all the others subordinate to
it. List the works and explain which ele-
ment has been emphasized.
14. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Read the
Meet the Artist feature on Allan Houser on
page 299. Analyze Houser’s sculpture in
Figure 11.18 to identify the general theme.
Then compare and contrast Figure 11.18
with another contemporary artwork in Fig-
ure 4.20 on page 81. Do they share a similar
theme? Explain.
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 11 Review 315
316
Interpreting Text. Read the quote
above. What do you think the artist means
when she writes that using elements of art
enabled her “to say things she had no words
for”? Write your interpretation of the ideas
she is expressing.
“I found I could say things with
color and shapes that I couldn’t
say any other way—things I had
no words for.”
—Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986)
Art
Through
the Ages
317
UNIT
4
Georgia O’Keeffe. Back of Marie’s No. 4. 1931. Oil on canvas.
40.6 76.2 cm (16 30”). The Georgia O’Keeffe Museum,
Santa Fe, New Mexico. Gift of The Burnett Foundation © 2003
The Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
318 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
F
IGURE
12.1 This complex sculpture, composed of curved forms and intricate patterns, is only 12
1
/
4
tall.
Observe closely the precise detail and craft that went into the making of this elegant art object. Describe the
type of balance that organizes this object.
Kashmir or Northern Pakistan. Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni. Eighth century. Brass with inlays of copper, silver, and zinc.
Height: 31.1 cm (12
1
4
”). Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection. Asia Society: New York.
Figure 12.1 is an ancient
object of worship from
Kashmir or Northern Pakistan. The subject is Buddha Shakyamuni, spir-
itual leader of the Shakya clan of Buddhism. His hands are positioned in
the gesture of teaching as he sits peacefully on a lotus flower rising
above the water on a thick stem. To the right and left of the base are
small female and male figures. Art historians believe that these figures
represent the donors of the sculpture.
Compare and Contrast. Compare the Buddha Shakyamuni to a
religious sculpture from another culture and time (Figure 13.5, page 354.)
What similarities and differences can you find in the style and theme of
the two works?
A
rt is more than just objects and images. It is a visual
story of a people and their culture. It reveals their
feelings, views, and beliefs. In a sense, art history mirrors
the history of the world. It is a window on the past and
the many cultures that enrich our lives.
In this chapter, you will:
Describe general characteristics in artworks from a
variety of cultures.
Compare and contrast historical styles, identifying
trends and themes.
Describe art traditions from cultures around the
world.
CHAPTER
12
Art Traditions
from Around the
World
319
LESSON
1
Art of Earliest Times
T
he artworks produced many thousands of years ago tell us a great deal
about the earliest cultures and civilizations of our world. These ancient
people left no written records. What we know of them has been learned
from the objects and the art that they left behind.
Prehistoric Art
Prehistoric means before history, or before written records were kept. The
objects made by people during this period are all that remain to tell us about
the people who lived long ago.
Figure 12.2 is one of many cave paintings left by cave dwellers in Europe
during the Paleolithic period. The Paleolithic (pay-lee-oh-lith-ik) period,
or Old Stone Age, began about two million years ago, and ended with the close of the
last ice age about 13,000
B
.
C
. It was a time when people began using stone tools.
In these cave paintings, the colors are so bright and the animals so realistic
that, for a long time, scholars refused to believe they had been created by
prehistoric people.
To this day no one knows the purpose of the paintings. Found deep
inside caves, far from the entrances and living areas, they probably were not
created for decoration. Some scholars believe the paintings were part of a
hunting ritual. A shaman, or medicine man, may have created the image of
the animal, believing that it would help hunters capture the animal. The
paintings may also have been visual prayers for animals to appear during the
next hunt. According to another theory, cave dwellers created the paintings
to celebrate a successful hunt.
Vocabulary
Paleolithic period
Neolithic period
megaliths
cuneiform
ziggurats
pharaohs
dynasty
320 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
F
IGURE
12.2 An amateur
archaeologist excavated in this
low-roofed cave for four years.
One day his daughter, who was
small enough to stand up straight
in the cave and look up, discovered
these paintings of sleeping,
galloping, and crouching animals.
The Hall of the Bulls. c. 15,000
B
.
C
.
Altamira Caves, Spain.
As prehistoric peoples learned to herd
animals and grow crops, they also
learned to live in harmony with their
surroundings. This peaceful balance was
upset by population growth. Small
tribes began to fight over grazing land
and soil suitable for growing crops. They
were forced to band together into more
organized groups for protection and also
to be able to produce more food. By
around 3000
B
.
C
. four major civiliza-
tions had developed at different points
on the globe. The ancient civilizations of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China
emerged at this time.
Ancient River Valleys
The ancient civilizations of Meso-
potamia, Egypt, India, and China, are
referred to as river valley civilizations.
Each of these civilizations was ruled by
a monarchy, practiced a religion based
on nature, and achieved great skill in art
and architecture.
Mesopotamia
The area of Mesopotamia included the
cultures of many people within an exten-
sive region. The region was the fertile
crescent of land between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in the Middle East. The
people lived in city-states, and each city
was ruled by a monarch. Today, this land
is shared by Syria and Iraq.
The Sumerians were the first domi-
nant group in the area. They were the
first people to have a system of writing
(using symbols to represent spoken lan-
guage). Cuneiform (kyoo-nee-uh-
form) was the Sumerian writing system
made up of wedge-shaped characters. These
characters stood for concepts and ideas.
Because paper was not yet developed,
clay tablets were used. Some of these
still exist.
LESSON 1 Art of Earliest Times 321
Prehistoric Builders
Eventually prehistoric people moved
out of caves and began constructing
their own shelters. Small communities
developed, and some hunters gave up
their nomadic life and settled down,
becoming farmers. After some time,
small tribal groups grew into organized
villages surrounded by cultivated fields
and domesticated animals.
During the Neolithic period, people
built structures of stone. The Neolithic
(nee-uh-lith-ik) period, or New Stone
Age, is a prehistoric period stretching roughly
from 7000
B
.
C
. to 2000
B
.
C
. During this
time, humans developed agriculture,
and stone tools were refined. Ancient
structures from this period, called mega-
liths, have been found throughout
Europe, Asia, and even North America.
Megaliths (meg-uh-liths) are large
monuments created from huge stone slabs.
As early as 4000
B
.
C
., circular arrange-
ments of huge, rough-hewn stones were
created in Western Europe. The most
famous of these is Stonehenge in Eng-
land. Built around 2000
B
.
C
., it consists
of a series of four concentric rings.
Builders used an ancient building
method that we now call post-and-lintel
construction. Upright slabs, called posts,
support horizontal slabs, called lintels.
More than half of the original stones
still stand. The tallest measures 17 feet
and weighs more than 50 tons. Scholars
are uncertain how prehistoric people,
working with primitive tools, were able
to cut these huge stones, transport them
many miles, and then raise them into
position. The purpose of Stonehenge
has also baffled scholars for many cen-
turies. In the past, people believed a
great magician created it. Today, Stone-
henge is thought to have served as a
kind of observatory, enabling people to
practice a type of astronomy and serve
as an accurate calendar.
322 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
Sumerian artists depicted figures in a
lifelike and realistic way. Look at Figure
12.3. This small sculpture shows precise
details of dress and facial features.
Sumerians also built structures known
as ziggurats (zig-uh-rats), or stepped
mountains made of brick-covered earth
(Figure 12.4). These temples had exte-
rior staircases. A temple honoring the
god of the city was placed at the top.
Does it resemble other buildings that
you have seen?
In time, the Sumerian civilization
merged with that of Akkad, its northern
neighbor, giving rise to the civilization
of Babylonia (around 750
B
.
C
.). Baby-
lonian art and architecture resembled
Sumerian to a great extent. Another
Mesopotamian civilization, called
Assyria, emerged after the decline of
Babylonia. A distinct Assyrian artistic
style began to emerge around 1500
B
.
C
.
Assyrian artists created precise, detailed
stone reliefs, which they painted using
many colors. They depicted royal
events, hunts, wars, and animals, espe-
cially horses and lions. Human figures
were given less emphasis, although they
were still depicted in a realistic and
detailed way.
F
IGURE
12.3 This figure
was placed in the temple to
represent the worshiper. The
wide eyes, hands folded in
prayer, and attention to detail
are typical of Sumerian
sculpture.
Statua di Donna. c. 27002600
B
.
C
.
Marble. The Iraq Museum,
Baghdad, Iraq.
F
IGURE
12.4 A temple
honoring the god of the city
was placed at the top of the
ziggurat. This structure was
built in 2100
B
.
C
. What other
art and architecture was
being created throughout the
world at that time?
Ziggurat. Ur, Iraq. c. 2100
B
.
C
.
LESSON 1 Art of Earliest Times 323
Egypt
The culture of ancient Egypt devel-
oped along the banks of the Nile River
more than 3,000 years before the birth
of Christ. Religion influenced every part
of Egyptian life. The pharaohs, or Egypt-
ian rulers, were worshiped as gods and held
complete authority over the kingdom. Egyp-
tians believed in life after death and pre-
served the bodies of the pharaohs in
preparation for the afterlife. The famous
pyramids were built as the tombs of the
pharaohs.
Egyptian artists decorated temples
and tombs according to very strict rules
set forth by the priests. The rules
required that each part of the body be
shown from the most visible angle.
Look at Figure 12.5. The heads, arms,
legs, and feet are shown in profile. The
shoulders and eyes, however, are shown
from a frontal view.
The paintings found on the walls
inside the tombs reveal a great deal about
life in Egypt. Scenes from the life of the
person buried in the tomb were intended
to remind the spirit of life on earth.
India
In the Indus River Valley, the ancient
civilization of India arose. Only in
recent times have historians realized the
age of Indian culture. For many cen-
turies, no one knew that a civilization
had flourished on the banks of the
Indus River in northwest India. Then in
1865, railroad workers uncovered a hill
of crumbling, fired-clay bricks near the
city of Harappa (in present-day Pak-
istan). The bricks were found to be
thousands of years old, dating back to
2500
B
.
C
.
In 1922, a second city was discovered
in the same area. Called Mohenjo-Daro
(moh-hen-joh dahr-oh), meaning “Hill
of the Dead” (Figure 12.6), the city was
F
IGURE
12.5
What symbols or
features make these
figures seem
important? Observe
the shapes in the
boxes along the top
border. These are
hieroglyphs, an early
form of picture
writing. They give
information about
the painted scene.
Egyptian. The Goddess
Hathor Places the Magic
Collar on Sethos I.
Thebes, Nineteenth
Dynasty. c. 13031290
B
.
C
. Painted bas-relief.
226.5 cm (89
1
8
). The
Louvre, Paris, France.
F
IGURE
12.6 Experts believe the city of Mohenjo-Daro was
abandoned because the climate changed. The ancient Indians built with
fire-baked bricks, which meant they had ready access to timber. The
area is a desert today.
Mohenjo-Daro, India. c. 2500
B
.
C
.
324 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
once home to about 35,000 people.
Architectural remains indicate that it
served as a major commercial center.
Wide, open streets divided the city into
large blocks. The city featured multi-
storied houses made from fired brick
and wood, and elaborate, sophisticated
drainage systems.
At this archeological site, workers
discovered a number of small relief
carvings in soapstone (Figure 12.7).
These carvings are the earliest known
examples of Indian art. As you can see,
several unusual lines and shapes are
incised above the animals. These are
characters from the ancient Harappan
system of writing.
Over 70 cities, towns, and villages
have been discovered in the Indus val-
ley, as well as evidence of an organized
kingdom with a central government
that existed about 4,500 years ago.
China
The Yellow River valley became the
site of the ancient Chinese civilization,
a civilization that retains many of its
ancient traditions today. Beginning
4,000 years ago, it is the oldest continu-
ous culture in the history of the world.
As their civilization developed, the
Chinese gained skill and knowledge in
many different areas. They invented
paper, porcelain (a type of ceramic), and
F
IGURE
12.7 The designs on these seals “belonged” to their owners. Seals were pressed
into soft clay to secure a container or document.
Soapstone seals from Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Valley culture). Karachi Museum, Karachi, Pakistan.
LESSON 1 Art of Earliest Times 325
woodblock printing as well as the com-
pass and gunpowder. Until modern
times, emperors ruled China. Its histori-
cal periods were divided into dynasties,
which were named after ruling families.
A dynasty is a period of time during which
a single family provided a succession of
rulers. Bronze vessels found in ancient
graves reveal that Chinese artisans cast
bronze as early as the first imperial Chi-
nese dynasty, the Shang dynasty, which
began in 1766
B
.
C
. The ritual wine ves-
sel shown in Figure 12.8 is an example
of the intricate work done at that time.
Abstract motifs and spirals cover the
vessel. Experts believe the spirals stand
for clouds, rain, or water. Such images
reveal an ancient Chinese regard for
nature. Many early bronze vessels show
extraordinary technical mastery
evidence of the centuries of develop-
ment required before such artworks
could be created.
Analyzing
Ancient Art
Selecting and Analyzing
Exhibitions. Research exhibitions of
ancient art online or at art museums in
your community. Select early artworks
from the cultures listed in this lesson.
Analyze the exhibitions to form conclu-
sions about formal qualities, or how these
cultures used the elements and principles
of art. Also, form conclusions about his-
torical and cultural contexts.What was
the role or significance of the artworks
or art objects in these ancient cultures?
Check Your
Understanding
1. For what purpose might cave paint-
ings have been created?
2. What is a ziggurat?
3. Why and for whom were the pyra-
mids built?
4. Define the word dynasty.
5. Describe general characteristics of
artworks from the Paleolithic period,
Ancient Egypt, and Ancient China.
F
IGURE
12.8 This vessel
was used in a ceremony to
ensure harmony with the
spirits of deceased ancestors.
Notice the large eyes and beak
of an owl on the lower part of
the vessel. Can you find other
animals in the designs that
cover this container?
Ancient China. Ritual Wine Container.
Shang dynasty. Thirteenth century
B
.
C
. Bronze. 30.1 12.2 12.5 cm
(11
7
8
4
3
4
4
7
8
). Arthur M.
Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. Gift
of Arthur M. Sackler, s1987.23a-b.
LESSON
2
Art of Asia and the
Middle East
T
he cultures of India, China, Japan, and the Middle East have all produced
exciting art forms, some very different from European art. The art of Asia
and the Middle East reflects different philosophies and religious beliefs from
those in Western art.
India
The art of India has been strongly influenced by the Hindu and Buddhist
religions. Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions. It began in ancient
India around 2000
B
.
C
. It is not one religion but a group of many related
sects. Buddhism began as a Hindu reform movement, and had a strong
influence over the country from the third century
B
.
C
. to the sixth century
A
.
D
. Among the earliest, and most important, examples of modern Indian
architecture are stupas (stoop-uhs), which are beehive-shaped domed places of
worship. These were built by Buddhist architects to house relics of Buddha,
their religion’s founder. Each stupa was reached through four gates covered
with relief sculptures (Figure 12.9).
After the fifth century, Hinduism rose again in popularity because it was
encouraged by the monarchs of the period. Hindu temples and sculptures of
the Hindu gods were created. Hinduism combined several different beliefs
and practices that developed over a long period of time. In Hinduism there
are three primary processes in life and in the universe: creation, preserva-
tion, and destruction. The three main Hindu gods reflect this belief system.
Vocabulary
stupas
scroll
pagoda
woodblock printing
mosques
326 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
F
IGURE
12.9 Domes such as this were
often erected over holy places, burial mounds,
and holy relics. What is the purpose of
preserving such things?
Great Stupa. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India.
c. first century
B
.
C
.
LESSON 2 Art of Asia and the Middle East 327
They are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu,
the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer
(Figure 12.10). In Hinduism, both
humans and animals are believed to
have souls that undergo reincarnation.
Reincarnation is a purification process in
which the soul lives in many bodies in
many lifetimes until it becomes one with
Brahma, the great soul.
India exported its religions to the rest
of Asia. In Cambodia many temples
were built of stone in the Indian style.
The temple at Angkor Wat (Figure
12.11) was originally a Hindu temple
built between
A
.
D
. 1113 and 1150. Dedi-
cated to Vishnu by its builder, it repre-
sents the Hindu view of the universe.
F
IGURE
12.11 The layout
of this temple was designed to
create a solar calendar by which
the summer and winter solstices
and the spring and fall equinoxes
could be fixed. Why was this
important in an agricultural
society?
Southeast Asia. Temple at Angkor Wat,
Cambodia. 111350.
F
IGURE
12.10 The
Hindu god Siva is called the
Destroyer. This sculpture is
rich in symbolism. Notice
what the figure is
standing on. The objects
he holds are a drum
that symbolizes
creation and a flame
that symbolizes
destruction. How is
destruction related to
creation?
Unknown, India, Tamil Nadu.
Siva as Lord of the Dance. c. 950.
Copper alloy. 76.2 57.1
17.8 cm (30 22
1
2
7).
Los Angeles County Museum
of Art, Los Angeles, California,
given anonymously.
China
China adopted Buddhism during the
Han Dynasty, which lasted from 206
B
.
C
. to
A
.
D
. 220. Buddhism was easily
adopted in China because, like other
Chinese religions, it stressed the har-
mony of human beings with nature. An
important part of Buddhism is medita-
tion, focusing one’s thoughts on a single
object or idea. Chinese artists found that
long periods of meditation enabled
them to perceive the beauty of an
object or a scene with greater clarity.
This enabled them to more effectively
capture the beauty of the subject in
their paintings. Chinese art of the last
2,000 years has been greatly influenced
by Buddhism and meditation.
The Chinese were the first people to
consider “picture painting” a valuable
endeavor. This was because many artists
were also scholars who wrote poems in
beautiful writing (called calligraphy)
using brushes that could make thick and
thin lines. They used these same
brushes and line techniques to paint
pictures.
328 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
They painted fans, pages of books,
and scrolls (Figure 12.12). A scroll is a
long roll of parchment or silk. Some were
hung on walls, while others were meant
to be unrolled a little at a time and read
like a book.
The earliest Chinese paintings were
filled with images illustrating the beliefs
that people should live together peace-
fully and be respectful of their elders.
With the influence of a new religion,
Buddhism, the focus of painting began
to shift away from humans and toward
nature. By around
A
.
D
. 1100, the land-
scape was the main theme of Chinese
painting.
The Chinese also produced sculpture
for religious purposes and to honor the
dead. During the Sung (soong) Dynasty
(
A
.
D
. 9601279), artists first produced
ceramic objects of porcelain made from
a fine-grained white clay called kaolin
(kay-uh-luhn). Work in porcelain
reached its highest point during the
Ming Dynasty (
A
.
D
. 13681644). Today,
collectors especially prize porcelain from
this dynasty (see Figure 5.4, page 99).
Japan
In
A
.
D
. 552 the ruler of a kingdom in
nearby Korea sent the Emperor of Japan
a gift. The gift was a bronze figure of the
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.
Along with the sculpture came priests to
spread Buddhist teachings. Eventually
many of the people of Japan accepted
this new religion. They also learned
about new styles of art. For the next
250 years, Japanese art would show
strong traces of Korean, Chinese, and
other Asian styles.
The first important Japanese art
objects of “modern times” were started
in
A
.
D
. 594. These were magnificent
Buddhist temples that were built
throughout the country. Since the
islands of Japan are made of volcanic
rock, the Japanese could not use stone
to build their temples. Instead, they
F
IGURE
12.12 Notice how small the people are in
relation to the landscape. The hut blends in with the natural
setting. The calligraphy bordering the drawing is an important
part of the picture. Notice how it echoes the shapes
of the leaves. How might the calligraphy be part of the
“conversation”?
Hua Yen. Conversation in Autumn. 1762. Ink and color on paper. 115.3
39.7 cm (45
3
8 15
5
8). The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio.
The John L. Severance Fund.
LESSON 2 Art of Asia and the Middle East 329
made them from wood. In the process,
they elevated the architecture of
wooden structures to new levels.
Japanese temples are intricately
assembled and richly decorated. They
are carefully fitted together with special
joints. Because Japan suffers frequent
earthquakes and violent storms, the
buildings had to be durable. One of the
most interesting features of early Japan-
ese temples was the pagoda (puh-
gohd-uh). This is a tower several stories
high with roofs curving slightly upward at
the edges (Figure 12.13).
The Japanese also created monumen-
tal sculptures, often of the Buddha.
Such a sculpture can be seen in Figure
12.14, the Great Buddha at Kamakura.
It was cast in bronze in
A
.
D
. 1252. It is
situated outdoors in a grove of trees,
which seems an appropriate setting for
this contemplative Buddha.
F
IGURE
12.13 This pagoda stands as the oldest wooden
structure in the world. Its purpose is to preserve relics.
Pagoda from the Temple Complex at Horyuji, near Nara, Japan. c.
A
.
D
. 616.
F
IGURE
12.14 The Great Buddha was
once housed in a temple, but the temple was
destroyed by a tidal wave. What effect does
its current location have on this artwork?
Great Buddha. 1252. Bronze. Height: 10.68 m (35’).
Kamakura, Japan.
Hokusai was an artist who changed his name as often as he changed resi-
dences. At the age of 37, he began to call himself Hokusai, the name he is
known by today. He often combined it with other names. The most unusual one
was Gakyojin Hokusai: A Man Mad About Painting, Hokusai.
In eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Japan, printmakers specialized
in one area of the printing process. They were designers, woodcarvers, or print-
ers. Artisans did not usually cross from one skill to another. Hokusai, however,
mastered all the skills. In 1831, he published the landscape series Thirty-six Views
of Mount Fuji, using the Zen Hokusai Iitsu name. In 1833, three major print series
were published: A Tour of Japanese Waterfalls; Imagery of the Poets; and his Nature
series, which included flowers, birds, and insects. In 1834, Rare Views of Famous
Bridges, a series of 11 prints, was published.
Hokusai had endless energy, a tremendous ego, a restless imagination, and
extraordinary talent. In fact, he produced most of his masterpieces after the age
of 70. On his deathbed he begged for ten more years of life so that he could
become a true artist.
330 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
In
A
.
D
. 784, Japan entered its golden
age of art. During this period, Japanese
artists developed a painting style called
Yamato-e (yah-mah-toh-ay), or “pictures
in the Japanese manner.” Paintings done
in this style were the first examples of
pure Japanese art, meaning that they did
not show the influence of other Asian
cultures. Yamato-e screen paintings
were often made in sections and were
used to brighten the dimly lit interiors of
temples and homes as a temporary wall
to divide a room.
Another new Japanese style of art
was called Ukiyo-e (oo-kee-yoh-ay),
meaning “pictures of the floating
world,” which depict different aspects
of the pleasures of life. The demand for
artworks in this new style was great. To
meet this demand, artists turned to a
new technique, woodblock printing.
This is making prints by carving images in
blocks of wood. Using this technique,
artists could produce many inexpensive
prints of one image (Figure 12.15).
F
IGURE
12.15 The
gust of wind blows away
the papers and clothing of
the human figures. Mount
Fuji stands white and stable,
unmoved by the wind or
the human drama.
Katsushika Hokusai. Ejiri in
Suruga Province, from Thirty-six
Views of Mt. Fuji. 24.6 37.9 cm
(9
2
3
15). Honolulu Academy
of Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii. James
A. Michener Collection, 1991.
MEET THE
ARTIST
KATSUSHIKA
HOKUSAI
Japanese, 1760–1849
Attributed to Hokusai. Portrait of
Hokusai as an Old Man. Honolulu
Academy of Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii.
LESSON 2 Art of Asia and the Middle East 331
Art of Islam
In
A
.
D
. 570, an event took place that
had a major effect on both the religious
beliefs and the art of the Middle East
and much of Asia. Muhammad was
born in Mecca. He grew up and became
a merchant, following the tradition of
his family. However, he believed he
received personal revelations that chal-
lenged him to change the religion of his
people, the Arabs, who worshiped many
idols. Muhammad taught that there was
only one god, called Allah. After his
death, his teachings were assembled into
the Koran, a holy scripture. Islam was
the name given to the religious faith of
people who followed Muhammad. Wor-
shippers are called Muslims.
Islamic art (art of the Muslim world)
was characterized by the use of ornate
line, shape, and pattern. The interior of
mosques, Muslim places of worship,
were decorated with calligraphy, geo-
metric patterns, and stylized plants and
flowers. Art depicting people or ani-
mals was not permitted in mosques.
Such art was prohibited early in the
history of the Islamic religion and was
meant to prevent Muslims from wor-
shiping images when they should
instead be worshiping the idea of Allah.
F
IGURE
12.16
This building was
designed to be
in harmony with
the surrounding
garden and pools.
Notice the balance
and symmetry of
all the elements.
What feeling does
the building evoke?
Taj Mahal, garden
and pools. 163243.
Agra, India.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is a stupa?
2. What medium did the Chinese often
paint on that could be hung on walls
or read like a book?
3. Compare and contrast the historical
styles in Figure 12.12 on page 328
and Figure 12.15 on page 330.
Identify the general trends in art.
Book illustrators, however, were not
limited by the same restrictions. They
depicted people and animals in everyday
scenes. They filled their illustrations with
beautiful decorative patterns.
The religion of Islam, and its influ-
ence on art, also spread to the East.
Muslims conquered Delhi in India and
converted many Indians to Islam. Fig-
ure 12.16 shows a famous building, the
Taj Mahal, which was built by an Indian
Muslim leader as a memorial to his wife.
The building is an outstanding example
of Islamic architecture and is considered
one of the most beautiful structures in
the world. The building emphasizes for-
mal balance and harmony with its sur-
roundings. Its cool marble walls and
placid lake evoke a response of serenity
and tranquility in those who visit.
F
IGURE
12.17 The vertical lines on the face of this
figure probably represent ornamental scars made to indicate
ancestry and to enhance physical beauty. How did the artist
use the principles of art in creating this portrait of a king?
Portrait of a King. Ife, Nigeria. Copper alloy. Eleventhfifteenth century.
H: 36.2 cm (14
1
4
). Museum of Mankind, London, England.
T
hroughout Africa, in both the past and the presenteven within the
context of modern nation-statesthe visual arts are well integrated with
other art forms, including music, dance, and drama. The art of Africa was an
integral part of the daily lives and religious rituals of the people.
The Role of Art in African Cultures
The huge continent of Africa has a population of
millions that is sub-divided into about 1,000 cultural
groups. The peoples of Africa have long-established,
highly developed cultures that have been producing
sophisticated art forms for centuries. The arts are as
varied as the peoples.
Everything is made with great care, whether for
rituals or everyday use. Art addresses not only
the concerns of the living, their ancestors, and
those yet to be born, but also those of the
spirits of nature. A great deal of African art
emphasizes important events of life and
forces of nature that influence the lives of
individuals and communities.
Dominant themes in African art
include birth and death; the roles of
men, women, and children; coming of
age; sickness and healing; the importance
of food and water; and the human rela-
tionship with nature. Artworks are often
linked to celebrations and rituals, both
nonreligious and sacred. Westerners are
fascinated with objects from these cul-
tures and have put them in museums. It is
important to understand the original context
in which these objects were made and used.
LESSON
3
The Art of Africa
Vocabulary
griots
332 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
These figures reveal proud profiles,
with jutting chins and heads held high
atop sturdy necks. Their bodies appear
straight and tall whether shown
standing or seated upright on stallions
(Figure 12.18). The figures represent
members of the well-outfitted and well-
organized army described in an epic that
recounts Sundiata’s life history.
LESSON 3 The Art of Africa 333
Ancient Ife
For the Yoruba (yaw-ruh-buh)people
of Nigeria, the city of Ife (ee-feh) is the
place where life and civilization began.
Yoruba cities developed between the
years
A
.
D
. 800 and 1000. By
A
.
D
. 1100,
artists of Ife had developed a highly
refined, lifelike sculptural style to create
portraits of the first Yoruba kings and
queens. The display of royal portraits,
with their composed, balanced facial
features, added a sense of stability in
periods of political transition between
rulers, or following the death of a ruler
(Figure 12.17).
According to Yoruba beliefs, the world
consists of two realms: the real world
that can be seen and touched; and the
supernatural world of ancestors, gods
and goddesses, and spirits. Works of art
created for the real, or visible, world
tend to be realistic, whereas works of art
created for the supernatural, or invisible,
world tend to be more abstract.
As memorial portraits of Yoruba roy-
alty, these sculptures celebrate the lives
and accomplishments of individuals.
Like Yoruba poems, which record family
history and personal deeds, these
refined works of art encourage living
generations to strive for perfection.
They encourage the living to match or
surpass the cultural accomplishments of
previous generations.
The Empire of Mali
Works of art made centuries ago in Ife
and elsewhere in West Africa document
the rise of city-states throughout the
region. The terra-cotta sculptures of
cavalrymen and foot soldiers from the
Inland Niger Delta, near the ancient city
of Jenne, date back to the early thir-
teenth century, when the empire of
Mali was founded by a powerful mili-
tary leader and king named Sundiata.
F
IGURE
12.18 Because wet clay is soft, artists can easily add
texture to the overall forms of clay sculptures. How many different
kinds of texture can you identify in this work?
Inland Delta Region, Mali. Equestrian figure. c. thirteenth century. Ceramic.
70.5 cm (27
3
4). National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. Museum purchase, 86-12-2.
334 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
The strength of Sundiata’s great cav-
alry and army of foot soldiers enabled
him to gain political power. Under his
leadership, the empire of Mali became
one of the largest and wealthiest king-
doms the world has ever known. The
epic story of the rise of Sundiata is
passed on by griots (gree-oh), oral his-
torians who are also musicians and perform-
ers, throughout West Africa to this day.
The city of Jenne is the oldest city in
sub-Saharan Africa. In the art and archi-
tecture from this city there is an empha-
sis on vertical elements (Figure 12.19).
This can be seen in the corner pinnacles
of house facades, which are made tall
and straight.
The sculpture shown in Figure 12.20,
made by the Dogon (doh-gahn) people
of Mali, conveys a sense of harmony and
balance. As images of the first man and
woman described in Dogon myths of
creation, this sculpture serves as an
inspiration to living generations. These
figures are seated on a stool with a circu-
lar support that symbolizes the link
between the earth below and the spirit
world above. Carved from a single piece
of wood, the interlocking forms effec-
tively convey Dogon ideas regarding the
interdependence of men and women
and their complementary social roles.
F
IGURE
12.19 This solid
iron figure shows the strong
vertical lines that characterize
Mali sculpture.
Bamana peoples, Mali. Bamana
iron figure. Iron, string, cowrie
shells. Indiana University Art
Museum, Bloomington, Indiana.
Gift of Ernst Anspach.
F
IGURE
12.20 Notice that the proportions of
these figures are expressive rather than realistic.
Seated Man and Woman. Dogon people, Mali. Wood. 76.2 cm
(30). Photograph © 1993 by the Barnes Foundation, Merion
Station, Pennsylvania.
Here four social ranks are depicted.
The king, or oba is placed in the center
and is the largest figure. The two chiefs
are almost as large as the king. Two
sword bearers, one a child, are even
smaller. Three tiny figures, one support-
ing the king’s foot and two in the top
corners, represent the least powerful
members of the court.
The oba wears a patterned wrapper,
or waist cloth, a six-ringed necklace,
and sits side-saddle on a horse. In
Benin culture, horses are symbols of
political power.
The Asante Kingdom
The Akan people lived in central
and coastal Ghana. In the first half of
the eighteenth century, these people
joined together to form a powerful
LESSON 3 The Art of Africa 335
The Kingdom of Benin
The Benin (buh-neen) kingdom, sit-
uated in what is now southern Nigeria,
was a society of many class levels, with
an oral tradition that goes back seven or
eight centuries. The kingdom reached
the peak of its power in the sixteenth
century. Like earlier artists in nearby Ife,
Benin artists excelled in creating metal
sculptures using a copper alloy possess-
ing many of the same qualities as
bronze.
Among the most ambitious of the
Benin castings are the high-relief sculp-
tures that once covered the walls and
pillars of the royal palace. One of these
contains the figure of the oba (oh-bah),
or king, flanked by two chiefs bearing
shields, sword bearers, and palace atten-
dants (Figure 12.21).
F
IGURE
12.21 In Benin art
the most politically powerful person
is represented as the largest figure.
This representation reflects the
central organization of the kingdom.
Less powerful individuals are
smaller.
Kingdom of Benin, Edo people, Nigeria.
Mounted King with Attendants. c. sixteenth
seventeenth century. Brass. 49.5 41.9
11.3 cm (19
1
2 16
1
2 4
1
2). The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
New York. The Michael C. Rockefeller
Memorial Collection. Gift of Nelson A.
Rockefeller, 1965. (1978.412.309)
336 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
F
IGURE
12.22 Works of art made using the lost-wax casting
technique often show finely textured details. What elements of art are
especially important in this work?
Akan people, Asante Kingdom, Ghana. Necklace. Nineteenth century. Gold. 2.5 40 cm
(1 15
3
4
). Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. The Adolph D. and
Wilkins C. Williams Fund.
F
IGURE
12.23 Weavers of
Kente cloth have invented many
different patterns. These patterns
often have names that are
immediately recognized by
members of Akan societies. What
elements of art have been used to
create the patterns on this cloth?
Asante people, Ghana. Man’s cloth
(Kente cloth). Rayon. L: 314 cm (123
5
8),
W: 217 cm (85
7
16). UCLA Fowler
Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles,
California. Anonymous gift.
confederation of states that included
many cultural groups. The largest of these
groups was the Asante (ah-sahn-tee).
Gold was the measure of wealth for
the Asante and their kings, who tightly
controlled its use. Items fashioned
from the precious metal were made to
be worn by these kings as a sign of
their divine authority and absolute
power.
Asante necklaces, bracelets, and
anklets were crafted by stringing cast-
gold beads with gold nuggets, glass and
stone beads, and other items. In Figure
12.22, a pendant in the form of a land
crab is used. This necklace was probably
designed for a queen mother, because
the land crab was widely recognized by
the Asante as a symbol for a person of
this rank.
The work of goldsmiths in Kumase,
the Asante capital, was regulated by the
king. He allowed people to commission
works of art from these highly skilled
craftsmen. Items obtained through the
king’s court included gold ornaments,
staffs, and swords.
LESSON 3 The Art of Africa 337
The Asante king also controlled the
use of special cloth. During the 1600s,
weavers created the first Kente (ken-tee)
cloth, a brilliantly colored and patterned
fabric that became the royal cloth.
Kente cloth is woven in narrow strips
that are then stitched together to form
large pieces with complex patterns
(Figure 12.23). By the 1720s, Asante
weavers were unraveling imported
silk fabrics and reweaving them into
cloths featuring their own unique
designs. Silk cloths woven with special
symbolic patterns were reserved exclu-
sively for kings.
The Bwa People
Although wood is the most common
material used to carve face masks and
headdresses, African masks were con-
structed in different ways using a wide
variety of materials. For example, the
Bwa people of Burkina Faso made masks
of leaves, plant fibers, porcupine quills,
and feathers. Leaf masks were made at
the end of the dry season, before the
rains that marked the beginning of the
next agricultural cycle. The Bwa people
considered leaf masks the most ancient
mask form and closely associated them
with nature (Figure 12.24).
The Bwa people also produced wooden
masks that were used during village cere-
monies or harvest festivals. The music of
flutes, drums, and gongs accompanied
the dancers wearing these masks, which
took different formsanimal, human,
and abstract. All were painted with black,
white, and red geometric patterns. Plank
masks were among the most abstract of
all mask forms made by the Bwa people
(Figure 12.25, page 338).
F
IGURE
12.24 African masks are generally more than just a face
covering. Imagine wearing a leaf mask like this one. How would you feel?
Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Boni. Detail of a leaf mask. 1985.
338 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
Constructing a
Mask
Demonstrating Effective Use of
Media and Tools in Design. What
happens when you cover your face with a
mask? Can you hide your identity from
others? Design your own mask using thin
cardboard, construction paper, paint, or
other media and tools. In choosing your
design and materials, think about what
you want your mask to represent.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What beliefs are reflected in the
terra-cotta and bronze sculptures of
the Yoruba people?
2. What are griots?
3. How do artists of the Benin kingdom
signify the importance of figures in
their artworks?
4. What is Kente cloth, and what is it
used for?
5. Describe general characteristics of
sculptures from the Ife, Dogon, and
Edo cultures of Africa.
F
IGURE
12.25 Though large and cumbersome, plank masks are made of lightweight wood. To
help steady the mask, the performer holds a stick between his teeth. This stick projects through rim
holes at the back of the mask. What elements of art are emphasized in these masks?
Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Pa. Plank masks entering performance area, harvest celebration.
LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 339
Art of the Americas
M
any archaeologists believe that the first visitors to North America
were groups of Asian hunters who crossed an ancient land bridge
across the Bering Strait. They began to arrive in what is now Alaska
between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago. Gradually these people spread out
to cover all parts of North and South America. In this lesson, you will study
the contributions of Native peoples of the Americas.
Art of Mesoamerica and South America
The term pre-Columbian refers to the time period before the arrival of
Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492. Art historians use the term to
refer to the art of the Indian civilizations of early Mexico, Central America,
and South America. However, archaeologists are discovering that many of
these pre-Columbian civilizations were highly sophisticated and created
magnificent works of art and architecture.
Olmec Culture
Olmec (ol-mek) culture is often called
the “mother culture” of Mexico because
the artifacts found in the region are the
most ancient. The Olmec civilization dates
from 1200
B
.
C
. to
A
.
D
. 500. The artifacts
left by the Olmec had an influence on
all the civilizations that were to follow.
They carved altars, pillars, sarcophagi
(sahr-kah-fuh-guy) (stone coffins), and
statues. Among the most interesting
of the Olmec creations are four huge
human heads carved from volcanic rock
(Figure 12.26). These were discovered
at La Venta, a center for religious cere-
monies. These sculptures weigh up to
40 tons and stand 8 feet tall. Notice the
childlike features on this giant face. The
full lips, which seem almost to be pout-
ing, are typical of the Olmec style.
LESSON
4
Vocabulary
pre-Columbian
totem poles
F
IGURE
12.26 This monumental sculpture
depicts a simple, stylized face. The stone was quarried
and transported over many miles of swampland
before reaching its destination. What does this
indicate about the technology of the Olmec people?
Olmec. Colossal Head. 1200
B
.
C
.
A
.
D
. 500. Basalt. 243.8 cm
(8) high. Anthropology Museum, Veracruz, Mexico.
340 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
Mayan Culture
By around
A
.
D
. 800 the Mayan
(my-uhn) empire covered the Yucatán
peninsula, modern Belize, Guatemala,
and Honduras. The Maya were gifted
mathematicians. They had the most
accurate calendar of any people in
history and had developed the most
advanced hieroglyphic writing in
Mesoamerica. They were also great
builders. The Maya erected huge tem-
ples and cities with tools of wood, stone,
and bone. In the late 1800s, scientists
discovered an ancient city in northern
Guatemala. This Mayan city, Tikal (tih-
kahl), is known to have covered an
area of 50 square miles. The city is
thought to have been home to some
55,000 people (Figure 12.27).
The surviving works of Mayan civi-
lization range from the smallest objects
to great temples covered with relief
carvings. Among the smallest artworks
of the Maya are many beautifully
designed clay figures only a few inches
high. However, most of the Mayan
sculpture that has survived consists of
relief carvings on buildings and monu-
ments. In the early stages of the Mayan
civilization, these carvings were mostly
simple and realistic. In some later tem-
ples, a more complex, geometric style
came to be the rule.
Aztec Culture
The largest of the cultures of ancient
Mexico and Central America was the
Aztec. This civilization emerged sometime
between
A
.
D
1200 and 1325. The Aztecs
were a warlike people. Like other pre-
Columbian peoples, they were very reli-
gious. When their god told them to leave
their comfortable homeland and settle
where they saw an eagle perched on a
cactus, they obeyed. There, they built a
magnificent city, which they called
Tenochtitlán (tay-noch-teet-lahn). A col-
lection of tiny islands, this Aztec city was
connected by a network of canals. In the
fifteenth century, the Aztecs embarked
on an aggressive military campaign to
force other groups in Mexico to pay them
tribute. They reached the height of their
power and domination less than a cen-
tury before the arrival of the Spanish. By
the time Spanish conquerors arrived in
1519, their island city covered over 25
square miles. Today we know the city,
which is no longer surrounded by water,
as Mexico City.
The Aztecs adopted many of the ways
of making art from the people they con-
quered. They created a type of painted
book called a codex. Such painted books
told the stories of mythological or his-
torical events. Like Mayan art, Aztec art
was greatly influenced by religion.
F
IGURE
12.27
The Mayan city
Tikal included
temples and other
stone and stucco
structures. The
pyramids here are
230 feet high.
Maya. Great Plaza of
Tikal, general view.
A
.
D
. 150700. Tikal,
Guatemala. Vanni/Art
Resource, New York.
The Incas were masters of shaping
and fitting stone. They were also highly
skilled urban planners. Proof of both tal-
ents can be found in the walled city of
Machu-Picchu (mahch-oo peek-choo)
(Figure 12.28). The stones of its build-
ings were so carefully matched that a
knife blade cannot be slipped between
any two.
Native American Art
When Christopher Columbus reached
North America in 1492, he thought his
ship had landed on the east coast of
India. He referred to the natives he
found living there as Indians. Today
these first settlers are called Native
Americans.
Some groups became hunters while
others turned to growing crops as a way
to survive. Artifacts found in these
regions show that all of these people
created art of some kind. These works
have given us insight into the cultures
of these peoples. Native American art
and traditions are still being practiced
today by these cultural groups.
LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 341
The Aztecs also built temples and
shrines, some carved directly into the
mountains. Highly stylized and elabo-
rately ornamented sculptures depicted
gods and religious symbols in bold,
dramatic style.
Inca Empire
The Inca civilization flourished
between the thirteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and their empire stretched
more than 2,500 miles from north to
south. It included present-day Peru plus
parts of Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, and
Bolivia. In acquiring such a large terri-
tory, the Inca Empire absorbed many
cultural and religious influences from
neighboring groups and from civiliza-
tions that had flourished before it.
Although governing such an immense
territory required a vast administration
and bureaucracy, the Incas managed to
govern without the benefit of a written
language. They made calculations and
kept records using pieces of knotted
string of different colors, called quipu
(kee-poo). The Incas’ ability with
numbers is reflected in their art. Inca
artifacts were made with great mathe-
matical precision.
F
IGURE
12.28
Machu-Picchu
was built on a
mountainside to
discourage would-
be attackers. The
city has withstood
five centuries of
earthquakes.
Machu-Picchu, Peru.
342 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
The Arctic Region
The Inuit (in-yuh-wuht) people
inhabited present-day Canada and
Alaska from the earliest times. Although
they are often called Eskimos, they refer
to themselves as the Inuit.
Inuit society is loosely organized into
family groups that rely on hunting and
fishing for survival. The images created
by Inuit artists reveal the importance
attached to the animals they relied on
for foodseal, walrus, fish, whale, and
caribou. Other animals such as the fox,
wolf, and bear were also represented in
their art. The human figure was shown
in the masks and dolls that they created.
Figures are also found on the engrav-
ings done on walrus ivory. In these
engravings, Inuit artists used a kind of
pictorial writing that described various
activities and events associated with
everyday life. In one such engraving on
an ivory pipestem, a series of lively
drawings record the activities associated
with the daily quest for food. Since the
surface of this pipestem is less than one
inch wide, the engraving takes the form
of tiny, decorative circles and miniature
figures. Despite their small size, the
artist still managed to present an easy-
to-read account of the hunt. To accent
the engraved lines used in works like
this, artists filled them in with color or
made them dark with soot.
Frequently, Inuit art was created to
serve the religious needs of the people.
The mask representing a moon goddess
in Figure 12.29 is an example. An Inuit
shaman, or medicine man, wore such a
mask during ceremonial dances. While
dancing, he would go into a trance and
act as a messenger between the world of
the living and the mysterious world of
spirits.
The Northwest Coast Region
The Northwest Coast Region refers to
an area rich in natural resources that
runs from southern Alaska to northern
California. Native cultural groups in this
region, including the Haida (high-duh),
Tlingit, and the Kwakiutl (kwa-kee-
yoo-tul), developed a complex culture
in which art played a prominent role.
Like other people, the Kwakiutl held
annual rituals to initiate new members,
reinforce the status of old members, and
F
IGURE
12.29 A mask of this kind was worn
only by a shaman during ceremonial dances. How
do you think the purpose of this mask is reflected
in its design? What feelings do you think the mask
evoked in viewers?
Inuit. Mask of Moon Goddess. Lower Yukon or Northwest
Bering Sea. Before 1900. 64.1 cm (25
1
4
) high. Hearst
Museum of Anthropology, The University of California at
Berkeley, Berkeley, California.
LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 343
demonstrate their magical powers. Cer-
emonial masks and dramatic costumes
were created for these rituals. Look at
the Secret Society Mask pictured in Fig-
ure 10.27 on page 273. It is composed of
several hinged pieces that moved. This
movement was intended to add surprise
and drama to the ritual. Often after a
Kwakiutl ceremony, or to celebrate
another important event, people gath-
ered to enjoy a potlatch. This event
enabled the members of one clan to
honor those of another, while adding to
their own prestige.
Native Americans of the Northwest
Coast lived in large family groups. Each
family group traced descent from a
mythological animal or human-animal,
from which they took their name. In
order to symbolize their association with
this mythic ancestor, they carved totem
poles. Totem poles are tall posts carved
and painted with a series of animal symbols
associated with a particular family or clan
(Figure 12.30).
The Southwest Region
The Native American groups of the
southwestern United States include the
Pueblo (pweb-loh) and the Navajo
(nav-uh-hoh). Early Spanish explorers
used the term pueblo, meaning village, to
describe groups of people living in large,
highly organized settlements. Ancient
Pueblo dwellings were built with adobe,
or sun-dried clay, walls.
The Pueblo were especially skillful in
creating painted pottery. Each community
developed its own distinctive shapes and
painted designs. In the Rio Grande Valley
of New Mexico, for example, Pueblo pot-
ters used black outlines and geometric
shapes to create bold designs over a
cream-colored base (Figure 12.31).
F
IGURE
12.30 Totem poles are
similar to a European family’s coat of
arms and were erected in front of a
dwelling as a means of identification
and a sign of prestige.
Haida totem pole. Prince of Wales Island. c.
1870. Originally 16.2 m (53) high. Taylor
Museum of the Colorado Springs Fine Arts
Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
F
IGURE
12.31 The materials
and techniques used in this water
jar identify it as a Pueblo work.
What elements of art can you
identify in this design?
Water jar. Santo Domingo Pueblo, New
Mexico. 1910. Ceramic. 24.1 cm (9
1
2)
high 24.45 cm (9
5
8) diameter. Denver
Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.
344 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
The Navajo, another Southwestern
cultural group, learned the art of weaving
from the Pueblo. Male Pueblo weavers
taught the Navajo weavers, who were
women, to make cloth with looms at the
beginning of the eighteenth century. As
Spanish and Mexican settlers moved into
the Southwest, they introduced new
designs and patterns, which the Navajo
adopted. By the first half of the nine-
teenth century, the Navajo were using
European dyes and Spanish wool to
create weavings that matched the work
produced by the best looms in Europe.
A blanket once owned by the Civil War
general Philip Sheridan (Figure 12.32)
exhibits many of the qualities associated
with the finest Navajo weavings. These
include the closeness of the weave, rich,
vibrant colors, and bold design.
Great Plains Region
The Native Americans of the Great
Plains followed the huge herds of bison
that roamed the broad grasslands of
central North America. The different
cultural groups of the Plainsincluding
Blackfeet, Crow, Cheyenne (shy-ann),
and Sioux (soo)were highly skilled in
the preparation of skins used for cloth-
ing, footwear, shields, and various kinds
of containers. These were then painted
or embroidered with porcupine quills
and, later, glass beads.
Because they were nomadic hunters,
they created the tepee (tee-pee). This
was a portable shelter made of buffalo
hide stretched over poles that were
lashed together in an upright position.
The hides were covered with designs
symbolizing the forces of nature and
telling stories of heroic events. At its
base, a tepee could range anywhere
from 12 to 30 feet in diameter. A large
tepee contained about as much space as
a standard living room of today.
These artisans also created ceremonial
headdresses for chieftains, which were
worn during ritual dances. The elaborate
headdress shown in Figure 12.33 was
created with natural materials found in
the surrounding environment.
F
IGURE
12.32 This saddle blanket, created for
everyday use, is now on display in a museum. How
are the principles of harmony and variety used in
this design? How is rhythm suggested?
Saddle blanket. Navajo weaving. c. 1890. Wool. 129.5
83.8 cm (51 33). Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.
LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 345
Sketching an
Event
Applying Your Skills. Native Americans
of the Great Plains painted tales of their
battles on skins. Look through a news-
paper or magazine for coverage of an
important event in your city or in the
world. On a sheet of paper, sketch the
story behind the event.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What does the term pre-Columbian
refer to?
2. Which culture created huge heads
carved from volcanic rock?
3. Which culture created the walled city
of Machu–Picchu?
4. What were totem poles used for?
F
IGURE
12.33 This feather
bonnet was created for a ceremonial
dance. Does the use of natural materials
seem to fit with the function?
Northwestern Plains people. Feather Bonnet. c.
1890. Rooster hackles, wood rods, porcupine
hair, ermine skins, horsehair, buckskin, glass
beads. 83.8 68.6 cm (33 27). Buffalo Bill
Historical Center, Cody, Wyoming. Chandler-
Pohrt Collection.
Woodlands Region
The Woodlands made up the largest
cultural group of Native Americans east
of the Mississippi River. The Woodlands
people combined hunting and gathering
with simple farming. The Iroquois (ear-
uh-kwoi), made up of six different
Woodlands groups, combined to form
the highly organized Iroquois nation.
Expert wood carvers, the Iroquois
created wooden masks that were usu-
ally painted and decorated with horse
hair. The best known masks were cre-
ated for a society of healers known as
the False Faces because of the masks
they wore. These False Face masks were
thought to be sacred and represented
the spirits who gave healers the magic
they needed to treat illnesses. Because
they were considered to be so powerful,
these masks were hidden away when
not in use so they would not cause acci-
dental injuries. The masks were consid-
ered sacred and were not intended to be
seen by nonbelievers.
346 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
F
IGURE
12.34
Jessie Oonark. Untitled. c. 1973. Duffle wool, felt, embroidery floss, and thread. 186 181 cm (73
1
4
71
1
4
”). National Gallery
of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Gift of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1989.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
This is a clue collecting step.
What media were used to create this work? What is the
size of the work?
What objects and figures are shown in the work?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
In this step you will form conclusions about the
formal qualities in this artwork.
What pattern emerges in the use of colors chosen for
this work?
What kind of balance has the artist used to organize
the hanging?
Describe the use of proportion.
How has the artist used harmony and variety to unify
this large work?
3
INTERPRET What is the artist trying to
communicate?
Combine the clues you have collected to form a
creative interpretation of the work.
Do the people in this work appear to be inhabitants of
a large, modern city? If not, how would you describe
them? Explain your reaction.
Why do you think the artist used proportion as
she did?
The artist left this work untitled. Give it a title that fits
your interpretation.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgment
of the work.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theories to
defend your decision.
Jessie Oonark was born
northwest of Hudson Bay to an
Inuit family. She was taught tradi-
tional Inuit beliefs and essential
skills: childcare, preparing skins,
and making clothing. After
becoming a widow at age 40,
Oonark fell on hard times.The
next 19 years were filled with
many hardships. After being res-
cued from near-starvation, she
was taken to a hospital at Baker
Lake. It was there that she dis-
covered art. Her works are
mostly wall hangings and prints
based on memories of her earlier
life. Her use of bold, flat areas of
color makes her style unique.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 347
Jessie Oonark
(1906–1986)
348 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World
Africa’s treasures are prized by collectors all over the world,
but this popularity isn’t all good news.
or at least 2,000 years, various cultures in Africa have been creating
sculptures, busts, and masks from ivory, terra-cotta, soapstone, and
metals. The continent’s rich artistic output has long influenced Western
artists including Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and Georges Braque.
African art is prized by collectors and museums for its intrinsic beauty and
artistic merit. In fact, the art has become so valued that thieves have been
stealing grave markers, pottery, masks, and sculptures. Some of these items
are being dug up from ancient burial sites in villages in East and West
Africa. Other works are stolen from African museums. All are sold
illegally to collectors in Europe and the United States. The pricetag
for the illegal African art trade: about $45 million each year.
Fighting Back
Now Africans are fighting back. “These objects of art are the
relics of our history—why must we lose them?” asks Omotoso
Eluyemi, director general of Nigeria’s National Commission
for Museums and Monuments. His group is in charge of
maintaining Nigeria’s museums and landmarks.
Nigeria and other African countries, including Benin, Mali,
and Kenya, are cutting down on the looting of an important
part of Africa’s heritage. Now art dealers from around the
world are asking questions if someone is selling a piece of
ancient African art. Villagers and police are on the lookout
for thieves who are digging up art treasures. Governments
are using the Internet to track down missing
pieces of art. This has helped reduce the looting.
That’s good news for the many Africans who
want to hold on to their art and cultural history.
TIME to Connect
Look at a map of Africa, choose one nation, and research a traditional
art form, dance form, type of music, or storytelling tradition. Use your
school’s media center or the Internet for background information.
Write a report reflecting the cultural importance of the art form
to the tribe or the nation as a whole. Be sure to include the origins
of the form, symbolism (if any),and how the form has evolved
over time.
Share your report with the class. Are there any similarities or
differences in the traditional forms of music, art, dance, and
storytelling from nation to nation? How can you explain these
similarities or differences?
A sixteenth-cen-
tury bust of Queen
Idia is one of the most
famous images in African art.
SHERIDEN/AAA COLLECTION
F
Chapter 12 Review 349
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. Large monuments created from huge stone
slabs.
2. The Sumerian writing system made up of
wedge-shaped characters.
3. Stepped mountains made of brick-covered
earth.
4. Egyptian rulers who were worshiped as
gods and held complete authority over the
kingdom.
5. A period of time during which a single
family provided a succession of rulers.
6. Beehive-shaped domed places of worship.
7. A tower several stories high with roofs
curving slightly upward at the edges.
8. Muslim places of worship.
9. Tall posts carved and painted with a series
of animal symbols associated with a partic-
ular family or clan.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
10. During what time period did people begin
to build structures of stone?
11. Describe the rules that Egyptian artists
were required to follow when painting or
sculpting a relief figure.
12. What influenced the style of Chinese
“picture painting”?
13. What art technique did Japanese artists
perfect to meet the demand for artworks?
14. Describe the differences between the art
used in Islamic mosques and the art used
in Islamic book illustration.
15. What do the images created by Inuit artists
reveal about what they valued as a culture?
CHAPTER
12
REVIEW
Explore the classical and folk
traditions of Korean music
and dance on page 424 of the
Performing Arts Handbook.
Understanding and
appreciating the arts
from many cultural
traditions enriches the
work of all artists. Art directors for film and
television often do extensive research into the
cultural artifacts and art of the time period
and people being depicted in movies and
shows.Visit art.glencoe.com to compare
and contrast career opportunities in art.
ART
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Thinking Critically About Art
16. Explain. For what reasons did people of
African and Native American cultures cre-
ate art? How does this differ from more
recent European or American art that you
find in a museum?
17. Analyze. Visit art museums online or in
your community. Select and analyze
exhibitions of non-Western cultures to
form conclusions about formal qualities,
historical and cultural contexts, intents,
and meanings.
18. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 330.
Compare Hokusai’s print in Figure 12.15
to Figure 4.32 on page 92 by Hiroshige.
Hiroshige was inspired by the work of
Hokusai. By examining both works,
determine one of the general trends in
art during this historical time period.
350 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
F
IGURE
13.1 This painting is a genre (zhan-ruh) scene. It focuses on an activity that was part of everyday life.
Notice how the artist has focused as much on the surroundings as on the human subjects. How would you describe
the mood of this scene?
Jan Vermeer. The Concert. c. 1658–60. Oil on canvas. 72.4 64.8 cm (28
1
2
25
1
2
). Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston,
Massachusetts.
Figure 13.1 is a painting
by the Dutch artist Jan
Vermeer (1632–1675). Vermeer was born in Delft, Holland. During his
life he traveled little, and his paintings were largely unknown.Vermeer
is now considered one of the greatest Dutch painters. In seventeenth
century Holland, painters mainly created their artworks for the work-
ing class.Vermeer and his contemporaries chose everyday subjects as
they were recognizable and appreciated by this class. As in Figure 13.1,
the style of these works is very precise and realistic, and the mood is
hushed and serious.
Compare and Contrast. Compare and contrast Vermeer’s use of
color and value to create an area of emphasis. Where is the focal point in
this artwork?
T
he term Western art refers to art of the western hemi-
sphere, specifically western Europe and North America.
Western art includes the rich traditions of Ancient Greek and
Roman architecture up through the groundbreaking move-
ments and styles of Modern art.
In this chapter, you will:
Identify historical and cultural events that have
shaped Western art.
Describe general characteristics in artworks from
a variety of Western cultures.
Compare and contrast historical and contemporary
styles of Western art, identifying trends and themes.
CHAPTER
13
Western
Traditions in Art
351
LESSON
1
The Beginnings of
Western Art Traditions
G
reece was the birthplace of Western civilization. The influence of
ancient Greek culture can still be seen today. Almost every city in our
country has at least one building with features that resemble the architecture
of the classic Greek temple.
The Art of Greece and Rome
The Greeks built temples in honor of their gods. The most outstanding
example is the Parthenon in Athens (Figure 13.2). The columns slant
slightly inward to prevent a top-heavy look. Inside was a huge statue of the
goddess Athena created of ivory and gold. The relief sculpture that covered
the area under the roof is missing. Many of the missing pieces are in foreign
museums. The Greeks worked to create a logical, harmonious world. They
sought perfect proportions in buildings, sculpture, and music by following
the guidelines of mathematical proportion. Their artists produced statues
that represented the Greek ideal of the perfect body. According to one story,
athletes used these statues, like the one shown in Figure 13.3, as inspiration
for developing their own muscle strength and tone.
Vocabulary
Byzantine art
Romanesque
Gothic
352 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
F
IGURE
13.2 Although partially destroyed, you can see that the Parthenon was designed to look harmonious.
Architects used mathematical formulas to make the temple look balanced and beautiful.
Parthenon. Temple of Athena. Fifth century
B
.
C
. Acropolis, Athens, Greece.
LESSON 1 The Beginnings of Western Art Traditions 353
When they were new, Greek temples
and statues were not the pure white we
see today. The Greeks loved color, and
they painted their buildings and sculp-
tures various hues. Time has since worn
the paint away.
Even though the Romans conquered
Greece in 146
B
.
C
., they did not conquer
Greek culture. Instead, the Romans
adopted Greek culture, modifying it to
suit their own needs. Greek sculptors,
painters, architects, philosophers, and
teachers exerted a great influence on the
culture of the Roman Empire.
Earlier, the Romans had absorbed the
culture of the Etruscans in Italy. Two out-
standing Etruscan developments that the
Romans adopted included a system of
drainage and an improved use of the arch
in the construction of buildings. What we
call Roman art is a blend of the ideal
Greek and the practical Etruscan arts.
The Romans added much to what
they adopted. They used the arch and
concrete to build large-scale structures,
including huge vaulted and domed
inner spaces. Engineers constructed a
network of roads to connect all parts of
the Roman Empire. The Romans also
developed beautiful interior decoration
and created realistic rather than ideal-
ized portrait sculpture (Figure 13.4).
F
IGURE
13.3 Look at
the proportions and detail
of this athlete. Notice the
idealized muscles and facial
features. What does such
a sculpture reveal about
Greek culture? What
features of the human
body were admired by
them and important to
them?
Myron. Discobolus (Discus
Thrower). c. 450
B
.
C
. Roman
copy of a bronze original. Life-
size. Italy. Palazzo Vecchio,
Florence, Italy.
F
IGURE
13.4 Unlike
the Greeks, the Romans
did not seek to depict
idealized human forms.
The expression on the
boy’s face seems haughty
or proud, but notice how
his features have been
shown realistically. For
example, his ears stick
out from his head.
Roman. Portrait Statue of Boy.
Late first century
B
.
C
.–early first
century
A
.
D
. Julio-Claudian.
Bronze. Height: 123.2 cm
(48
1
2
). The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York,
New York. Rogers fund, 1914
(14.130.1).
Analyzing
Architecture
Illustrating Ideas for Artworks Using
Direct Observation. Find a building in
your community in the Greek or Roman
style. Write the location, the culture from
which the style was adopted, the purpose
of the building, and anything else you can
find out about it. Using direct observation,
make a sketch of the building in your
sketchbook. Name the ancient culture and
describe the features that match the style
of the ancient culture.
F
IGURE
13.5 Byzantine art
expressed a solemn, devotional mood.
Notice how the infant Christ in this ivory
sculpture is presented as a miniature
man. He holds a scroll in one hand and
blesses the viewer with the other.
Byzantine, Constantinople. Virgin and Child. Mid-
tenth to eleventh century. Ivory. 23.4 7
1.3 cm (9
3
16
2
3
4
1
2
). The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, New York. Gift
of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. (17.190.103).
354 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
The Art of the
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages began with the con-
quest of Rome in
A
.
D
. 476 by invaders
from the north and lasted about 1,000
years. This period of time was also called
the Age of Faith because the Christian
religion exerted such an important
influence. Monasteries, or buildings that
housed people who had made religious
vows, grew in number. The monks who
lived in them created finely decorated
religious manuscripts. Churches grew in
size, number, and political importance,
reflecting the status of the Christian
religion during this period.
Byzantine Art
In the eastern part of the former
Roman Empire, a new style of art
developed during the Middle Ages.
This style thrived around the city of
Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey)
and spread to towns such as Ravenna
in Italy. Constantinople, built on the
site of the ancient city of Byzantium,
served as the capital of the Byzantine
Empire. Byzantine art featured very
rich colors and heavily outlined figures
that appeared flat and stiff. Constanti-
nople was close to Asia as well as to
Greece, and because of this proximity,
Greek, Roman, and Asian art and cul-
ture all influenced Byzantine artists
(Figure 13.5).
Romanesque Style
At the beginning of the Middle Ages,
many new churches were built in
western Europe in a style of architecture
similar to ancient Roman buildings. It
was called Romanesque and featured
buildings of massive size; solid, heavy walls;
wide use of the rounded Roman arch; and
many sculptural decorations.
Churches, castles, and monasteries
were all built in the Romanesque style
(Figure 13.6). Architects building
Romanesque structures could not
F
IGURE
13.6
This church was built
in the Romanesque
style. Identify the
rounded arches.
Church of San Clemente.
Tahull, Spain. Twelfth
century.
LESSON 1 The Beginnings of Western Art Traditions 355
F
IGURE
13.7 This cathedral was built in
the Gothic style. Notice the pointed arches and
stained-glass windows. Compare this to Figure 13.6.
Describe the similarities and differences between
the two churches.
Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France. Twelfth to
sixteenth century.
include many windows because they
weakened the structure of the walls and
could cause the heavy stone roofs to
collapse. As a result, Romanesque build-
ings were dark and somber inside.
Gothic Style
In Europe in the twelfth century,
increasing numbers of people moved
from the countryside into towns. Work-
ers such as stone carvers and carpenters
organized into craft guilds (or unions),
and apprentices learned their crafts
from the masters in these guilds. A
wealthy new merchant class, pride in
the growing cities, and religious faith led
to the building of huge cathedrals. Two
developments in architecturethe
pointed arch and the flying buttress
brought about changes in how buildings
were built, and how they looked. The
flying buttress removed the weight of
the roof from the walls, allowing for
higher walls and many more windows
than had been possible in Romanesque
structures. This new style, called
Gothic, featured churches that seemed to
soar upward, used pointed arches, and
included stained-glass windows, like the
cathedral shown in Figure 13.7.
By using stained-glass windows,
Gothic builders changed the light that
entered the churches into rich, glowing
color. Gothic sculptors and painters
sought more realistic ways to depict
subject matter. Religious scenes were
painted on church altarpieces with egg
tempera paint and gold leaf.
The Gothic
Style
Applying Your Skills. Research
cathedrals built in the Gothic style. List
the names of and sketch three of the
cathedrals in your sketchbook. Write
down where and when they were built.
Check Your
Understanding
1. How did the Greeks represent the
human form?
2. Describe general characteristics of
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine art.
3. Identify two features of Romanesque
buildings.
4. What two developments of the
Gothic period allowed builders to
place many openings in walls and to
build churches taller?
LESSON
2
The Beginnings of
Modern Art Traditions
A
t the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Middle Ages began drawing
to a close. The invention of the printing press and the European explo-
ration of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean expanded knowledge and
contributed to the dawn of a new era. As the culture changed, so did the art.
During the Middle Ages, most art had been made for religious reasons. Even
artworks made for wealthy people, such as illuminated books, most often
depicted religious subject matter. During the next period, artists continued to
paint religious subjects but also expanded their repertoire to include mytho-
logical and secular, or nonreligious, themes.
Renaissance
Renaissance (ren-uh-sahns) is a French word for “rebirth.” Renaissance
is the name given to the period at the end of the Middle Ages when artists, writers,
and philosophers were “re-awakened” to art forms and ideas from ancient Greece
and Rome. The Renaissance did not happen all at once, nor did it spread to all
parts of Europe at the same time. Rather, it dawned gradually, first in Italy,
then spreading through northern Europe, finally reaching France and
England. Along with a new appreciation of classical antiquity, social struc-
tures also changed. Kings and popes, who had always been extremely power-
ful, had competition from bankers and merchants, whose wealth also
equaled political power. The authority of the Catholic Church was challenged
by Renaissance scholars and artists who sought to understand the natural
world through science and reason.
Italian Renaissance
An architect named Filippo Brunelleschi (fee-leep-poh brew-nell-less-
key) developed linear perspective, a graphic system that creates the illusion
of depth and volume on a flat surface. Linear perspective provided a set of
guidelines that allowed artists to depict figures and objects in space on a
two-dimensional surface. This system made the placement of objects, and
the depiction of their volume or form, measurable and exact, which gave an
exciting illusion of reality to works of art. Italian artists sought to create real-
istic and lifelike works. They studied the classical art of Greece and Rome and
meticulously observed and recorded the world around them.
Michelangelo Buonarroti (my-kel-an-jay-loh bwon-nar-roh-tee), an
Italian artist, was a master of poetry, painting, sculpture, and architecture.
However, he always thought of himself primarily as a sculptor. One of his
most famous works is Figure 13.8, Pietà. A pietà is a work showing Mary
mourning over the body of Christ.
Vocabulary
Renaissance
Mannerism
Baroque
Rococo
356 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
LESSON 2 The Beginnings of Modern Art Traditions 357
Born in a small village near Florence, Italy in 1475, Michelangelo was
apprenticed to a painter when he was 13. While still a teen, he joined the Medici
household, a powerful ruling family. There he met many prominent Florentine
citizens, artists, and philosophers. In 1494, the Medici family was overthrown
and Michelangelo was forced to flee. He traveled to Rome, where many classical
statues and buildings were being discovered. He eagerly studied their formal
qualities and proportions.
Michelangelo created many masterpieces, mostly on a grand scale. When
Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to design a tomb for him, Michelangelo
devised a design calling for 40 sculptures, only a few of which were completed
before Pope Julius decided not to spend any more money. Instead, he asked
Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The chapel
had a rounded ceiling high above the floor. Michelangelo was insulted at being
asked to paint a ceiling, which was not considered a very prestigious assignment.
He also did not know how he could paint a ceiling so far off the ground. How-
ever, the pope insisted and Michelangelo gave in. He built a high scaffold and lay
on it to paint the wet ceiling plaster. He created nine different sections on the
ceiling, each telling a Biblical story, including the creation of the world.
MEET THE
ARTIST
MICHELANGELO
BUONARROTI
Italian, 1475–1564
Marcello Venusti. Portrait of
Michelangelo. Casa Buonarroti,
Florence, Italy.
F
IGURE
13.8 Notice
the proportions of the two
figures in this sculpture. Mary
is much larger than her son.
Michelangelo did this on
purpose so that she would
not seem overwhelmed by
her son’s body. What feeling
does this proportion convey?
Michelangelo. Pietà. c. 1500.
Marble. 174 cm (58
1
2
) high;
base 195 cm (64
4
5
) high.
Vatican, St. Peter’s Basilica,
Rome, Italy.
358 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
Like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci
(lay-oh-nar-doh da vin-chee) studied
and mastered a broad range of disciplines,
including mathematics, physics, geogra-
phy, and painting. Although he had
many ideas, Leonardo often left paintings
and sculptures unfinished because he was
not happy with them. A page from one of
his sketchbooks is shown in Figure 3.2 on
page 42.
Women first achieved fame as artists
during the Renaissance. They had to
overcome political, social, and economic
obstacles to achieve artistic success. One
of them, Sofonisba Anguissola, was the
first Italian woman to gain wide recog-
nition as an artist. The oldest of seven
children, her father encouraged her to
pursue art and allowed her to study
with local artists. He even wrote to
Michelangelo to tell him about Sofon-
isba’s skills. Michelangelo responded
with kind words of encouragement and
a drawing for her to copy and study as
part of her training. Much of her early
work consisted of portraits of her family
and herself (Figure 13.9). She also
painted religious subjects. As her fame
spread, the king of Spain asked her to
join his court, where she painted many
portraits and enjoyed respect and admi-
ration as a court painter.
Northern Renaissance
The changes that took place during
the Renaissance in Italy later filtered
into northern European countries such
as Flanders (a region in Belgium) and
Germany. Flemish artists (those from
Flanders) began to use oil rather than
egg to bind their pigments. This new
medium allowed artists more versatility
than ever before.
Northern artists had little interest in
recreating the classical art of Greece and
Rome. They placed greater emphasis on
F
IGURE
13.9 Notice the dramatic use of color in this painting. Observe the detail of the
dresses the sisters are wearing. What does this tell you about them and their social status?
Sofonisba Anguissola. A game of chess, involving the painter’s three sisters and a servant. 1555. Oil on canvas. 72 97 cm
(28
1
2
38
1
5
). Muzeum Narodove, Poznan, Poland.
barefoot to symbolize that they are
standing on holy ground. The burning
candle indicates the presence of God.
The little dog stands for loyalty.
The work of Jan van Eyck influenced
another important Northern Renaissance
painter, Rogier van der Weyden (roh-
jehr van duhr vy-duhn). Like van Eyck,
he paid meticulous attention to detail.
Look at Figure 13.10. Notice the pins in
the subject’s veil and the intricate design
on her belt buckle.
As is often the case, changes in society
brought about changes in artistic expres-
sion. In the mid-sixteenth century, reli-
gious reformers challenged the authority
of the Catholic Church, causing conflict
LESSON 2 The Beginnings of Modern Art Traditions 359
depicting the accurate and precise
details such as an intricate design on
clothing or the details of the environ-
ment. Symbolism became even more
important. Images in art conveyed more
than just one meaning.
The art of Jan van Eyck (yahn van
eyek) and his successors made Flanders
the center of the Northern art world.
Like other Northern painters, Jan van
Eyck emphasized precision and accu-
racy. Look at Figure 9.8 on page 231.
Notice the attention to detail, such as
the lace on the woman’s headcovering
and the carpet under the bed. The
picture includes many symbols. For
example, the wedding couple is shown
F
IGURE
13.10 At first, this portrait
of a well-to-do woman appears to be a
realistic portrayal. If you look closely,
however, you will see that her waist, as
indicated by the red band, is about the
same size as her head. Her head is
elongated, which is emphasized by the
severely pulled back hair. Do you think
these odd proportions are natural?
Why would the artist paint her this
way if she did not look like this?
Rogier van der Weyden. Portrait of a Lady. c. 1460.
Oil on panel, painted surface. 34 25.5 cm
(13
3
8
10
1
16
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. © 1998 Board of Trustees.
Andrew W. Mellon Collection.
360 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
and turmoil. Great artists like Leonardo
and Michelangelo had died, leaving
behind a vacuum in artistic inspiration
and innovation. Artists began showing
the tension and struggle they experi-
enced during this period of crisis in their
art. The result was an artistic style called
Mannerism, which featured highly emo-
tional scenes and elongated figures. The style
was developed by certain artists to be a
deliberate shift away from the ideals and
perfect forms of Renaissance art. If
Renaissance artists preferred balance and
harmony, Mannerists preferred imbal-
ance and dynamic movement.
One of the most famous Mannerist
artists was El Greco (el greh-koh). His
name means “the Greek,” for his birth-
place on the Greek island of Crete.
Because of his unusual style, El Greco
found it difficult to secure patronage.
In 1577, he traveled to Toledo, Spain,
where he spent the rest of his life.
There he gained a reputation as a
superior artist. Figure 13.11 shows the
intense emotionalism and strong sense
of movement characteristic of El
Greco’s work.
The Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries
A reform movement known as the
Protestant Reformation, which began in
the sixteenth century, caused many
people to depart from the teachings of
the Catholic Church. In order to gain
them back, the Church started its own
reform movement, known as the
Counter-Reformation, in the seven-
teenth century. Art was an important
part of this movement. Catholic Church
authorities called upon artists to create
works that would inspire renewed reli-
gious feelings in viewers.
F
IGURE
13.11 Notice the dreamlike quality of the background. It
causes the viewer to focus on the two figures in the foreground. What
appears to be happening in this painting?
El Greco. Saint Martin and the Beggar. 1597/1599. Oil on canvas; wooden strip added
at bottom. 193.5 103 cm (76
1
8
40
1
2
). National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C. © 1998 Board of Trustees. Widener Collection.
canvas. Nothing distracts the viewer
from the scene. Although the religious
meaning may not be apparent at first,
Caravaggio’s mysterious use of light dra-
matizes the scene. This dramatic use of
light and dark is also evident in the art of
one of his followers, Artemisia Gen-
tileschi (see Figure 5.17 on page 111).
Dutch Art
Dutch Protestants did not want reli-
gious paintings and sculptures in their
churches. Dutch artists had to turn to
LESSON 2 The Beginnings of Modern Art Traditions 361
Baroque Art in Italy
A new art style developed as a result
of the Counter-Reformation. Baroque
(buh-rohk) is an art style emphasizing dra-
matic lighting, movement, and emotional
intensity. The leader of the Baroque
style in Italy, a young painter named
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (my-
kel-an-jay-loh mah-ree-see dah kar-uh-
vah-jyoh), depicted light in a daring new
way. The Conversion of St. Paul (Figure
13.12), shows only St. Paul, his horse,
and an attendant. The figures fill the
F
IGURE
13.12 Notice
the use of light in this picture.
It is not a natural light. Where
does it come from? What
mood is created by it?
Caravaggio. The Conversion of
St. Paul. c. 1601. Oil on canvas.
Approx. 228.6 175.3 cm (90
69). Santa Maria del Popolo,
Rome, Italy.
362 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
ordinary people and places for their sub-
ject matter. The demand for landscapes,
portraits, and still lifes grew as wealthy
merchants surrounded themselves with
art that depicted scenes of everyday life.
The greatest Dutch artist of this period
was Rembrandt van Rijn (rem-brant
van reyn). Like other Dutch artists, he
painted ordinary people and everyday
events. He was somewhat unusual,
however, in that he also continued
painting religious subjects. He was espe-
cially interested in the psychological
character of the people he portrayed,
suggested by his use of light and shadow
to create atmosphere. Aristotle with a Bust
of Homer (Figure 5.36, page 124) is con-
sidered one of the grandest Rembrandts
because of its rich use of color and tex-
ture. The texture of the gold chain is
depicted in three-dimensional relief
because of the thickness of the paint.
Jan Vermeer (yahn vair-meer) is
another important Dutch artist. For
several hundred years, his artwork
remained unappreciated, but in the
second half of the nineteenth century
critics recognized his artistic genius.
Vermeer is best known for his use of
light and texture. Figure 13.13 shows
his talent in using dark and light values
to express a feeling or evoke a mood.
F
IGURE
13.13
This portrait depicts an
ordinary woman engaged
in an everyday activity.
How does Vermeer add
interest to the painting?
What mood or feeling
does it evoke?
Jan Vermeer. Girl with the Red
Hat. c. 1665/1666. Oil on
panel. 23.1 18.1 cm (9
1
8
7
1
8
). National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. © 1998
Board of Trustees. Andrew W.
Mellon Collection.
(an-twahn wah-toh). His paintings
depict an idealized world filled with
happy, carefree people (Figure 13.14).
In England, artists modified the
Rococo style. They used its delicate,
light-washed techniques but rejected
artificial subject matter. One of the most
famous English painters of this period,
Thomas Gainsborough (gainz-bur-roh),
began his artistic career as a landscape
painter but later became a famous por-
trait painter for members of English
high society.
LESSON 2 The Beginnings of Modern Art Traditions 363
Rococo Style
As the seventeenth century ended and
the eighteenth century began, France
emerged as the strongest, wealthiest
nation in Europe. Paris, its capital,
became the center of the art world. When
pleasure-loving King Louis XIV assumed
the throne, a new style of art influenced
by his lighthearted personality arose.
Called Rococo (ruh-koh-koh), it is an
art style that expresses free, graceful movement,
playful use of line, and delicate colors.
One of the first painters working in
the Rococo style was Antoine Watteau
F
IGURE
13.14 Describe the dress and manners of these people. Notice how the colors and shapes
blend together for a dreamlike, misty quality. Is this a happy occasion? How do you know?
Antoine Watteau. Embarkation for Cythera. 1717–19. Oil on canvas. 1.3 1.9 m (436 4
1
2
). The Louvre, Paris, France.
364 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
Figure 13.15, Gainsborough’s most
famous painting, resulted from a profes-
sional rivalry. A rival painter gave a lec-
ture at the Royal Academy of Art and
stated that blue, a cool color, should
always be used in the background,
never in the main part of a picture.
When Gainsborough heard this, he con-
sidered it a challenge and painted a por-
trait of a boy dressed entirely in blue.
In Spain, Francisco Goya (frahn-
seese-koh goh-ya) transformed Rococo
art. Early in his career, Goya achieved
considerable fame and fortune painting in
the Rococo style. However, this changed
after he suffered a serious illness and,
later, a grave accident. He lost his hearing
and endured other physical setbacks.
A war in Spain made him aware of the
suffering of others. He found he was
no longer comfortable painting in the
decorative Rococo fashion.
Goya’s art reflected his bitterness and
disillusionment. One of his most famous
paintings shows the ugliness and brutal-
ity of war (Figure 13.16).
F
IGURE
13.15 The most
striking element of this painting is
the use of color. What does the
background depict? Do you think
it is important to the painting?
Thomas Gainsborough. The Blue Boy.
c. 1770. Oil on canvas. 177.8 121.9
cm (70 48). The Huntington Library,
Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens,
San Marino, California.
LESSON 2 The Beginnings of Modern Art Traditions 365
F
IGURE
13.16 The figures are arranged in this painting so that they seem in opposition to each other.
Which is the most important figure in this composition? How has the figure been made to stand out? What
is the feeling or mood of the piece?
Francisco Goya. The Third of May, 1808. 1814. Oil on canvas. Approx. 2.64 3.43 m (88113). Museo del Prado, Madrid,
Spain.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is linear perspective?
2. What medium used by Flemish
artists revolutionized painting in the
Renaissance?
3. Compare and contrast the historical
styles in Figure 13.10 on page 359
and Figure 13.11 on page 360.
Identify the general trends in art.
4. What style of painting is character-
ized by contrast and variety?
5. List the characteristics of Rococo art.
Analyzing
an Artwork
Selecting and Analyzing Artworks
for Historical and Cultural Contexts.
Select one work of art from the Renais-
sance or Baroque periods. Use the four
steps of the art history method discussed
in Chapter 2 to form conclusions about
the historical or cultural context of the
work.You may need to research the work
or art and the artist in an encyclopedia,
art history books, or online resources.
Write your analysis in your sketchbook.
LESSON
3
The Nineteenth Century
I
n the late eighteenth century, disruption in European society, including the
French Revolution, caused artists to abandon the Rococo and Baroque styles,
which mirrored the life of the aristocracy. In the nineteenth century, many
artists wanted to create art that reflected the world they saw.
Neoclassicism
At the end of the eighteenth century, some European artists developed
a new kind of art called Neoclassicism (“new classicism”), an approach
to art that borrowed subject matter and formal design qualities from the art of
Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism emphasized realism, minimized emotional-
ism, and featured epic or heroic events. The French artist Jacques-Louis
David (zjahk loo-ee dah-veed) was the major artist working in this style.
His work The Death of Socrates (Figure 13.17) depicts the last moments of
the life of the great philosopher, who was tried for religious heresy and
Vocabulary
Neoclassicism
Romanticism
Impressionism
Post-Impressionism
366 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
F
IGURE
13.17 This painting has a formal, dignified feeling to it. Even if you did not know the title, you
would realize that the artist has depicted a serious and solemn occasion. What in the artwork tells you this?
What do the different figures appear to be doing?
Jacques-Louis David. The Death of Socrates. 1787. Oil on canvas. 129.5 196.2 cm (51 77
1
4
). The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, New York. Catharine Lorillard Wolfe Collection, Wolfe Fund, 1931. (31.45)
LESSON 3 The Nineteenth Century 367
be reminded of the events surrounding
them, but instead wanted to be dis-
tracted. A new art style evolved as a
reaction to contemporary events.
Romanticism, as it was called, is a style
of art that found its subjects in the world of
the dramatic and in cultures foreign to
Europe. It emphasized rich color and high
emotion. Romantic artists disliked the
cool colors, stiffness, and subdued emo-
tion in Neoclassicism.
Eugéne Delacroix (oo-zhen del-uh-
kwah) demonstrated a mastery for cap-
turing action in foreign locales. Figure
13.18 shows one of his famous works.
sentenced to death. Although his
friends and students appealed to the
authorities to prevent the sentence
from being carried out, Socrates will-
ingly drank the cup of poison hemlock
given to him.
Romanticism
At the dawn of the nineteenth
century, the struggle to impose a new
democratic political and social order
continued. People grew anxious in
response to ongoing political turmoil
and uncertainty. Many did not want to
F
IGURE
13.18 This
painting is a romantic
depiction of action and
adventure in a distant land.
Although the painting
shows a battle scene,
the battle seems more
dreamlike than realistic.
What gives the work this
quality? Why is it called
Romantic rather than
Realistic?
Eugéne Delacroix. Arabs
Skirmishing in the Mountains.
1863. Oil on linen. 92.5 74.6
cm (36
3
8
29
3
8
). National
Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
© 1998 Board of Trustees.
Chester Dale Fund.
368 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
Joseph M. W. Turner emerged as
England’s most dramatic Romantic
painter. Turner expected his viewers to
use their imaginations. For him, the
depiction of light and atmosphere was
the most important part of a painting.
In Figure 13.19, he portrayed nature
at its most violent. Instead of using
precise detail, he suggests this violence
by using loose brushwork to apply
bright color and light values in swirling
patterns.
Realism
One group of artists grew dissatisfied
with both Neoclassicism and Romanti-
cism. They felt that artists should por-
tray political, social, and moral issues,
but without glorifying the past or pre-
senting romantic views of the present.
Their art movement, called Realism,
presented familiar scenes as they
actually appeared. Édouard Manet
(ay-doo-ahr mah-nay), an artist who
participated in the Realist movement,
discovered that the new style of art
required new techniques. Therefore, he
became more interested in how to paint
rather than what to paint.
In The Railway (Figure 13.20), Manet
painted a simple, common scene. A
woman sits with a puppy in her lap. She
is reading and has glanced up. A young
girl faces away, watching the steam
from a train. Manet avoided painting
precise detail because he wanted to cap-
ture what a person would see with a
F
IGURE
13.19 This painting is very different from traditional pictures of ships at sea. Describe
the mood created by the swirling colors. What feeling do you experience when viewing this artwork?
Joseph M.W. Turner. Snowstorm: Steamboat off a Harbours Mouth. 1842. Oil on canvas. 92 122 cm (36
1
4
48). Clore
Collection, Tate Gallery, London, Great Britain.
LESSON 3 The Nineteenth Century 369
process were very expensive and time-
consuming, but by the 1850s, several
new methods were introduced that
made the process easier and less expen-
sive. Because of this, artists could record
news events in the second half of the
nineteenth century. A famous Civil War
photographer, Mathew Brady, docu-
mented a battle that took place around
1865 (Figure 13.21). Photography
introduced a new kind of realism to art.
quick glance. Rosa Bonheur, a very suc-
cessful artist of the time, combined the
drama of Romanticism with the accuracy
of Realism (see Figure 8.3, page 201).
Photography
In the mid-nineteenth century, pho-
tography was invented as a method for
recording people and events on film. It
was exciting for artists interested in real-
ism. Early versions of the photographic
F
IGURE
13.20 The
artist uses line to unify
this composition. Identify
the different lines in the
work and describe them.
Do other elements or
principles work to unify
this painting? What are
they?
Édouard Manet. The Railway.
1873. Oil on canvas. 93.3
111.5 cm (36
3
4
43
7
8
).
National Gallery of Art,
Washington D.C. © 1998
Board of Trustees. Gift of
Horace Havemeyer in
memory of his mother,
Louisine W. Havemeyer.
F
IGURE
13.21 This photo
depicts a civil war battle. The
photographer was a journalist
who reported on the war. Do you
think this photograph is art? Why
or why not? On what criteria do
you base your judgment?
Mathew Brady. Civil War. c. 1865.
Photograph. National Archives,
Washington, D.C.
370 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
Photographs were more realistic than
drawings could be. They preserved a
visual record of an event in a single
moment in time with more detail and
precision than a painter ever could. Pho-
tography influenced the development of
painting for many years to come.
Impressionism
The Realists had taken a hard look at
the real world. This interest in the world
outside the studio influenced another
group of artists who did much of their
painting outdoors. Their style, which
came to be known as Impressionism,
featured everyday subjects and emphasized
the momentary effects of light on color.
Impressionist painters concentrated on
the play of light over objects rather than
on the shape of objects themselves.
These artists broke up solid shapes and
blurred the edges of objects by applying
paint to the canvas in small dabs of pure
color. When viewed from a distance, the
dabs blend together visually. If you
stand too close to an Impressionist
painting, all you will see are colorful
brushstrokes of paint. You have to step
back to allow your eyes to perform the
work of blending the colors.
One of the first artists working in the
Impressionist style, Claude Monet
(klohd moh-nay), painted many differ-
ent series of landscapes, seascapes, and
cityscapes that depicted the quality of
light at various times of day, and in dif-
ferent seasons of the year (see Figures
6.24 and 6.25 on page 153). In Figure
13.22, Monet has achieved the effect of
a hot summer day with brushstrokes
that make the gladioli flowers appear to
shimmer in the light.
F
IGURE
13.22 Notice that the woman is not the focal point of the painting. Instead, she is
depicted as simply a part of the whole garden.
Claude Monet. Gladioli. c. 1876. Oil on canvas. 60 80 cm (23
5
8
31
1
2
). Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan.
City of Detroit Purchase.
LESSON 3 The Nineteenth Century 371
Post-Impressionism
Eventually, some artists felt that
Impressionism was not suited to the
way they wished to depict the world.
These artists began working in a variety
of styles that came to be called Post-
Impressionism, a more individual
approach to painting, unique to each artist
working at this time. The term for this
period is Post-Impressionism because
these works appeared after Impression-
ism. The word post means after. Some of
the most outstanding Post-Impressionist
artists were Paul Cézanne (say-zahn),
Paul Gauguin (goh-gan) and Vincent
van Gogh (van goh).
F
IGURE
13.23 Cézanne was interested in the structure of objects. He used small brushstrokes like
building blocks to make forms look like geometric solids. Notice how the trees look almost as solid as the
buildings. How does Cézanne’s technique affect the appearance of this scene?
Paul Cezanne. The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L’Estaque. c. 1885. Oil on canvas. 73 100.3 cm (28
3
4
39
1
2
). The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York. Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929 (29.100.67).
Paul Cézanne, who had originally
painted in the Impressionist style, felt
that the blurred shapes of Impressionism
did not depict the solidity of the world.
He wanted to create an art that empha-
sized form more than light. Cézanne
did this by laying down interlocking
blocks of color rather than dots and dabs
of paint. He joined these patches of color
together as if they were pieces of a puz-
zle. In this way, Cézanne strengthened
the underlying structure in his composi-
tions, giving the images a feeling of per-
manence and solidity. In Figure 13.23,
the trees look almost as solid as the
buildings, and the hills across the gulf
look like geometric forms.
372 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
Paul Gauguin turned to the use of
color and shape to create daring, uncon-
ventional works depicting far-off lands
and people. Giving up his job as a stock-
broker, he traveled around the world to
learn about art and experience different
artistic traditions. He finally settled in
Tahiti, where he produced most of his
famous works. Notice the simple shapes
and brilliant colors in Figure 13.24.
Gauguin used arbitrary color in most of
his paintings.
Vincent van Gogh, like the other
Post-Impressionists, was initially dazzled
by Impressionist works but later felt that
Impressionism was limited in what it
could express. Van Gogh was not inter-
ested in achieving visual accuracy.
F
IGURE
13.24
Notice how color is the
dominant element in this
painting. Shape and form
are also important. How
do these elements create
a dreamy quality?
Paul Gauguin. Faaturuma
(Melancholic). 1891. Oil on
canvas. 94 68.3 cm (37
26
7
8
). The Nelson-Atkins
Museum of Art, Kansas City,
Missouri. Purchase: Nelson
Trust, 38-5.
LESSON 3 The Nineteenth Century 373
Instead, he explored ways to convey his
feelings about a subject. To do so, he
used expressive elements in his paint-
ings such as twisting lines, rich colors,
and complex textures.
Van Gogh’s art was rejected and
he only sold one painting during his
lifetime. His brother supported him
financially. Toward the end of his life, he
painted The Starry Night (Figure 13.25).
He executed it using quick brushstrokes
to create the dark trees that resemble
flames. The stars in the sky seem to be
alive with movement. He expressed the
violent energy and creative force of
nature in this painting. Today, we regard
this artwork as one of van Gogh’s great-
est because it reflects his passion and
originality in creating an energetic and
forceful image.
F
IGURE
13.25 Notice van Gogh’s unusual use of color, texture, and line to depict rhythm
and movement. He uses the elements to make the stars swirl and the trees dance as if all of
nature was alive.
Vincent van Gogh. The Starry Night. 1889. Oil on canvas. 73.7 92.1 cm (29 36
1
4
). The Museum of Modern
Art, New York, New York. Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Describe Neoclassicism.
2. What was Realism a reaction to?
3. What was emphasized in Impression-
ist painting?
Analyzing
a Style
Selecting and Analyzing Exhibitions
for Intents and Meanings. Find an
exhibition of Impressionist art in your
community or online. List at least four
Impressionist works of art, each one
painted by a different artist. Select one of
the four works to analyze. What conclu-
sions can you form about the meaning of
the work and the artist’s intent?
LESSON
4
Early Twentieth Century
D
uring the first half of the twentieth century, artists responded to rapid
changes in technology, world politics, and culture by creating a variety
of approaches to artistic expression. One style replaced another with bewil-
dering speed. With the invention and spread of photography, artists no
longer functioned as recorders of the visible world. They launched a quest to
redefine the characteristics of art.
Trends in the arts changed rapidly because increased travel and new ways
of communication helped artists to compare ideas. One individual or group
could easily influence another. It no longer took years for one art movement
or style of art to catch on in other areas. In fact, some artists who lived long
lives, such as Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, changed their own styles sev-
eral times during their careers.
European Art
In general, European artists assumed one of three different directions in
artistic expression: self-expression, composition, or imagination. Each direc-
tion emphasized a different aspect of art.
In Germany, artists began working in a style later called Expressionism,
a style that emphasized the expression of innermost feelings. The German Expres-
sionists did not think the purpose of art was to make pretty pictures. Instead,
because they experienced the terrible economic and social conditions in
Germany before and after World War I,
they wanted to express their feelings about
these conditions. Their emotional subjects
ranged from fear and anger to a preoccupa-
tion with death. Käthe Kollwitz (kah-teh
kohl-vits), an Expressionist concerned with
poverty and war, created many moving
images of mothers grieving for dead chil-
dren. She based her work on personal expe-
rience: she lost her eldest son during the
first weeks of World War I (Figure 13.26).
In France, a group of artists created
works that focused on the formal qualities.
Some of these artists created Cubism, a
style that emphasizes structure and design. Three
main concepts influenced the Cubists.
Vocabulary
Expressionism
Cubism
Surrealism
Regionalists
374 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
F
IGURE
13.26 Describe the person that you see here. Identify
the elements of art that the artist used. How does Kollwitz view
herself? Is this a person you would be interested in meeting?
Why or why not?
Käthe Kollwitz. Self-Portrait. 1921. Etching. 21.6 26.7 cm (8
1
2
10
1
2
).
National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Museum Purchase:
The Members’ Acquisition Fund. © 2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn.
LESSON 4 Early Twentieth Century 375
The first concept was that shapes in
nature are based on geometric forms.
The second concept, based on a scien-
tific discovery, showed that all matter is
made up of atoms that are constantly in
motion. The third concept, based on art
from other cultures (African sculpture
had recently been displayed in Paris),
revealed that shape and form could be
simplified and rearranged to increase
the expressive qualities of an artwork.
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque pio-
neered the movement. In Figure 13.27,
you can see how Picasso visually trans-
lated the human body into geometric
shapes. He tried to paint three-dimen-
sional objects as if they could be seen
from many different points of view at
the same time.
A third group of artists relied on
fantasy to create art that expressed
personal feelings. They explored the
psychology of the mind as subject mat-
ter in their work. Surrealism empha-
sized art in which dreams, fantasy, and the
subconscious served as inspiration for artists.
Surrealists painted very realistic, almost
photographic, images but combined
objects that didn’t belong together. The
work of the Surrealists appears strange
and dreamlike. Surrealist paintings can
be funny or mysterious and frightening.
Figure 13.28 reflects the Surrealist
belief in the power of dreams. René
Magritte places the external environ-
ment, a cloudscape, within the eye.
F
IGURE
13.27 Near the bottom of this work,
Picasso places a musical staff and a treble clef near the
song title Ma Jolie. This, along with the title, suggests the
presence of a figure playing music.
Pablo Picasso. “Ma Jolie” (Woman with a Zither or Guitar). 1911–12.
Oil on canvas. 100 65.4 cm (39
3
8
25
3
4
). Museum of
Modern Art, New York, New York. © 2003 Estate of Pablo
Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
F
IGURE
13.28 Magritte has
combined the realistic depiction of a
human eye with a surreal sky
reflected in the eye’s iris. Interpret
the meaning of this work’s title.
René Magritte. The False Mirror. 1928. Oil
on canvas. 54 81 cm (21
1
4
31
7
8
).
Museum of Modern Art, New York, New
York. © 2003 Herscovici, Brussels/Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
376 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
North American Art
In the United States in the beginning
of the twentieth century, a group of
young artists turned to the harsh reali-
ties of the city for subject matter. They
called themselves The Eight and orga-
nized an exhibition in 1908. Their origi-
nal name was soon forgotten when
critics immediately labeled them the
Ashcan School. Critics expressed dis-
pleasure at the subject matter of their
work: stark tenement buildings,
crowded city streets, poor working
people, and ragged children.
Although this realism shocked
unwary viewers, the Armory Show of
1913 exerted an even greater impact on
the American art world. This show
introduced Americans to the work of
European artists. Most Americans felt
confused by what they saw. The art on
display did not fit into their traditional
understanding of the nature and pur-
pose of art. However, the show ener-
gized many American artists, who
responded to the challenge posed by the
daring exhibition and took their first
steps toward making modern art in the
United States.
Alexander Calder, a sculptor, ranks
among these twentieth-century innova-
tors. Most sculptors at this time worked
with traditional materials and methods.
A few experimented with the new mate-
rials of modern industry. Calder created a
new form of sculpture by arranging wire
and sheet metal into balanced arrange-
ments that stayed in motion (Figure 8.20
on page 213). He called these moving
sculptures mobiles (moh-beels).
As a reaction against the infusion of
European styles into American art, some
artists decided to focus on strictly Ameri-
can themes. Called Regionalists, these
artists painted the farmlands and cities of the
United States in an optimistic way. Each
artist had a slightly different style, but all
of them portrayed upbeat messages in
their work. They focused on the vast
expanse, beauty, productivity, and abun-
dance of the United States and depicted
happy, hardworking people. Figure
13.29 is an example of Regionalism.
F
IGURE
13.29 Benton
modifies the backbreaking
nature of the work by placing
the workers in an idyllic
setting. He created a flowing
rhythm by repeating the gentle
curves of the hills, trees,
clouds, and bundles of wheat.
Thomas Hart Benton. Cradling Wheat.
1938. Oil on board. 78.7 96.5 cm
(31 38). The Saint Louis Art
Museum, St. Louis, Missouri.
©T.H.Benton and R. P. Benton
Testamentary Trusts/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY.
LESSON 4 Early Twentieth Century 377
Like France in the late eighteenth
century, Mexico at the beginning of the
twentieth century experienced deep
social and political unrest. The tension
erupted into the Mexican Revolution.
Some Mexican artists felt the need to
develop new approaches to art that
would express their feelings about the
plight of the people. These Mexican
artists were referred to as the Mexican
muralists, because they covered walls
and ceilings with murals about Mexican
history, the suffering of the peasants,
and the immoral behavior of the ruling
class. Artists such as Diego Rivera
(Figure 9.5, page 229) and David Alfaro
Siqueiros (Figure 10.14, page 264)
combined the solid forms of ancient,
pre-Columbian Mexican art with the
powerful colors and bold lines of Cubism
and Expressionism.
In this painting, Thomas Hart Benton
celebrates the work of farmers harvest-
ing wheat. He portrays their labor in a
dignified, graceful style.
Another American artist working at
the same time showed a different side of
the American experience. African-
American artist Jacob Lawrence used
bright, flat areas of color in a geometric
style to create his art (see Figure 4.19 on
page 80). His series paintings tell the
stories of historical African-American
figures, as well as describe the struggles
of African-Americans moving from the
South to the North in the early twenti-
eth century.
The twentieth century also saw vast
changes in architecture. New materials
and technology and new demands for
commercial space led to the develop-
ment of skyscrapers. Architects designed
functional structures with steel frames
that emphasized simplicity of form to
replace heavy, decorated structures.
One famous modern architect, Frank
Lloyd Wright, believed that form should
follow function, meaning that the look
of a building should be based on its use
(Figure 13.30). He also designed build-
ings that blended harmoniously with
the landscape around them (Figure
11.20,page 301).
F
IGURE
13.30 Wright designed the ramp
from the main gallery to the upper level, using
a gentle curve. The slope and curve allow the
customer to look down on the objects on
display. Notice how the wall and the upstairs
gallery create harmony through repetition of
flowing rhythms.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Xanadu Gallery, San Francisco,
California. 1949.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Define Expressionism.
2. Name the three main influences
on Cubism.
3. Compare and contrast the historical
styles in Figure 13.28 on page 375
and Figure 13.29 on page 376 to
identify the general themes of
each style.
LESSON
5
Art After 1945
A
fter World War II ended in 1945,the European art world was in disar-
ray. Paris was no longer the center of artistic creativity. The war dis-
placed many people. A number of artists who had fled Nazi Germany settled
in New York City. They began teaching there and by the 1950s, they and
their students established a new center for the arts. New York City became
the new capital of the art world.
In the years since World War II, artists have created many changes in artis-
tic approaches, styles, and techniques. A variety of art forms once considered
minor, such as printmaking, weaving, ceramics, and jewelry making, have
come to be considered art forms equal to painting and sculpture. New digital
media, such as graphics programs and digital cameras, have had a powerful
impact on the world of art.
Abstract Expressionism
Abstract Expressionism, the first new
style to arrive on the scene in New York in
the years following World War II, emphasized
abstract elements of art rather than recognizable
subject matter, and also stressed feelings and emo-
tions. Following in the tradition of German
Expressionism, Abstract Expressionist artists
believed that art should function as a spon-
taneous expression of emotion, and they
did not necessarily rely on planned struc-
ture to organize the design of their paint-
ings. Look at Figure 13.31. It is called
Flowering Swamp, but you cannot see any
realistically depicted flowers or swamps. If
you use your imagination, however, you
can see how the two rectangles seem to
float over a background that suggests water
and flowers.
Pop and Op Art
During the early 1960s, artists turned to
the mass media, and especially to advertising,
for subject matter. Pop art portrayed images
of popular culture, such as soda bottles,
soup cans, soap boxes, giant hamburgers,
and comic strips, in a variety of art forms
(Figure 1.18, page 20). Pop artists made peo-
ple take a new look at everyday objects.
Vocabulary
Abstract
Expressionism
Minimalism
Super-Realism
Post-Modernism
378 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
F
IGURE
13.31 Hofmann, who was inspirational to the Abstract
Expressionist style that grew in New York, is best known for his use
of brilliant colors and textures. What does the artist appear to be
expressing here? What is the mood or feeling of this work?
Hans Hofmann. Flowering Swamp. 1957. Oil on wood. 122 91.5 cm (48
1
8
36
1
8
). Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. Gift of the Joseph H. Hirshhorn Foundation, 1966. © 2003
Estate of Hans Hofmann/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
LESSON 5 Art After 1945 379
They often used bright colors and car-
toonish graphics to depict their subject
matter. Figure 13.32 is an example of
Pop art. Artist Roy Lichtenstein (lick-ten-
steyn) used a strong sense of design, a
limited color scheme, and bold shapes to
create a painting that was based on a
comic strip.
Another style of art popular in this
period took advantage of people’s fasci-
nation with visual illusions. Op art, or
optical art, uses scientific knowledge
about vision to create optical illusions of
movement. Op art relies on the special
arrangement of the art elements such as
the precise arrangement of lines, or the
placement of complementary colors
next to each other to create the illusion
of movement. If you look at Figure
13.33, you will notice the unusual
orange color of the background. The
blue-green dots seem to be placed in no
apparent order, but in fact the artist
carefully planned their arrangement. If
you look at the dots for a few moments,
they appear to vibrate because the after-
image causes a visual response that cre-
ates the illusion of movement.
F
IGURE
13.32 The comic book
quality of this painting is captured in its
strong black lines, limited use of color,
and bold shapes. Lichtenstein calls what
he does quotation.What do you think
he means by that?
Roy Lichtenstein. Blam. 1962. Oil on canvas.
172.7 203.2 cm. (68 80). Yale University
Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut. Gift of
Richard Brown Baker, B. A. 1935.
F
IGURE
13.33 This piece of Op art is intended to cause a visual
effect. Do you think the artwork has another purpose or meaning?
Why or why not?
Larry Poons. Orange Crush. 1963. Acrylic on canvas. 203.2 203.2 cm (80 80).
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, 1964.
© Larry Poons/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
F
IGURE
13.35 Notice the outlines of this painting. It is
not a traditional rectangular shape. Observe how the red
border ties the work together. How has Stella used
repetition and contrast to further unify the painting?
Frank Stella. Agbatana III. 1968. Acrylic on canvas. 304.8
457.2 cm (120 180). Allen Memorial Art Museum,
Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. Ruth C. Roush Fund
and National Foundation for the Arts and
Humanities Grant, 1968. © 2003 Frank
Stella/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
F
IGURE
13.34 Rothko controlled the visual effect of his
work by limiting the number of colors. Standing in front of this
painting, which is over 7’ tall, the viewer has an intense visual
experience. Why do you think Rothko tried to evoke this kind
of experience?
Mark Rothko. Ochre and Red on Red. 1954. Oil on canvas. 2.3 1.7 m
(7’65’9). The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C. © 1988 Kate
Rothko Prizel and Christopher Rothko/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
Color-Field Painting
As artists experimented with a variety
of new styles, they occasionally selected
just one element of art to focus on in
their work. An example, Color-Field
painting, is art created using only flat
fields of color. It is created without the
precision of Op art and also without its
interest in illusion. It is color for the
pure sensation of color. Look at the
example by Mark Rothko in Figure
13.34. His color areas have hazy edges
that seem to float in space.
Minimalism
Some artists sought absolute simplic-
ity in their art. This focus came to be
known as Minimalism, or art that uses
a minimum of art elements. Minimalists
emphasized either color or shape as the
dominant element in painting. In sculp-
ture, they used the fewest possible geo-
metric forms. They depicted art at its
most austere, arranging only the sim-
plest art elements. Minimalist painters
who placed importance on the crisp,
precise edges of the shapes in their
paintings came to be known as Hard-
edge painters. Frank Stella (Figure
13.35), used different canvas shapes
for his works and created art on a
large scale. He relied on
thin white lines to set
off colors, define
shapes, and unify
the work.
380 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
LESSON 5 Art After 1945 381
New Forms of Realism
Although modern American artists
have created many abstract and non-
objective artworks, Americans harbor a
love for realism. Many American artists
continue to portray subjects in a realis-
tic style. This sculpture made by Duane
Hanson (Figure 13.36) appears so life-
like that it once fooled a gallery secu-
rity guard. The guard thought that one
of Hanson’s motionless, seated figures
looked ill and called for an ambulance.
The painting in Figure 13.37 looks so
accurate in visual detail that a casual
observer could easily mistake it for a
photograph. This is how the style
earned one of its names: Photo-Realism.
It is also called Hyper-Realism and
Super-Realism. Super-Realism is art
that depicts objects as precisely and accu-
rately as they actually appear.
F
IGURE
13.36 These figures are made of bronze painted to look
lifelike. They are dressed in real clothes and accessories. If you walked up
to them, do you think they would fool you? Why or why not?
Duane Hanson. Old Couple on a Bench. 1995. Bronze and mixed media with accessories.
Life size. Collection of Palm Springs Desert Museum, Palm Springs, California. Purchased
with funds provided by Muriel and Bernard Myerson. © Estate of Duane Hanson/
Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
F
IGURE
13.37 This street scene seems almost like a photograph
although it is a painting. How does the artist create this illusion? What is
the purpose of painting such an illusion when one could simply take a
photograph?
Richard Estes. Paris Street Scene. 1972. Oil on canvas. 101.6 152.4 cm (40 60).
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. Gift of Sydney and Frances Lewis.
© Richard Estes/Licensed by VAGA, New York, New York/Courtesy Marlborough
Gallery, New York.
Describing General
Characteristics
Applying Your Skills. Look through this
book to find five paintings from a variety
of Western cultures. Select artworks cre-
ated after 1950. For each, list the name of
the artist, the title of the work, the style
in which the work was painted, and other
general characteristics.
Architecture
After World War II, architects devel-
oped the International Style of architec-
ture, a plain, austere building style. Its
origins could be traced back to the work
of Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis Sulli-
van, who both designed buildings before
382 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
World War II. In their Seagram Build-
ing, the architects Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe (ludd-vig meez van der row) and
Philip Johnson created a simple geomet-
ric glass box that exemplifies van der
Rohe’s favorite saying, “Less is more”
(Figure 13.38).
Architects of the 1960s looked to the
future as well as to the past. Figure
13.39 shows an apartment complex that
looks futuristic in its design but actually
echoes the Pueblo apartment complexes
built by Native Americans hundreds of
years ago. The interlocking apartment
units are designed to give occupants a
sense of openness and space. Because
the units are not lined up next to each
other as in traditional apartment com-
plexes, each apartment has plenty of
windows that allow sunlight to enter
and give the illusion that each apart-
ment is a separate house.
Post-Modern Art
We are currently in a period of art that
is rapidly evolving. Some say we are at
the end of the modern era. Others insist
that we have already entered the post-
modern era. The subject is being hotly
debated in artistic circles, but the answer
is something that only time can judge.
F
IGURE
13.38
This simple design,
called International
Style, appealed to
architects as a
reaction to the
highly ornate Art
Deco style that
was popular in the
1920s and 1930s.
Can you easily
identify the
purpose of the
building? What is
its purpose?
Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe and Philip
Johnson. Seagram
Building. New York,
1958. © 2003 Artists
Rights Society (ARS),
New York/VG Bild-
Kunst, Bonn.
F
IGURE
13.39 This
apartment complex uses
space efficiently. Do you
find the complex attractive?
Why or why not? What
are some of the personal
touches the residents
have added?
Moshe Safdie. Habitat. Montreal,
1967.
LESSON 5 Art After 1945 383
The term post-modernism first
appeared in reference to architecture.
Post-Modernism is an approach to art
that incorporates traditional elements and
techniques while retaining some characteris-
tics of modern art styles or movements. Post-
Modern architecture was a reaction to
the plain glass boxes of the International
Style. It incorporates decorative ele-
ments from the past and takes advan-
tage of the flexibility of new materials
(See Figure 14.1 on page 388.)
The Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and
Museum (Figure 14.16 on page 399),
designed by I. M. Pei, is an example of
architecture’s break from the modern
glass box. The museum contains a con-
cert hall, a film and video display center,
several sound chambers, and a party
area as well as the usual glass display
cases for showing off costumes, instru-
ments, sheet music, and the personal
belongings of famous musicians. The
architect designed a building that reflects
the freedom of rock-and-roll, but also
functions as a museum to house its
memorabilia.
Other Post-Modern artists are break-
ing traditional restrictions. Painters are
creating three-dimensional paintings
and sculptors are adding paint to their
works. Figure 13.40 is an example of a
Post-Modern work with some identifi-
able subject matter. Is it a painted sculp-
ture or a three-dimensional painting?
No one knows what will happen next
in the art world. The acquisition of
images from the past, and the incorpo-
ration of them into new works with
new meanings, is only one facet of this
new era. We have entered a time in art
in which the diversity of ideas reflects
the diversity of contemporary life.
F
IGURE
13.40 This sculpture represents several musical
instruments. Can you identify what these instruments are? Notice
how big the sculpture is. Why do you suppose the artist chose to
make it so large?
Frank Stella. St. Michael’s Counterguard (Malta Series). 1984. Mixed media on
aluminum and fiberglass honeycomb. 396.2 342.9 274.3 cm (156 135
108). Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California. Gift of Anna
Bing Arnold. © Frank Stella/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What is the subject matter of Pop Art?
2. How is Color-Field painting different
from Op art?
3. Why is Super-Realism sometimes
called Photo-Realism?
4. Describe Post-Modern architecture.
5. Compare and contrast the contempo-
rary styles in Figure 13.32 on page
379 and Figure 13.37 on page 381 to
identify general art trends.
F
IGURE
13.41
Chuck Close. Paul. 1994. Oil on canvas. 259.1 213.4 cm (102 84) Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. Purchased with funds from the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Cummins Catherwood, the Edith H. Bell Fund, and others.
384 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
Read the credit line for information about the
artwork.
What do you see when you look at this painting up
close? When you look at it from a distance?
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step deals with the composition of the work.This
is a clue-collecting step about the elements of art.
Which art elements do you think play the biggest role
in the eye’s ability to form a picture out of seemingly
random shapes? Explain.
Compare and contrast the artist’s use of balance and
harmony to unify this work. Describe his use of variety.
3
INTERPRET What message is this artwork
communicating to you?
Now you will combine the clues you have collected
and your personal ideas to form a creative interpreta-
tion of the work.
This work is 8
1
2
’ tall. How do you think it would feel to
stand close to it?
Give this work a new title that sums up your reactions
to it.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now it is time to decide if this is a successful work
of art.
Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why or
why not? Which aesthetic theory best supports your
judgment?
Chuck Close is not a painter
of people. He creates paintings
based on large photographs
taken of friends and family. For
20 years he was a leading photo-
realist. He created very large
black-and-white works, using a
grid to enlarge the work. In the
1980s, he began to use color. In
1988, Close suffered an illness
that left him paralyzed. He was
able to use his arms but not his
hands. A device strapped to his
arm permits him to hold his
brush. He continues to work
with photos and a grid format,
but the brushstrokes are looser.
Close’s recent works have been
compared with those of the
Impressionist Claude Monet
because of their use of brilliant
colors.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 385
Chuck Close. Self-Portrait. 1991. Oil on
canvas. 254 213.4 cm (100 84). Pace
Wildenstein Gallery, New York, New York.
Chuck Close
b. 1940
A sculptor and architect communicates
tremendous emotion through her work.
rtists and architects often create memorials to honor the
memory of important people or historic events. These works
challenge visitors to reflect on the past and to think about the
future. One such artist is Maya Lin, a sculptor, architect, and
craftswoman. Every year, more than one million people are moved
by the simple beauty of her most famous work: the National
Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. It is inscribed with
the names of the American soldiers who died in the Vietnam War.
Lin designed the memorial when she was a 21-year-old student at
Yale University’s School of Architecture.
Thousands more have been moved by another monument that Lin has
created in Montgomery, Alabama. It honors people of all colors and
religions who were killed fighting for civil rights in the 1950s and 1960s.
The monument is composed of a sheet of water running over a granite
table. The slick table is inscribed with words from a speech by Martin Luther
King Jr. As with Lin’s Vietnam Memorial, it reminds visitors of past struggles.
It also honors those who worked to make this world a better place.
386 CHAPTER 13 Western Traditions in Art
A
TIME to Connect
Sculptors and architects connect with viewers by conveying common emotions.
Writers do the same by conveying emotions with words.
Write a personal essay about an emotional event in your life—a special celebration or
an argument with a friend. What do you want to convey about that moment in time?
Using powerful language, including descriptive adjectives and vivid verbs, re-create
your emotions on paper. Start by prewriting (jotting down all your thoughts and
feelings on paper), then write a first draft. Proofread your draft for style and use of
proper grammar.You may wish to present your finished paper to the class.
Maya Lin
The Civil Rights Memorial
is made of organic materials
to create a soothing work
of art. It honors those who
have died in the fight for
civil rights.
LAYNE KENNEDY/CORBIS
TODD A. GIPSTEIN/CORBIS
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches each definition given below.
1. A style of architecture in which churches
soared upward, used pointed arches, and
had stained-glass windows.
2. The period at the end of the Middle Ages
when artists, writers, and philosophers
were “re-awakened” to art forms and ideas
from ancient Greece and Rome.
3. An art style that borrowed subject matter
and formal design qualities from the art of
Greece and Rome.
4. An art style that featured everyday subjects
and emphasized the momentary effects of
light on color.
5. An art style that emphasized the expres-
sion of innermost feelings.
6. A style of art in which dreams, fantasy, and
the subconscious served as inspiration for
artists.
7. Artists who painted the farmlands and cities
of the United States in an optimistic way.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
8. Why was the Middle Ages also called the
Age of Faith?
9. What social changes was Mannerism a
response to?
10. Identify the characteristics of Romanticism.
11. Name one similarity and one difference
between the artworks created by the Real-
ists and the Impressionists.
12. Describe the subject matter chosen by the
Mexican Muralists.
13. Define Op art.
Thinking Critically About Art
14. Explain. In this chapter, you learned
how political and social events can shape
art movements. You also learned how
advances in technology can influence art
styles. What social and political events,
along with technological advances, paved
the way for the Renaissance movement?
15. Historical/Cultural Heritages. Com-
pare the famous historical sculpture by
Michelangelo in Figure 13.8 on page 357
to the contemporary sculpture by Allan
Houser in Figure 11.18 on page 299. Iden-
tify the general theme of these works.
Read about one of the most
performed dance works cre-
ated in the twentieth century.
The classic “The Green Table”, presented by
choreographer Kurt Jooss, is featured on
page 425 of the Performing Arts Handbook.
CHAPTER
13
REVIEW
Would you like to
know more about
the richness and
variety of modern
art? Explore the online exhibits of the collec-
tions at the world famous Museum of Modern
Art in New York. Simply follow the Web
Museum Tour link at
art.glencoe.com to
discover more about the diverse artists and
philosophies of the twentieth century.
ART
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Chapter 13 Review 387
388 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
F
IGURE
14.1 This interesting building was designed by Frank Gehry, a well-respected and prolific contemporary architect.
Note the use of form in this structure. Gehry often designs buildings in a free-form sculptural style.
Frank O. Gehry. The Guggenheim Museum, Bilboa, Spain. 1997.
CHAPTER
14
Canadian-born architect
Frank O. Gehry (b. 1929)
designed the unique structure in Figure 14.1 in 1997. Gehry studied
art and architecture at the University of Southern California and
Harvard. He began his career designing conventional commercial struc-
tures. In the late 1970s, he began listening to an inner artistic voice.
Drifting away from convention, Gehry started creating architectural
designs that were part sculpture, part building. Some consider his
creations functional sculpture.
Evaluate. Frank Gehry’s architectural style has been described as
“deconstructed” or “exploded.” Evaluate Figure 14.1 in terms of those
descriptions.
Careers in Art
389
I
n centuries past, artists learned their craft by apprenticing—
assisting established artists. Many of the greatest painters
and sculptors served apprenticeships. Today, you can develop
art skills by taking courses in high school. After high school
you can study art at community colleges, technical training
programs, four-year colleges with art departments, or art
colleges. The range of career possibilities for artists is greater
than ever.
In this chapter, you will:
Compare and contrast career opportunities in art.
Identify skills and media used in careers involving
art and design.
Describe the difference between vocational and
avocational opportunities in art.
Identify your own areas of interest in the field of art.
Vocabulary
graphic designer
logos
illustrators
photojournalists
animators
storyboards
Careers in
Tw o-Dimensional Art
Y
ou are probably beginning to consider ideas about your future. If you
have art abilities and you enjoy art, this chapter will introduce you to
some exciting career possibilities. In addition to the major categories men-
tioned here, there are many careers within each field. Countless possibilities
exist; so plan to explore art careers further. As you read, think about each
career, and keep those that interest you in mind. You will be surprised at
how your skills might fit many different art-related jobs.
Today, the business world needs art specialists in many areas. Trained
artists design company reports, publications, and advertising. Company
employees develop some of this design work. Other, more complex projects
are assigned to outside designers or advertising firms with many different
kinds of artists on staff. Plenty of opportunities are available for self-
employed (or freelance) artists and salaried employees with art ability and
training (Figure 14.2).
Technology and Careers in Art
Computers have changed the way many people perform their work,
including artists. Work done by hand in the past, including creating maps
and charts, is now done with computers. Most art-related careers now
require computer skills as well as artistic ability. Using computers, designers
can create images that can be moved, changed, erased, duplicated, reduced,
enlarged, colored, patterned, textured, animated, and otherwise manipu-
lated. They scan images created using traditional methods (painting and
drawing) and materials (including pencil, paint, and charcoal) into the
computer. Designers work with devices such as stylus and graphics tablets.
Software programs let the artist compare different variations of their work,
changing size, color, and/or type style. There are also computer-aided design
390 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
LESSON
1
F
IGURE
14.2
Artists who work for
advertising agencies
may be asked to
design ads for display
in magazines, on
billboards, or even
on the side of a bus.
LESSON 1 Careers in Two-Dimensional Art 391
programs to be used for other art tasks,
such as planning and drafting a building
or designing the interior of a room.
Voice-recognition software and other
types of assistive technology can help
artists with physical disabilities design
images (Figure 14.3). With all these
digital tools, designers can create any
type of artwork needed.
Once the artwork is completed, com-
puters can also be used to send images
by disk or e-mail to customers all over
the world. These capabilities also allow
collaborations among artists over dis-
tances and allow designers to work with
manufacturers by sending images elec-
tronically instead of shipping actual
samples.
With the use of computers, jobs often
cross over from one field to another. For
example, look at the directional signs in
an airport. They are an example of envi-
ronmental graphics, combining space
design, typography, and information
delivery. In almost every area of art-
related employment, artists use comput-
ers and other technology to aid them in
their jobs.
Graphic Design
The early Christian monks who illus-
trated religious writings were also artists
(Figure 14.4). After the invention of
the printing press in the fifteenth cen-
tury, the craftspeople who arranged
type and illustrations were what we
now call graphic artists. They had to
plan the layout, the way items are
arranged on the page, before a page
could be printed. It was slow work
because it all had to be done by hand.
F
IGURE
14.3 Assistive technology helps artists
with disabilities to meet their full potential in the
visual arts.
F
IGURE
14.4 Manuscript illuminators were fine artists. After the
introduction of the printing press, craftspeople learned to create and
arrange type and illustrations.
Artist unknown. Missal (The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew). 1389–1404. Tempera
colors, gold leaf, and gold paint on vellum in a medieval, blind-stamped binding.
33 x 24 cm (13 x 9
7
16
). The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California.
392 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Graphic Designer
A graphic designer translates ideas
into images and arranges them in appealing
and memorable ways. Graphic designers
use computers to produce the art but
still rely on fundamental design princi-
ples to create it. Graphic designers use
line, shape, form, space, color, value,
and texture to communicate and to
motivate (Figure 14.5). Your first job as
a graphic artist might include designing
company letterheads, greeting cards, CD
covers, or invitations.
Newspaper, magazine, and book pub-
lishers employ graphic designers. A
designer, sometimes called a publication
or production designer, created the look
of this book. The designer carefully
planned the size of the type, the font
style (Figure 14.6), the length of the
lines, the layout of the text and artwork,
and the length of the columns. The
designer had to make sure the book was
visually appealing while at the same
time easy for students to use. Writers
typed the manuscript into a computer,
and the information was stored on a
disk. An editor proofread the manu-
script to ensure that the content was
clear and concise. The manuscript was
then given to the designer. Lastly, the
printer followed the design plan pro-
vided by the book designer. Often,
the book designer and printer work
together very closely.
F
IGURE
14.5 Graphic
designers plan every detail
of a book or magazine page,
including the selection of
the size and kind of
typeface or font.
Practicing
Logo Design
Demonstrating Effective Use of Art
Media in Design. Design a logo for your
school, your favorite club, or your com-
munity. Pick an object or image that can
serve as the basis for your design, such as
the school mascot or a letter (or letters)
in the name of the school, club, or com-
munity. Use the school or organization
colors, if possible. Use colored pencils or
markers to draw your design by hand.
Also, create a digital version on the
computer. Begin with either a simple
geometric shape or a font that creates an
interesting logo.
F
IGURE
14.6 Which of these fonts would
you choose for your high school graduation
announcement?
LESSON 1 Careers in Two-Dimensional Art 393
Advertising Designer
Graphic artists also design promo-
tional material for companies. They may
be employed by outdoor advertising
agencies to create billboards or by tradi-
tional advertising agencies to work on
ad campaigns. When graphic artists
apply their skills to promotional work,
they are called advertising designers.
Advertising designers create logos, or
symbols or trademarks that are immediately
recognizable.
Advertising agencies employ teams of
artists who work under the supervision
of an art director. They often collaborate
with copywriters and managers—all of
whom may have different ideas and
visions; so teamwork and communica-
tion skills are essential (Figure 14.7).
Illustration
Many businesses hire illustrators
to create the visual images that complement
written words. Illustrations, or visual
images that clarify or decorate a text,
can be found in magazines, books, tele-
vision, film, and online. Illustrations are
used for advertising, editorial, informa-
tional, and educational purposes.
F
IGURE
14.8 A technical illustrator specializes
in drawing diagrams and product illustrations.
F
IGURE
14.7 Presentation
skills are critical if you plan on
entering the field of advertising.
Commercial Illustrator
In addition to the type and the art-
work you see in this book, there are
drawings by commercial illustrators.
Most illustrators specialize in one area—
such as fashion, medical, or technical
illustration—while a few work in sev-
eral areas (Figure 14.8). They might
work with an author to create drawings
for a children’s book. Some illustrators
work for one company while others
prefer to freelance. Freelance artists are
self-employed and do many different
jobs for many different companies.
394 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Cartoonist
Cartoonists produce distinctive, enter-
taining drawings meant to provoke
thought and laughter (Figure 14.9).
They submit their work for publication
in magazines and newspapers. They
may choose to draw single cartoons or
comic strips. They usually try to make a
humorous point about human nature.
Editorial cartoonists, who are interested
in politics and current events, present
complex ideas in simple, humorous
drawings. Editorial cartoonists try to
make people think about current issues.
They may also try to influence public
opinion.
Cartoonists also create comic books
and other publications. Several famous
cartoonists have created comic books
that deal with serious issues such as war
and disease. They try to illuminate social
problems for people to be aware of and
understand. Some cartoonists work in
animation, creating moving cartoons
such as those that entertain children
(and adults) on Saturday mornings.
Photography, Film,
and Multimedia
Artists and designers interested in
photography, film/video, and multi-
media can find employment in many
fields including publishing, advertising,
and entertainment. Hard work, persis-
tence, talent, and some special training
are necessary for all these fields.
Photographer
Photographers work in studios and
on location to provide photographs for
books, magazines, and other resources.
Fashion, product, and food photogra-
phy, architectural photography, and fine
art photography are all growing special-
ties (Figure 14.10). Photographers also
work for advertising agencies and cor-
porations to create visual images that
help sell a product. Some photographers
sell their photographs to stock photog-
raphy houses (also called image banks),
which sell them to the public.
Digital cameras, which allow artists
to record images digitally, are becoming
more and more important in the field.
Digital cameras do not require special
processing labs. The pictures can be
viewed and printed immediately or
stored and manipulated using computer
software.
F
IGURE
14.9 Although much cartooning is
now done using digital media, artists still use
traditional methods as well.
F
IGURE
14.10 Photographers are skilled
artists who use their cameras to create artwork.
LESSON 1 Careers in Two-Dimensional Art 395
Film and Video
Photographers also work in film and
video. Moving picture photography for
movies and television, or cinematogra-
phy, is one behind-the-scenes career
many photographers find appealing
(Figure 14.11). Although these fields
are not always easy to break into, plenty
of aspiring artists eventually achieve
success in them. Videographers make
documentaries, create visual presenta-
tions for corporations and other institu-
tions, and record special events or
celebrations such as weddings and
anniversaries.
Photojournalist
Photojournalists are visual reporters.
They work for newspapers and maga-
zines and tell stories through their
photographs. Photojournalists must
understand design, know how to
develop and print their own work, and
have an eye for what is interesting to
look at. Photojournalists often travel to
where the news is happening.
Animator
Animators, or artists who create mov-
ing cartoons, use their skills in movies,
television, and for the Internet. The field
of animation is growing faster than any
other art career area.
When artists create an animated film,
they first select a story. They decide
what styles of architecture and dress fit
the story. Then they develop the story
by drawing storyboards, a series of still
drawings that show the story's progress.
They draw approximately 60 sketches
for each board (Figure 14.12). A short
film needs three storyboards, and a full-
length film may require more than 25.
Storyboards look like comic strips. They
provide the outline for the development
of the film.
Layout artists are responsible for the
overall look of the animation. Back-
ground artists paint the settings from
the layout artist's sketches. To create
F
IGURE
14.11
Cinematographers
operate movie
cameras. They are
trained in using
light, color, and
composition.
action, animators draw the major poses
of each character, then in-betweeners
fill in the many drawings required to
complete each movement. Each second
of film requires 24 drawings to make
the movement look smooth. As you
can imagine, creating the more than
125,000 drawings required for a
90-minute movie is a very expensive
and time-consuming process. Your
career in animation may begin as a
background artist, character designer,
or in-betweener.
F
IGURE
14.12
Animators use
magazines and
books as visual
references when
making sketches
for storyboards.
396 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Today, many animation production
companies use computers to fill in many
of the images necessary to create the illu-
sion of movement. An artist creates the
main drawings and the important actions
and scans these drawings into the com-
puter. Then using mathematical models,
the computer determines how to make
the drawings appear to move. The artist
uses the computer to manipulate the
images. This is a much less expensive and
less time-consuming process than creat-
ing all the images by hand.
Special Effects Designer
Special effects designers plan the
stunts and illusions in movies in order
to make them look real. Training for this
field may require attending a college
with an art department offering special-
ized technology courses.
Special effects artists require the skills
of a painter, sculptor, and engineer.
These artists have the ability to imagine
and create fantasy scenes or imaginary
creatures that look real (Figure 14.13).
They can make you believe you are
watching a dinosaur driving a car or a
battle scene in outer space. Special
effects artists need to know how to draw
realistically and usually use computers
to create believable settings and action.
Multimedia Designer
Multimedia designers combine text,
graphics, sound, and interactive devices
into visually appealing presentations.
These presentations are used by compa-
nies to acquire clients. Multimedia de-
signers also create interactive CD-ROMs
and software for business, education,
and entertainment. This requires a team
approach. One person is usually respon-
sible for the overall concept while oth-
ers create the images and text and still
others put all the parts together.
F
IGURE
14.13 Digital effects help us believe movie characters are in faraway places.
Critiquing
Animation
Applying Your Skills. Watch several
animated programs on television. Notice
the differences in quality.Then list the
programs you have watched in order
from best to worst. How did the back-
grounds compare? Describe the quality
of the movement. Did the programs
with the best movement have the best
backgrounds?
LESSON 1 Careers in Two-Dimensional Art 397
Web Designers
As the Internet continues to grow and
expand as a center for information and
commerce, businesses need to attract
visitors to their Web sites. Web artists
design the individual Web pages that
make up the Web site, which may
include text; photos; three-dimensional,
or moving graphics; sound; and interac-
tive devices. The Web artist must make
the page visually appealing but easy to
use. Because it can take a long time
for the viewer’s computer to process
images, the Web artist must balance
beauty with function. If it takes too long
to get information, a viewer will leave
the page. A confusing or poorly laid out
Web page will cause Internet users to
look elsewhere.
Web artists also make Web movies
and organize Internet broadcasts of cur-
rent affairs or events of special interest
that broadcast television networks do
not cover.
Computer, Arcade, and
Video Game Designers
Game designers plan and create all
aspects of computer, arcade, and video
game design (Figure 14.14). They create
the background renderings and the ani-
mated figures and objects. They work
with computer programmers to design
visually appealing and exciting games.
Because the game experience is a multi-
media experience, the designer must
have a special sensitivity to sound, story,
and other aspects of game production.
This field grows each year as the game
industry expands.
Computer game designers also create
virtual reality or three-dimensional
worlds that gamers, or game players,
enjoy experiencing. As these technolo-
gies have become more sophisticated,
companies and even branches of the mil-
itary have begun using computer-aided
simulators when training.
F
IGURE
14.14 Game designers need to keep up with
advances in digital and mechanical technology to make their
games more exciting and realistic.
Check Your
Understanding
1. What does a graphic designer do?
2. Compare and contrast the art careers
of graphic design and photography.
3. What two elements must Web
designers balance?
LESSON
2
Careers in Three-Dimensional
Art and Education
D
esigning three-dimensional spaces, or environments, is called environ-
mental design. The first environmental designers were prehistoric cave
dwellers who eventually moved out of their caves and into the countryside.
They learned to build huts for protection and, thus, became the first archi-
tects. Today, there are many kinds of designers who plan environmental
spaces. Their careers involve making homes, workspaces, and the surround-
ing landscape attractive and functional.
Architecture
An architect must design buildings that are well constructed, aesthetically
pleasing, and functional. To function properly, a building must do what it was
designed to do. Private houses and apartments must serve as comfortable
homes for people. Office buildings, schools, and factories must also be com-
fortable, safe, efficient, and pleasant to look at. The aesthetic effect of a build-
ing is extremely important. The structure must fit into its environment and
enhance or complement the community. Because modern construction tech-
nology is so complex, architects usually
specialize in particular types of build-
ings, such as skyscrapers, shopping
malls, or homes (Figure 14.15).
Architects must be knowledgeable
about building materials, ventilation,
heating and cooling systems, plumbing,
stairways, and elevators. They must
know basic engineering concepts so that
they do not plan structures that are
impossible to build. In addition, archi-
tects must be creative, be able to make
accurate mechanical drawings using a
computer, have a strong background in
mathematics and drafting, and be able
to communicate with clients. Many
architects are certified by the American
Institute of Architects, or A.I.A. Entry-
level jobs in architecture often include
drafting and model-making.
Vocabulary
architect
interior designer
package designer
museum curators
398 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
F
IGURE
14.15 Architects must be able to show their
client models and full color renderings of a building before it
is actually built.
LESSON 2 Careers in Three-Dimensional Art and Education 399
If you have ever visited the Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio,
or seen a picture of the pyramid entrance to the Louvre in Paris, you will
be familiar with the work of the famous architect I.M Pei. Pei was born in
Guangzhou (Canton), China, on April 26, 1917. When he was 18, he immi-
grated to the United States, where he studied architecture at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and Harvard University. After World War II, he taught at
Harvard for several years.
In 1956, he started his own firm, I. M. Pei & Partners. Soon, he and his com-
pany were in great demand, not just in the United States but all over the world.
Pei has designed some of the largest constructions of the twentieth century.
Pei is known for approaching design problems with an innovative flair. Many
of the buildings he is asked to design must meet multiple functions, such as the
Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame (Figure 14.16). This structure reflects the spirit of
rock and roll while housing memorabilia, sound chambers, a concert hall, a
film-and-video display center, an event room, and numerous other features.
MEET THE
ARTIST
I. M. PEI
Chinese-American, (b. 1917)
F
IGURE
14.16 This building must hold an extensive collection of artifacts while expressing the
spirit of rock-and-roll. Do you think it serves its purpose?
I. M. Pei. Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, Cleveland, Ohio. 1995.
Urban Planning
Urban planners are professionals con-
cerned with the care and improvement
of city environments. Every major
American city has an urban planner
(sometimes called a city planner). This
person helps control the growth and
development of a city. Some of the
responsibilities of the urban planner are
land use; urban renewal; and the devel-
opment of harbors, city parks, and shop-
ping malls. A good urban planner meets
the needs of the community while
keeping it attractive and appealing.
400 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Landscape Architecture
Landscape architects design play-
grounds, parks, and outdoor areas
around buildings and along highways.
They work closely with architects and
urban planners to use and improve the
natural setting so that it is easy to main-
tain and beautiful to look at. They create
designs using flowers, plants, trees,
shrubs, rivers, ponds, lakes, walks,
benches, and signs, as shown in Figure
14.17. Landscape architects work with
architectural firms, government agencies,
individual homeowners, and facilities
such as golf courses.
Using Design
for Display
Creating Designs for Practical
Applications. Create a bulletin board
display promoting an upcoming event at
school.Work with the coordinators of
the event to determine the important
information about the event and an
appropriate color scheme.
F
IGURE
14.18 Interior designers show their clients color swatches
and other design samples.
F
IGURE
14.17 Landscape architects consider texture as an element
of their designs.
Interior Design
An interior designer plans the design
and decoration of the interior spaces in homes
and offices. Successful designers use
styles and materials that blend with the
architecture and that please the client.
They must understand decorating styles
and materials. They must be able to look
at an empty room and visualize the fin-
ished area. They must know the latest
trends and developments in wall cover-
ings, carpets, furniture, appliances, and
lighting (Figure 14.18).
Because interior designers spend as
much time with clients as they do at the
drawing board or computer, they must
have patience and good communication
skills. Some designers work for individ-
ual homeowners while others plan and
coordinate the interiors of department
stores, offices, and hotels.
Exhibit and
Display Design
Exhibit designers plan presentations
of collections, temporary exhibits, and
traveling shows of all types. They work
for trade shows, department stores,
showrooms, art galleries, and museums.
They decide how objects should be
arranged and lit.
Display designers, also called visual
merchandisers, arrange merchandise to
attract customers and persuade them to
buy products or services. A display
designer is an important member of a
LESSON 2 Careers in Three-Dimensional Art and Education 401
sales team. Display designers coordinate
storewide color schemes, design ban-
ners, and even create shopping bags.
Industrial Design
Industrial design is the planning of the
products of industry (Figure 14.19). All
objects—such as tools, home appliances,
furniture, toys, and automobiles—must
be carefully designed. These artists work
closely with engineers who develop the
products. Sometimes, industrial design-
ers are asked to work on things as simple
as tamper-proof caps for medicines. At
other times, they are asked to work on
projects as complicated as space vehicles.
Industrial designers plan products based
on three requirements. First, it must do
Special designers plan the outer form or
body of the car. Then textile designers
and plastic specialists create new interiors
to go with the body. They must be certain
that human needs are met, such as com-
fort and ease of movement. Designers
must make sure that controls are within
reach of the driver, without the dash-
board becoming crowded or confusing.
Computers help ensure that all the parts
fit together correctly. This way, potential
problems are identified before the vehicle
goes into production.
The concept car for the redesigned
Volkswagen Beetle (Figure 14.20) was
developed by J Mays, who studied auto-
motive design at Art Center College of
Design in California. This design received
the Harvard Design School annual Excel-
lence in Design Award. Artists and engi-
neers worked together to determine that
the curves in the design help make this
small car safer. Safety features include
energy absorbing crush zones, preten-
sioning front safety belts, front and rear
headrests, daytime running lights, dual
airbags, and front seat-mounted side
airbags. Each of these features was
designed by a team who considered both
the aesthetics and function of the feature
and how they fit into the car as a whole.
The Beetle was also designed to be an
affordable passenger and commuting car.
The next time you get into a car, look at
the number of features that need to be
accessible to the driver.
F
IGURE
14.19 Industrial designers create new
versions of household appliances.
F
IGURE
14.20 The curved body structure of this car is
aerodynamic and provides additional headroom for all passengers.
the job for which it was designed. Sec-
ond, it must look like it can do the job.
Third, it must be visually pleasing.
Product Designer
Product designers usually specialize in
one industry or product such as machin-
ery, furniture, medical equipment, toys,
or cars. Designers work in teams. For
instance, planning a new automobile re-
quires many different types of designers.
402 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Fashion Designer
Fashion designers plan and create
clothing, hats, handbags, shoes, and
jewelry (Figure 14.21). They must
know the appropriate materials to use
for the articles being designed. They
must also consider comfort and the way
the human body moves when creating
fashion designs. High-fashion designers
create very expensive, one-of-a-kind
originals. Fashion designers also work
for manufacturers who make affordable,
mass-produced clothes. Pattern makers,
cutters, tailors, technical designers, and
factory workers complete the team.
Graduates from college-level fashion
design programs enter the industry as
assistant designers or fashion illustrators.
Art Director
In film, television, and theater, an art
director works with set, costume, and
lighting directors, as well as makeup
artists and hairstylists, to bring the
visual elements of the show together
(Figure 14.22). Art directors should
know art history as well as the special
techniques of their craft. If a film or play
is set in the past, the setting, furniture,
costumes, and hairstyles must correctly
reflect that time period.
F
IGURE
14.21 Fashion designers work year
round to create new looks. Anyone considering a
career in this area must be comfortable working
creatively under tight deadlines.
Using computer programs, designers
can translate their line drawings into
three-dimensional pictures, or renderings.
Computers are also used now to pro-
duce physical models from drawings.
This enables product designers to meet
the requirements of industrial design
more quickly and efficiently.
Package Designer
A package designer produces the
containers that attract consumers. They
make boxes, tubes, bottles, shopping
bags, and other kinds of containers.
They use shape, color, and graphics to
make packages unique and appealing.
Package designers must consider pack-
age function. For example, when pill
bottles first came on the market, the
caps were so easy to remove that chil-
dren were able to open them. Designers
had to invent a cap that was childproof
but could be opened by an adult. It
requires imagination and ingenuity to
combine the visual, functional, and
safety criteria needed to design for
consumers.
LESSON 2 Careers in Three-Dimensional Art and Education 403
A set or stage designer is an artist
who is responsible for planning the
backdrops and many of the props for a
production. He or she oversees a team
of artists who prepare the stage or set
for the production. The set designer
works with the prop master, who sup-
plies everything the actors use during
the production. The costume designer
helps tell the story, creating clothing
that is appropriate to the time and set-
ting of the production (Figure 14.23).
For productions that travel, the work of
the art director and set designer may
include how to design sets that can be
taken apart, moved, and rebuilt. They
may consult with engineers and archi-
tects and work with property designers
and location planners. Art directors and
set designers often begin their careers as
production assistants.
F
IGURE
14.22 Art directors
coordinate the many visual elements
of a film or television show.
F
IGURE
14.23 Can you tell the historical
period for which these costumes were designed?
404 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
Art Education
Some art-related careers combine an
interest in art with an interest in educa-
tion. Teachers, art therapists, and
museum curators and designers all use
their training in different ways. Artisti-
cally inclined people who want to help
others may find careers in education
rewarding and fulfilling.
Art Teacher
Art teachers share their artistic
knowledge and skills with students.
They work in elementary, middle, or
high schools as well as colleges. Art
teachers help students learn to make
aesthetic judgments and to develop
their artistic skills and talents. Some
teachers specialize in art history and
help students learn about art. Many art
teachers spend time outside the class-
room in their own studios. Teaching art
in public schools requires a college
degree, advanced training, and often a
teaching certificate.
Art Therapist
Art therapists use art to help people
with emotional and physical problems.
They help physically challenged chil-
dren and adults learn to explore the
senses of vision and touch through artis-
tic play and creation. An art therapist
might help someone with limited use of
their hands learn to mold and model
clay, using special adaptive equipment.
He or she might help a child with sen-
sory problems learn what different tex-
tures feel like and how to tolerate them.
Art therapists also help patients with
mental and emotional problems change
their behavior in a positive way. They
show them how to express themselves
in a constructive way through art
(Figure 14.24).
Art therapists may have physical
therapy or psychological training and
usually work with professionals in these
fields. They work in medical and psychi-
atric hospitals, community centers,
physical rehabilitation programs, drug
and alcohol treatment centers, schools,
and prisons.
Museum Curator
and Designer
Museums house collections of paint-
ings, sculpture, crafts, costumes, books,
jewelry, and artifacts. Museum cura-
tors, who are usually trained in art his-
tory, oversee the operations of museums.
They organize the collections and are
responsible for recommending artwork
that fits in with the theme or focus of
the museum (Figure 14.25). Museum
designers assemble and display these
museum collections. Some museums
publish books that contain photographs
of the objects in their collections, which
requires the help of the curator and
designers.
F
IGURE
14.24 Art therapists
help children explore their emot-
ions through creative expression.
F
IGURE
14.25 Museum
curators guide students through
museum exhibitions.
LESSON 2 Careers in Three-Dimensional Art and Education 405
Fine Artists
Some artists choose to work indepen-
dently as painters, sculptors, printmak-
ers, weavers, or jewelers (Figure 14.26).
Such artists create art on their own
terms or are paid (commissioned) to cre-
ate a certain piece of art. Some artists
find public or private grants to fund their
work. Many fine artists need a second
job to help pay their living expenses.
Some fine artists work in commercial art
fields to supplement their income. Many
teach in schools and colleges. Some, like
Jacob Lawrence (Figure 4.19 on page
80), continue teaching even after they
have become financially successful
because they feel that the ongoing inter-
action with art students enhances their
creative thinking.
Thinking About an
Art or Design Career
Are you suited for a career in the art
world? It may be too soon for you to
make a final decision about your future.
However, art can be pursued and
enjoyed throughout your life as either
a career or as an avocational interest.
Avocational means not related to a job or
career. Studying or creating art as a
hobby can provide many rewards.
Learning about art in school or at muse-
ums enriches your life. Making art
projects, such as paintings or pottery,
can be fun and relaxing.
If you decide you want a career in art,
you should begin working toward that
goal while in high school. Practice your
skills. Study the great artists. Experiment
with art-related computer programs.
Talk with your art teacher or guidance
counselor for advice. Some colleges offer
summer programs for high school stu-
dents. Research the different options
you can pursue after high school. Look
for schools that offer a specific area you
are interested in, such as fine art, indus-
trial design, or fashion design.
Check Your
Understanding
1. Compare and contrast the art careers
of architecture and landscape archi-
tecture.
2. What three requirements must a
product of industrial design meet?
3. What type of artist or designer plans
presentations of collections?
4. What do art therapists do?
Art in
Your Life
Comparing Career and Avocational
Opportunities in Art. From the visual
art fields listed in this book, choose one
that interests you. Art can be pursued as
an avocation, or hobby, and as a career.
Research the art field to compare and
contrast ways to pursue it as an interest
and as a career. Which one is best for you?
F
IGURE
14.26
The work of
artists is usually
classified as either
fine art or applied
art. Fine art, such
as painting, is
created to be
viewed and
appreciated.
Applied art, such
as ceramics or
other craft
objects, is created
to be used.
406 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
F
IGURE
14.27
Brian Pinkney. Book cover for Duke Ellington: The Piano Prince and His Orchestra by Andrea Davis Pinkney.
Hyperion Books for Children. 1998.
1
DESCRIBE What do you see?
Read the credit line for information about the
artwork.
Describe the subject matter of this work.
Judging from the words in this artwork, what function
would you guess the work was meant to serve?
Explain your answer.
2
ANALYZE How is this work organized?
This step addresses the formal qualities.You will
gather information about how the principles of art
are used to organize the elements of art.
Compare and contrast the types of lines used in
this work.
Where has the artist used rhythm and pattern?
How has he achieved unity in this work?
3
INTERPRET What does this artwork communicate
to you?
Combine the clues you collected to form a creative
interpretation of the work.
How do you think the color scheme affects the appeal
of this work?
What do the green swirls floating out of the piano tell
you about Duke Ellington’s music?
What mood is suggested by the colors of this work?
How do you think the artist feels toward his subject?
Explain your reaction.
4
JUDGE What do you think of the work?
Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgment
of the work.
Do you think this is a successful book cover design?
Why or why not? Use one or more of the aesthetic the-
ories to defend your decision.
Prior to beginning his career
as a commercial artist, Brian
Pinkney taught art. His favorite
medium is scratchboard. Pinkney
begins by covering a white board
in black ink. He then scratches or
scrapes off the areas that are to
appear white. He finally colors
these areas with dyes, gouache,
and/or oil paints. Jerry Pinkney,
Brian’s father, is a celebrated chil-
dren’s book illustrator. Brian’s
mother is a children’s book
writer as is his wife, Andrea Davis
Pinkney. Brian has illustrated
some of her books, including the
tribute to Duke Ellington featured
in Figure 14.27.
Critiquing the Artwork
Art Criticism in Action 407
Brian Pinkney
(b. 1961)
Designer Karim Rashid has made a career of
making ordinary objects look extraordinary.
arim Rashid wants people to pay more attention to
the way everyday objects are designed. Rashid is an
award-winning industrial designer. What he enjoys best
about his work is making everyday objects look special—
from manhole covers on city streets to garbage bins,
chairs, and plastic pens.
Rashid has developed a unique style. He creates objects
that have energy and humor. For example, Rashid’s glassware
looks like a forest floor, with mushroom bowls and vases shaped
like lilies.
Rashid wants his creations to have more than one use.
“Every new object should replace three,” he says. His
packaging for a perfume is a plastic envelope that can be
used as a purse. His children’s chair doubles as a toy chest.
His most popular products are made of plastic.
Nearly 2 million North Americans throw rubbish
into the plastic trash receptacles he designed.
More than 750,000 people sit in his
inexpensive Oh chairs. The chairs got
that name because “Oh” is what
people supposedly say when they
relax in one.
Thanks to Rashid’s talent,
people just may be starting to
pay more attention to the design
of everyday objects—especially his!
TIME to Connect
Karim Rashid analyzed his skills and his
passions and chose a career in industrial
design.Think about what interests you
and what careers match those interests.
Think critically about yourself. On a sheet of
paper, list your talents, your strengths, and the
activities you enjoy.
Then write a one-page persuasive letter in business format
to a prospective employer. Present yourself, your skills, and
your career objective or goals. Proofread your work. Exchange
letters with a classmate and critique each other’s work.
Karim Rashid in his studio.
ROBERT CLARK/TIME PICTURE COLLECTIONKARIM RASHID, INC (2)
408 CHAPTER 14 Careers in Art
K
This chair and chess set
are two of Rashid’s
popular designs.
Thinking Critically About Art
18. Analyze. Find a copy of a book you
enjoyed reading, preferably one that has
an interesting cover design. Look at the
design, and think about how it relates to
the content of the book. Then write a few
paragraphs describing the cover design, the
meaning of any symbolism the designer
used, and your opinion of whether the
cover illustrates the story appropriately.
Don’t forget to justify your opinion by
providing examples.
19. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Review
the Meet the Artist feature on page 399.
Then examine architect I. M. Pei’s Rock-
and-Roll Hall of Fame in Figure 14.16.
Compare and contrast the contemporary
style of Figure 14.16 with Figure 14.1 by
Frank Gehry. What general trends in archi-
tecture do these two buildings exhibit?
Explore the art of a story-
board artist. Use the
Performing Arts Handbook
on page 426 to discover the work of animator
John Ramirez.
There are many areas
of specialization for
illustrators and other
art careers. Medical
illustration is just one. Visit
art.glencoe.com
to compare and contrast the many specialized
areas of visual art careers.
ART
Linking to the
Performing Arts
Building Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, write the term
that best matches the definition given below.
1. An artist who creates and arranges images
in an appealing and memorable way.
2. Symbols or trademarks that are immedi-
ately recognizable.
3. One who creates visual images that com-
plement written words.
4. Photographers who are visual reporters.
5. Creator of moving cartoons.
6. A series of still drawings that show a
story's progress.
7. Designer of buildings which are well
constructed, aesthetically pleasing, and
functional.
8. One who plans the design and decoration
of the interior spaces in homes and offices.
9. Designer who plans and produces attrac-
tive containers.
10. One who oversees the operations of
museums.
Reviewing Art Facts
Answer the following questions using com-
plete sentences.
11. Why is technology important in art-related
fields?
12. When did the field of graphic design begin?
What invention made it possible?
13. For what purposes are illustrations used?
14. What training do special effects designers
need?
15. What does an urban planner do?
16. What three requirements must industrial
designers plan for?
17. What elements of art do package designers
use to make every package unique and
appealing?
CHAPTER
14
REVIEW
Chapter 14 Review 409
410
“If we study Japanese art, we see a
man who is undoubtedly wise,
philosophic, and intelligent, who
spends his time doing what? In
studying the distance between the
earth and the moon? No—
he studies a single blade of grass.”
—Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890)
UNIT
Handbooks
Drawing Inferences. Carefully examine
the quote above by Post-Impressionist painter
Vincent van Gogh. Based on this quote, what
can you infer about Van Gogh’s feelings toward
Japanese art? Explain your reaction in a sen-
tence or two.
411
5
Suzuki Kiitsu. Reeds and Cranes (one of a pair of screens).
Edo period (nineteenth century). Color on gilded silk. 1.76
3.89 m (5’ 9
1
2
12’ 9
1
4
). Detroit Institute of the Arts,
Detroit, Michigan. Founders Society Purchase with other funds.
Technique Tips 427
TECHNIQUE TIPS
TECHNIQUE TIPS
Table of Contents
Drawing Tips 1 Making Contour Drawings 428
2
Making Gesture Drawings 428
3
Drawing Calligraphic Lines with a Brush 428
4
Using Shading Techniques 429
5
Using Sighting Techniques 429
6
Using a Viewing Frame 430
7
Using a Ruler 430
8
Making a Grid for Enlarging 431
9
Measuring Rectangles 431
Painting Tips 10
Mixing Paint to Change the Value of Color 431
11
Making Natural Earth Pigment Paints 432
12
Working with Watercolors 432
13
Cleaning a Paint Brush 432
Printmaking Tip 14
Making a Stamp Print 433
Sculpting Tips 15
Working with Clay 433
16
Joining Clay 433
17
Making a Pinch Pot 434
18
Using the Coil Technique 434
19
Papier-Mâché 434
20
Making a Paper Sculpture 435
Other Tips 21
Making Paper 435
22
Basic Embroidery Stitches 436
23
Weaving Techniques 437
24
Making a Coiled Basket 439
25
Making a Tissue Paper Collage 440
Display Tips 26
Making a Mat 441
27
Mounting a Two-Dimensional Work 442
28
Working with Glue 442
Safety in the Art Room 443
428 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
sketches will look strange.
Don’t be discouraged. The ma-
jor purpose of blind contour
drawing is to teach you to con-
centrate on directions and
curves. The more you practice,
the more accurate your draw-
ings will become.
d. As you develop your skills,
remember that in addition to
edges, contours also define
ridges. Notice the wrinkles you
see at the joints of fingers and
at a bent wrist or bent elbow.
Those wrinkles are curved
lines. Draw them carefully; the
lines you use to show these
things will add the look of
roundness to your drawing.
e. After you have made a few
sketches, add pressure as you
draw to vary the thickness and
darkness of your lines. Some
lines can be emphasized and
some can be made less impor-
tant through the right amount
of pressure from your hand.
2. Making Gesture Drawings
Unlike contour drawings, which
show an object’s outline, gesture
drawings show movement. They
should have no outlines or details.
a. Using the side of a piece of un-
wrapped crayon or a pencil,
make scribble lines that build
up the shape of the object. Do
not use single lines that create
stick figures.
b. Work very quickly. When draw-
ing people, do the head, then
the neck, and then fill in the
body. Pay attention to the
direction in which the body
leans.
c. Next, scribble in the bulk of
the legs and the position of
the feet.
d. Finally, add the arms.
3. Drawing Calligraphic Lines
with a Brush
Mastering the technique of
drawing with flowing, calligraphic
lines takes practice. You will need a
round watercolor brush and either
watercolor paint or ink. First, prac-
tice making very thin lines.
a. Dip your brush in the ink or
paint and wipe the brush
slowly on the side of the ink
bottle until the bristles form
a point.
b. Hold the brush at the metal
ferrule so the brush is vertical
rather than slanted above the
paper. Imagine that the brush
is a pencil with a very sharp
point—if you press down, you
will break the point (Figure
T.1).
FIGURE T.1
c. Touch the paper lightly with
the tip of the brush and draw
a line.
d. When you are able to control a
thin line, you are ready to make
calligraphic lines. Start with a
thin line and gradually press
the brush down to make the
line thicker. Pull up again to
make it thinner (Figure T.2,
page 429). Practice making
lines that vary in thickness.
1. Making Contour Drawings
When you make a contour
drawing, your eye and hand must
move at the same time. You must
look at the object, not at your draw-
ing. You must imagine that your
pencil is touching the edge of the
object as your eye follows the edge.
Don’t let your eye get ahead of your
hand. Also, do not lift your pencil
from the paper. When you move
from one area to the next, let your
pencil leave a trail. If you do lift
your pencil accidentally, look down,
place your pencil where you
stopped, and continue.
a. To help you coordinate your
eye-hand movement, try this:
First, tape your paper to the
table so it will not slide around.
Then, hold a second pencil in
your nondrawing hand and
move it around the edges of
the object. With your drawing
hand, record the movement.
b. If you have trouble keeping
your eyes from looking at the
paper, ask a friend to hold a
piece of stiff paper between
your eyes and your drawing
hand so the drawing paper is
blocked from view. You might
also place your drawing paper
inside a large paper bag
turned sideways. A third
method is to put the object on
a chair and place the chair on
a table. When you are stand-
ing, the object should be at
your eye level. Then, place
your drawing paper on the
table directly under the chair.
In this way you will be unable
to see the paper easily.
c. When you draw without look-
ing at the paper, your first
DRAWING TIPS
Technique Tips 429
TECHNIQUE TIPS
FIGURE T.2
4. Using Shading Techniques
The following techniques help
create shading values.
Hatching: Use a series of fine
parallel lines.
Crosshatching: Use two or
more intersecting sets of paral-
lel lines.
Blending: Use a smooth,
gradual application of an in-
creasingly dark value. Pencil
lines may be blended.
Stippling: Create shading
with dots.
To be effective in forming
the shaded areas, your lines and
strokes must follow the form of the
object. Use lines to show the sur-
face of a flat surface. Let the lines
run parallel to one edge of the sur-
face. To show a curved surface,
draw a series of parallel curved lines
to give the illusion of roundness.
The lines should follow the curve of
the object.
Lines or dots placed close to-
gether create dark values. Lines or
dots spaced farther apart create
lighter values. To show a gradual
change from light to dark, begin with
lines or dots far apart and bring
them closer together. (Figure T.3.)
5. Using Sighting Techniques
Sighting is a method that will
help you determine proportions.
a. Hold a pencil vertically at arm’s
length in the direction of the
object you are drawing. Close
one eye and focus on the ob-
ject you are going to measure.
b. Slide your thumb along the pen-
cil until the height of the pencil
above your thumb matches the
height of the object (Figure T.4,
page 430).
c. Now, without moving your
thumb or bending your arm,
FIGURE T.3
430 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
hold the pencil parallel to the
widest part of the object. Com-
pare the height of the object
with its width. You can deter-
mine the ratio of height to width
by seeing how many times the
smaller measure fits into the
larger measure. This method
can be applied either to differ-
ent parts of the same object
or to two or more different ob-
jects. Use one measurement
as a base measurement and
see how the other measure-
ments relate to it.
6. Using a Viewing Frame
A viewing frame helps you to
zero in on an area or object you in-
tend to draw. To make a viewing
frame, do the following:
a. Cut a rectangular hole in a
heavy sheet of paper (Figure
T.5).
b. Hold the frame at arm’s length
and look through it at your
subject. Imagine that the open-
ing represents your drawing
paper.
c. You can decide how much of
the subject you want to include
in your drawing by moving the
frame up, down, or sideways.
d. You can also move the frame
closer or farther away to
change the focus of your
drawing.
7. Using a Ruler
There are times when you
need to draw a crisp, straight line.
a. Hold the ruler with one hand
and the pencil with the other.
b. Place the ruler where you wish
to draw a straight line.
c. Hold the ruler with your thumb
and first two fingers. Be careful
that your fingers do not stick
out beyond the edge of the
ruler.
d. Press heavily on the ruler so
it will not slide while you’re
drawing.
e. Hold the pencil lightly against
the ruler.
f. Pull the pencil quickly and
lightly along the edge of the
ruler. The object is to keep the
ruler from moving while the
pencil moves along its edge.
FIGURE T.4
F
IGURE T.5
Technique Tips 431
TECHNIQUE TIPS
8. Making a Grid
for Enlarging
Sometimes you must take a
small drawing and enlarge it. To do
this, you must first measure the size
that the large, finished drawing will
be. Then, using proportional ratios,
reduce that size to something you
can work with.
a. For example: If you want to
cover a wall 5 feet high and 10
feet wide, let 1 inch equal 1
foot. Then make a scale draw-
ing that is 5 inches high and 10
inches wide. You may work ei-
ther in inches or centimeters.
b. After you have completed your
small drawing, draw vertical
and horizontal grid lines 1 inch
apart on the drawing. Number
the squares (Figure T.6).
c. On the wall, draw vertical and
horizontal grid lines one foot
apart.
d. Number the squares on the
wall to match the squares on
the paper and enlarge the
plan by filling one square at a
time.
9. Measuring Rectangles
Do you find it hard to create
perfectly formed rectangles? Here is
a way of getting the job done:
a. Make a light pencil dot near
the long edge of a sheet of pa-
per. With a ruler, measure the
exact distance between the
dot and the edge. Make three
more dots the same distance
in from the edge. (See Figure
T.7.)
b. Line a ruler up along the dots.
Make a light pencil line running
the length of the paper.
c. Turn the paper so that a short
side is facing you. Make four
pencil dots equally distant from
the short edge. Connect these
with a light pencil rule. Stop
when you reach the first line
you drew.
d. Do the same for the remaining
two sides. Erase any lines that
may extend beyond the box
you have made.
e. Trace over the lines with your
ruler and pencil. The box you
have created will be a perfectly
formed rectangle.
10. Mixing Paint to Change
the Value of Color
You can better control the col-
ors in your work when you mix your
own paint. In mixing paints, treat
opaque paints (for example, tem-
pera) differently from transparent
paints (for example, watercolors).
a. For light values of opaque
paints. Add only a small
amount of the hue to white.
The color can always be made
stronger by adding more of
the hue.
b. For dark values of opaque
paints. Add a small amount of
black to the hue. Never add
the hue to black.
c. For light values of transparent
paints. Thin a shaded area with
water. This allows more of the
white paper to show through.
d. For dark values of transparent
paints. Carefully add a small
amount of black to the hue.
F
IGURE T.7
PAINTING TIPS
F
IGURE T.6
432 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
11. Making Natural Earth
Pigment Paints
Anywhere there is dirt, clay,
and sand, you can find natural earth
pigments.
a. Collect as many different kinds
of earth colors as you can find
(Figure T.8).
FIGURE T.8
b. Grind them as finely as possi-
ble. If you can, borrow a mortar
and pestle from the science
lab (Figure T.9). Regardless of
the method you use, your fin-
ished product will still be a
little gritty. It will not have the
smooth texture of commercial
pigment.
c. For the binder, use one part
white glue to one part water.
Put a few spoons of pigment
into a small container and add
some of the binder. Experiment
with different proportions of
pigment and binder.
d. When you have found the best
proportion, apply the mixture
to paper with a variety of
brushes. Do not allow the
brushes you use to dry before
you wash them, because the
glue will solidify.
e. Keep stirring your paint as you
work to keep the pigment from
settling. The pigment will keep
indefinitely. Mix a fresh batch
each time you paint, because
the mixed paint is difficult to
store for more than a few days.
12. Working with Watercolors
Here are some tips to control
watercolor paints.
a. If you apply wet paint to damp
paper, you create lines and
shapes with soft edges.
b. If you apply wet paint to dry
paper, you create lines and
shapes with sharp, clear
edges.
c. If you dip a dry brush into
damp paint and then brush
across dry paper, you achieve
a fuzzy effect.
d. School watercolors come in
semi-moist cakes. Before you
use them, place a drop of wa-
ter on each cake to let the
paint soften. Watercolor paints
are transparent. You can see
the white paper through the
paint. If you want a light value
of a hue, dilute the paint with a
large amount of water. If you
want a bright hue, you must
dissolve more pigment by
swirling your brush around in
the cake of paint until you have
dissolved a great deal of paint.
The paint you apply to the
paper can be as bright as
the paint in the cake.
13. Cleaning a Paint Brush
Rinsing a paint brush under
running water will not clean it com-
pletely. Paint will remain inside the
bristles and cause the brush to lose
its shape. Use the following proce-
dure to help your brushes last a
long time.
a. Rinse the thick paint out of the
brush under running water.
b. Do not use hot water. Gently
“paint” the brush over a cake
of mild soap or dip it into a
mild liquid detergent (Figure
T.10).
c. Gently scrub the brush in the
palm of your hand to work the
soap into the center of the
brush. This will remove paint
that you did not realize was still
in the brush (Figure T.11).
d. Rinse the brush under running
water while you continue to
scrub your palm.
e. Repeat steps b, c, and d.
FIGURE T.9
FIGURE T.10
FIGURE T.11
Technique Tips 433
TECHNIQUE TIPS
f. When your brush is thoroughly
rinsed, shape it into a point
with your fingers (Figure T.12).
g. Place the brush in a container
with the bristles up so it will
keep its shape as it dries.
14. Making a Stamp Print
A stamp print is an easy way to
make repetitive designs. The follow-
ing are a few suggestions for mak-
ing a stamp and printing with it. You
may develop some other ideas after
reading these hints. Remember,
printing reverses your design, so if
you use letters, be certain to cut or
carve them backward.
Cut a simple design into the
flat surface of a rubber eraser
with a knife that has a fine,
precision blade.
Glue yarn to a bottle cap or a
jar lid.
Glue found objects to a piece
of corrugated cardboard.
Make a design with paperclips,
washers, nuts, leaves, feath-
ers, or anything else you can
find. Whatever object you use
should have a fairly flat sur-
face. Make a handle for the
block with masking tape.
Cut shapes out of a piece of
inner tube material. Glue the
shapes to a piece of heavy
cardboard.
There are several ways to
apply ink or paint to a stamp:
Roll water-base printing ink on
the stamp with a soft brayer.
Roll water-base printing ink on
a plate and press the stamp
into the ink.
Apply tempera paint or school
acrylic to the stamp with a
bristle brush.
15. Working with Clay
To make your work with clay go
smoothly, always do the following:
a. Dip one or two fingers in water.
b. Spread the moisture from your
fingers over your palms.
Never dip your hands in water.
Too much moisture turns clay into
mud.
16. Joining Clay
Use these methods for joining
clay.
a. First, gather the materials you
will need. These include clay,
slip (a creamy mixture of clay
and water), brush, a scoring
tool (such as a fork), and clay
tools.
b. Rough up or scratch the two
surfaces to be joined (Figure
T.13).
c. Apply slip to one of the two
surfaces using a brush or your
fingers (Figure T.14).
d. Gently press the two surfaces
together so the slip oozes out
of the joining seam (Figure
T.15).
e. Using clay tools and/or your
fingers, smooth away the slip
that has oozed out of the seam
(Figure T.16). You may wish to
smooth out the seam as well,
SCULPTING TIPS
PRINTMAKING TIP
FIGURE
T.12
F
IGURE T.15 FIGURE T.16
FIGURE T.13 FIGURE T.14
434 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
or you may wish to leave it for
decorative purposes.
17. Making a Pinch Pot
To make a pot using the pinch
method, do the following:
a. Make a ball of clay by rolling
it between your palms.
b. Set it on the working surface
and make a hole in the top by
pushing both thumbs into the
clay. Stop pushing before your
thumbs reach the bottom.
c. Begin to pinch the walls be-
tween your thumb and fingers,
rotating the pot as you pinch.
d. Continue pinching and shap-
ing the walls of the pot until
they are an even thickness and
the pot is the desired shape.
18. Using the Coil Technique
Collect all the materials you will
need. These include clay, a cloth-
covered board, slip and brush, scor-
ing tool, small bowl of water, and
pattern for a circular base.
a. Make a base by flattening a
piece of clay to about
1
2
inch
thick. Using the pattern, cut the
base into a circle.
b. Begin a clay coil by shaping a
small ball of clay into a long roll
on the cloth-covered board un-
til the roll is about
1
2
inch thick
(Figure T.17). Your hands
should be damp so the clay
remains damp.
c. Make a circle around the edge
of the clay base with the roll of
clay. Cut the ends on a diago-
nal and join them so the seam
does not show. Using scoring
and slip, join this first coil to
the base.
d. Make a second coil. If you
want the pot to curve outward,
place the second coil on the
outer edge of the first coil.
Place coil on the inner edge for
an inward curve. Use proper
joining techniques for all coils.
19. Papier-Mâché
Papier-mâché is a French term
that means mashed paper. It refers
to sculpting methods that use paper
and liquid paste. The wet paper and
paste material are molded over sup-
porting structures such as a wad
of dry paper or crumpled foil. The
molded paper dries to a hard finish.
Following are three basic methods
for working with papier-mâché.
Pulp Method
a. Shred newspaper, paper tow-
els, or tissue paper into tiny
pieces and soak them in water
overnight. (Do not use slick
paper as it will not soften.)
b. Mash the paper in a strainer to
remove the water or wring it
out in a piece of cloth.
c. Mix the mashed paper with
prepared paste or white glue
until the material is the consis-
tency of soft clay. Use the mix-
ture to model small shapes.
d. When papier-mâché is dry, it
can be sanded, and holes can
be drilled through it.
Strip Method
a. Tear paper into strips.
b. Either dip the strips in a thick
mixture of paste or rub paste
on the strips with your fingers.
Decide which method works
best for you.
c. Use wide strips to cover wide
forms. Very thin strips will lie
flat on a small shape.
d. If you do not want the finished
work to stick to the support
structure, first cover the form
with plastic wrap or a layer of
wet newspaper strips. If you
are going to remove the pa-
pier-mâché from the support
structure, you need to apply
five or six layers of strips. Rub
your fingers over the strips so
that no rough edges are left
sticking up (Figure T.18).
Change directions with each
layer so that you can keep
track of the number. If you
are going to leave the papier-
mâché over the support struc-
ture, then two or three layers
may be enough.
Sheet Method
a. Brush or spread paste on a
sheet of newspaper or newsprint
(Figure T.19). Lay a second
F
IGURE T.19
FIGURE T.18
FIGURE T.17
Technique Tips 435
TECHNIQUE TIPS
sheet on top of the first and
smooth out the layers. Add an-
other layer of paste and an-
other sheet of paper. Repeat
this process until you have four
or five layers of paper. This
method is good for making
drapery on a figure (Figure
T.20).
b. If you let the layers dry for a
day until they are leathery, they
can be cut and molded any
way you wish. Newspaper
strips dipped in the paste can
be used to seal any cracks that
may occur.
Support Structures
a. Dry newspaper can be
wadded up and wrapped with
string or tape (Figure T.21).
b. Wire armatures can be padded
with rags before the outside
shell of papier-mâché is
added.
c. Found materials such as
boxes, tubes, and plastic
bowls, can be arranged and
taped together to form a base
(Figure T.22).
d. For large figures, a wooden
frame covered with chicken
wire makes a good support.
Push and pinch the wire into
the shape you want.
20. Making a Paper Sculpture
Another name for paper sculp-
ture is origami. The process origi-
nated in Japan and means “folding
paper.” Paper sculpture begins with
a flat piece of paper. The paper is
then curved or bent to produce
more than a flat surface. Here are
some ways to experiment with paper.
Scoring. Place a square
sheet of heavy construction
paper on a flat surface. Posi-
tion a ruler on the paper so that
it is close to the center and
parallel to the sides. Holding
the ruler in place, run the point
of a knife or a pair of scissors
along one of the ruler’s edges.
Press down firmly but take
care not to cut through the pa-
per. Gently crease the paper
along the line you made. Hold
your paper with the crease
facing upward. You can also
score curved lines, but you
must do this with gradually
bending curves or wide arcs. If
you try to make a tight curve,
such as a semicircle, the
paper will not give. For a tight
curve you will have to make
cuts to relieve the tension.
Pleating. Take a piece of pa-
per and fold it 1 inch from the
edge. Then fold the paper in
the other direction. Continue
folding back and forth.
Curling. Hold one end of a
long strip of paper with the
thumb and forefinger of one
hand. At a point right below
where you are holding the
strip, grip it lightly between the
side of a pencil and the thumb
of your other hand. In a quick
motion, run the pencil along
the strip. This will cause the
strip to curl back on itself.
Don’t apply too much pres-
sure, or the strip will tear. (See
Figure T.23.)
21. Making Paper
Papermaking is a process in
which fibers are broken down and
reformed as a sheet. In order to
make paper, collect all the materials
you will need. These include a food
blender, two matching stretcher
frames approximately 9 x 12 inches
each, a rustproof window screen
slightly larger than the stretchers,
staple gun, duct tape, Handi Wipes
FIGURE
T.20
FIGURE T.22
FIGURE T.21
F
IGURE T.23
OTHER TIPS
436 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
towels, a large pan 5 to 8 inches
deep, newspapers, assorted
papers, and water.
a. Make the mold by stretching
the screen over the frame, sta-
pling it at the edges, and cov-
ering the rough edges with
duct tape. The second frame
is the deckle, the frame that
keeps the pulp in place on
the mold.
b. Tear paper into 1-inch
squares. Put 4 cups water and
1
/
2
cup paper scraps into the
blender and blend for several
minutes until the mixture is the
consistency of watery cooked
oatmeal.
c. Pour pulp into pan. Continue
making pulp until there is
about 4 inches of pulp in the
pan. Additional water may be
added to aid in the papermak-
ing process.
d. Make a pad of newspapers
1
/
4
inch thick. Unfold Handi Wipes
towels and lay one on the pad;
this is the blotter.
e. Align deckle on top of mold.
Stir pulp to suspend paper
fibers. Scoop mold and deckle
under surface of water and
shake to align fibers. Lift to
drain excess water.
f. Remove the deckle and flip the
mold and pulp onto the blotter,
pulp side down against the
Handi Wipes towel. Blot back
of molds with a sponge to
remove excess water and to
compress the fibers. Remove the
mold, using a rocking motion.
g. Lay another Handi Wipes towel
on top of the sheet of paper
and add more newspapers.
Repeat the layering process.
h. Let paper dry slowly for 13
days. When dry, peel off the
Handi Wipes.
i. To clean up, drain pulp
through the mold or a sieve.
Squeeze excess water from
pulp and save pulp in a plastic
bag for one to three days or
discard it.
22. Basic Embroidery Stitches
The charts below and on the
next page show the most common
embroidery stitches.
FIGURE T.24
Technique Tips 437
TECHNIQUE TIPS
23. Weaving Techniques
To make a cardboard loom,
gather the materials you will need.
They include cardboard, ruler, pen-
cil, scissors, strong, thin yarn for
warp, various yarns and fibers for
weft, tapestry needle, comb,
and dowel.
a. Measure and cut notches
1
/
4
inch apart and
1
/
2
inch deep on
opposite sides of the card-
board.
b. Tape warp thread to back of
loom. Bring it to the front
through the top left notch. Pull
it down to the bottom of the
loom and pass it through the
bottom left notch to the back.
Move one notch to the right
and continue until you reach
the last notch. Then tape the
end of the warp thread to the
back. (Figure T.25)
c. Start to weave at the bottom of
the loom, using a thin yarn. The
weft yarns are the horizontal
yarns; the easiest way to pull
the weft yarn through the warp
threads is to use an over-one-
under-one motion. At the end
of the row, reverse directions.
(Figure T.26)
d. Do not pull the weft threads
too tight. Let them balloon, or
curve slightly upward (Figure
T.27).
FIGURE
T.24 (CONTINUED)
F
IGURE T.25 FIGURE T.26
438 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
e. After weaving several rows,
pack the weft threads with a
comb (Figure T.28). The tighter
the weave, the stronger it
will be.
f. After there is about 1 inch of
tight weave, begin varying
weave and materials (Figure
T.29). End the process with an-
other inch of thin, tight weave.
g. Before removing the fabric
from the loom, weave in the
loose ends. Cut the warp
threads from the loom carefully
and tie two at a time so they
will not unravel.
h. Tie or sew the finished fabric to
a dowel.
FIGURE T.28
F
IGURE T.29
FIGURE
T.27
Tabby weave Egyptian knot
Inserted weft Supplementary weft
Rya (Shag) Interlocking
Dovetail Slits
Technique Tips 439
TECHNIQUE TIPS
24. Making a Coiled Basket
Mastering the technique of
making a coiled basket takes prac-
tice. You will need core material
(such as heavy cord), weft wrapping
materials (such as yarns and fibers),
a tapestry needle, scissors, and
tape.
Coiling is a stitching technique
in which the continuous coils of the
core material are stitched together
with a binding material called the
weft. The first time you try this your
binding and stitches probably will
not look neat. Undo the work and
begin again. You want to cover the
core material completely, and all
your weft binding and stitches must
be even and tight.
a. Trim the end of the core so it
tapers. Thread the tapestry
needle with a 3-foot length of
weft. Using the loose weft end,
begin to wind it around the
core starting about 2 inches
from the end. Overlap the end
as you wind to anchor it. Wind
the weft to about
1
/
2
inch from
the tapered end of the core
(Figure T.30).
b. Bend the core, catch the ta-
pered end, and make a loop
(Figure T.31).
c. Continue winding for about 2
inches, being sure that the
tapered core is attached se-
curely to the solid section of
core material. Push the tapes-
try needle through the center
of the loop (Figure T.32).
d. Bend the core to form a coil
and bring the weft between the
core and the coil. (Figure T.33)
Begin winding the weft around
the core from front to back.
You are now ready to begin the
Lazy stitch.
e. Wind the weft around the core
from front to back four times.
Then, bringing the weft from
behind and over the core,
push the needle into the center
of the coil (Figure T.34). Pull
tightly and hold. Continue to
wrap the weft four times
around the core and pull the
fifth stitch into the center until
you complete two coils. Hold
them flat between your fingers
while you work.
f. As the coiling progresses, you
may wrap the weft more than
four times between stitches.
After the first two coils, you will
no longer bring the stitch back
to the center; just take it over
two coils (Figure T.35). Always
insert the needle from the front.
This way you can see exactly
where you are placing the
needle. If you want to create a
pattern of long stitches, this is
essential.
FIGURE T.31
F
IGURE T.30
FIGURE T.35
FIGURE T.34
FIGURE T.33
FIGURE
T.32
440 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
g. Hold the coil with your left
hand with the core material
coming from the left, and wind
the weft with your right hand so
you do not tangle it with the
core (Figure T.36). If you are
left-handed, reverse the
process. Always pull the weft
very tight.
h. You will need to splice, or in-
visibly join, the ends of sepa-
rate materials. To splice the
core, taper the cut on the old
and the new piece. Before
working the weft, secure the
spliced ends of the core by
wrapping them with sewing
thread or tape. Always hold the
spliced area carefully until it is
wrapped with the weft. Splice
the weft during the wrapping,
not during the stitching. Hold
the tail ends of the old and the
new weft together against the
core as shown in Figure T.37.
Wrap the new weft at least
once before making a long
stitch.
i. When the base is the desired
size, it is time to begin making
the sides of the basket. If the
side is to be perpendicular to
the base, lay the first founda-
tion coil directly on top of the
last coil. If you want the basket
to curve outward, place each
new coil on the outer edge of
the one below. To make an in-
ward curve, place each coil on
the inner edge of the previous
coil. Use pressure from the
nonstitching hand to keep the
coils in place.
j. The best way to finish the bas-
ket is to taper the core and
make several stitches around
the last coil and the tapered
coil. Then run the needle back
through the wrapping stitches
for about an inch and pull the
weft thread through. Cut off the
excess weft.
k. If you want to make a handle,
simply wrap the end of the core
until it is as long as you wish.
Then attach it to the other side
of the top of the basket follow-
ing the instructions from Step j.
25. Making a Tissue Paper
Collage
For your first experience with
tissue, make a free design with the
tissue colors. Start with the lightest
colors of tissue first and save the
darkest for last. It is difficult to
change the color of dark tissue by
overlapping it with other colors. If
one area becomes too dark, you
might cut out a piece of white paper,
glue it over the dark area carefully,
and apply new colors over the white
area.
a. Apply a coat of adhesive to the
area where you wish to place
the tissue.
b. Place the tissue down carefully
over the wet area (Figure T.38).
Don’t let your fingers get wet.
c. Then add another coat of ad-
hesive over the tissue. If your
brush picks up any color from
the wet tissue, rinse your brush
FIGURE T.36
FIGURE T.37 FIGURE T.38
Technique Tips 441
TECHNIQUE TIPS
in water and let it dry before
using it again.
d. Experiment by overlapping col-
ors. Allow the tissue to wrinkle
to create textures as you apply
it. Be sure that all the loose
edges of tissue are glued
down.
26. Making a Mat
You can add appeal to an art-
work by making a mat, using the fol-
lowing steps.
a. Gather the materials you will
need. These include a metal
rule, a pencil, mat board, card-
board backing, a sheet of
heavy cardboard to protect
your work surface, a mat knife
with a sharp blade, and wide
masking tape.
b. Wash your hands. Mat board
should be kept very clean.
c. Measure the height and width
of the work to be matted.
Decide how large a border you
want for your work. (A border
of approximately 2
1
/
2
inches on
three sides with 3 inches on
the bottom is aesthetically
pleasing.) Your work will be
behind the window you will cut.
d. Plan for the opening, or win-
dow, to be
1
/
4
inch smaller on all
sides than the size of your work.
For example, if your work mea-
sures 9 by 12 inches, the mat
window should measure 8
1
/
2
inches (9 inches minus
1
/
4
inch
times two) by 11
1
/
2
inches (12
inches minus
1
/
4
inch times two.)
Using your metal rule and pen-
cil, lightly draw your window
rectangle on the back of the
board 2
1
/
2
inches from the top
and left edge of the mat. (See
Figure T.39). Add a 2
1
/
2
-inch
border to the right of the
window and a 3-inch border to
the bottom, lightly drawing cut-
ting guidelines.
Note: If you are working with
metric measurements, the win-
dow should overlap your work
by 0.5 cm (centimeters) on all
sides. Therefore, if your work
measures 24 by 30 cm, the
mat window measures 23 cm
(24[2 x 0.5]) by 29 cm (30
[2 0.5]).
e. Place the sheet of heavy, pro-
tective cardboard on your work
surface. Place the mat board,
pencil marks up, over the card-
board. Holding the metal rule
firmly in place, score the first
line with your knife. Always
place the metal rule so that
your blade is on the inside of
the frame. (See Figure T.40.)
In case you make an error you
will cut into the window hole or
the extra mat that is not used
for the frame. Do not try to cut
through the board with one
stroke. By the third or fourth
stroke, you should be able to
cut through the board easily.
f. Working in the same fashion,
score and cut through the
board along all the window
lines. Be careful not to go
beyond the lines. Remove
the window.
g. Cut a cardboard backing for
your artwork that is slightly
smaller than the overall size
of your mat. Using a piece of
broad masking tape, hinge the
back of the mat to the backing.
(See Figure T.41.) Position your
artwork between the backing
and the mat and attach it with
tape. Anchor the frame to the
cardboard with a few pieces of
rolled tape.
FIGURE T.39
FIGURE
T.40
FIGURE T.41
DISPLAY TIPS
442 Technique Tips
TECHNIQUE TIPS
27. Mounting a Two-
Dimensional Work
Mounting pictures that you
make gives them a professional
look. To mount a work, do the
following:
a. Gather the materials you will
need. These include a yard-
stick, a pencil, poster board, a
knife with a very sharp blade,
a sheet of newspaper, and
rubber cement.
b. Measure the height and width
of the work to be mounted. De-
cide how large a border you
want around the work. Plan
your mount size using the
work’s measurements. To end
up with a 3-inch border, for
example, make your mount
6 inches wider and higher than
your work. Record the mea-
surements for your mount.
c. Using your yardstick and pen-
cil, lightly draw your mount
rectangle on the back of the
poster board. Measure from
the edges of the poster board.
If you have a large paper cut-
ter available, you may use it to
cut your mount.
d. Place the sheet of heavy card-
board on your work surface.
Place the poster board, pencil
marks up, over the cardboard.
Holding the yardstick firmly in
place along one line, score the
line with your knife. Do not try
to cut through the board with
one stroke. By the third try, you
should be able to cut through
the board.
e. Place the artwork on the mount.
Using the yardstick, center the
work. Mark each corner with a
dot. (See Figure T.42)
f. Place the artwork, face down,
on a sheet of newspaper. Coat
the back of the work with
rubber cement. (Safety Note:
Always use rubber cement in a
room with plenty of ventilation.)
If your mount is to be perma-
nent, skip to Step h.
g. Line up the corners of your
work with the dots on the
mounting board. Smooth the
work into place. Skip to Step i.
h. After coating the back of your
artwork, coat the poster board
with rubber cement. Be careful
not to add cement to the bor-
der area. Have a partner hold
your artwork in the air by the
two top corners. Once the two
glued surfaces meet, you will
not be able to change the posi-
tion of the work. Grasp the
lower two corners. Carefully
lower the work to the mounting
board. Line up the two corners
with the bottom dots. Little by
little, lower the work into place
(Figure T.43). Press it smooth.
i. To remove any excess cement,
create a small ball of dry
rubber cement. Use the ball
of rubber cement to pick up
excess cement.
28. Working with Glue
When applying glue, always
start at the center of the surface you
are coating and work outward.
When gluing papers together
don’t use a lot of glue, just a
dot will do. Use dots in the cor-
ners and along the edges.
Press the two surfaces to-
gether. Keep dots at least
1
/
2
inch in from the edge of your
paper.
Handle a glued surface care-
fully with only your fingertips.
Make sure your hands are
clean before pressing the
glued surface into place.
Note: The glue should be as
thin as possible. Thick or
beaded glue will create ridges
on your work.
FIGURE T.43
FIGURE T.42
Safety in the Art Room 443
Many artists, both students and teachers,
come into daily contact with dangerous, possi-
bly deadly materials. The unfortunate truth is
that many art supplies contain high levels of
chemicals, such as hexane, lead, toluene, and
asbestos, and many people are unaware of the
danger that these substances pose, both to art
students and to teachers. In fact, the danger to
art teachers, who are often exposed to toxins
for several hours a day for many years, is often
greater than to the students. Therefore, it is
essential that all art teachers and students
become aware of the potential hazards in using
art materials.
Many art supplies contain materials that can
cause acute illness (that is, a severe sudden ill-
ness that can be caused by a single exposure to
a toxic substance and result in permanent dis-
ability or death). Long-term exposure to mate-
rials in many other art supplies can cause
chronic illness (which develops gradually after
repeated exposure) or cancer. Other chemicals
in art supplies are sensitizers, causing allergies,
particularly in children. Lead, for example, is
acutely toxic and can be found in such com-
monly used supplies as stencil paint, oil paint,
some acrylics, gessoes, ceramic glazes, copper
enamels, and automotive paint in spray cans.
Many highly toxic hydrocarbon-based sol-
vents, including methyl alcohol, are used in
school art programs. Other widely used art
materials, such as preservatives, formaldehyde,
epoxy glues, and dichromates, can contain
dangerous chemicals like cadmium, nickel, sil-
ica, and pesticides.
There are three ways in which such chemi-
cals can enter the body: absorption, inhalation,
and ingestion. They can be absorbed through
the skin from cuts or scrapes, resulting in burns
or rashes, or into the bloodstream, moving to
and damaging other parts of the body. Chemical
irritants can be inhaled, causing lung problems
like bronchitis and emphysema. Inhaling small
particles, like the free silica in clay dust, can
cause pulmonary fibrosis or asthma. Chemicals
can be ingested through touching the mouth
with the hands or fingers while working with
supplies or unconsciously placing tools like
paint brushes in or near the mouth. Since haz-
ardous substances can easily enter the body, it
is extremely important to make sure that the
materials used are safe and that they are used
safely.
Labeling
Labeling can provide information on any
potentially dangerous art supplies, but teachers
need to be aware of what various labels mean.
The label nontoxic, for example, does not guar-
antee a product’s safety. According to federal
regulations, toxicity means that a single expo-
sure can be fatal to adults. The effect on young
people, who are more likely to be harmed by
dangerous substances, is not considered in this
definition. Also, the chance of developing
chronic or long-term illnesses is not addressed
by the legal definition of toxicity. Repeated
exposure to nontoxic materials is not always
safe. Many dangerous substances, such as
asbestos, can legally be defined as nontoxic.
Also, some art supplies, particularly those man-
ufactured by small or foreign companies, may
be improperly labeled as nontoxic.
Not all products whose labels provide chemi-
cal components, but have no warnings or list
no information at all, are safe to use. Since
manufacturers are not required to disclose
ingredients, products without this information
or warnings are potentially hazardous.
For more complete information on the pres-
ence of hazardous substances in art supplies,
teachers may request a Material Safety Data
Sheet (OSHA Form 20) from the manufacturer.
This sheet provides information on potential
heath and fire hazards, a list of chemicals that
might react dangerously with the product, and
a list of all ingredients for which industrial stan-
dards exist. The manufacturer should supply
this sheet on request, and a local public health
SAFETY IN THE ART ROOM
SAFETY
444 Safety in the Art Room
Be sure that all materials used by younger
students (ages 12 and under) have the
AP label and that materials used by older
students and adults are marked CL.
Don’t use acids, alkalies, bleaches, or any
product that will stain skin or clothing.
Don’t use aerosol cans because the spray
can injure lungs.
Use dust-producing materials (such as
pastels, clays, plasters, chalks, powdered
tempera, pigments, dyes, and instant
papier-mâché, except the premixed cellu-
lose type) with care in a well-ventilated
area (or better yet, don’t use them at all).
Don’t use solvents (including lacquers,
paint thinners, turpentines, shellacs, sol-
vent-based inks, rubber cement, and per-
manent markers) in the art room.
Don’t use found or donated materials
unless the ingredients are known.
Don’t use old materials. Many art supplies
formerly contained highly dangerous sub-
stances, such as arsenic, or raw lead com-
pounds, or high levels of asbestos. Older
solvents may contain chloroform or car-
bon tetrachloride.
Working conditions in the art room also affect
safety. A disorderly art room leads to unsafe con-
ditions, particularly when there are many people
working close to each other. Controlling the
buildup of litter and dust, insuring that tools are
in good condition, and keeping workspace rea-
sonably organized not only help prevent com-
mon accidents but also make it easier to
recognize and eliminate other hazards. An
orderly art room is absolutely essential to the
students’ and teacher’s safety.
official or poison control center technician can
help interpret the information.
Art teachers can also take advantage of volun-
tary labeling standards developed by the art
materials industry. The Art and Creative Materi-
als Institute (ACMI) administers a voluntary
testing and labeling program that helps to insure
the safety of those who work with art materials.
This system uses the labels AP and CL. AP
(Approved Product) labels are used mainly on
products designed for younger children, while
CL (certified to be properly labeled) is used on
products intended for older students and adults.
Products labeled AP or CL are certified in a pro-
gram of toxicological evaluation by a medical
expert to contain no materials in sufficient
quantities to be toxic or injurious to humans or
to cause acute or chronic health problems.
Products labeled AP, in addition, meet specific
requirements of material, workmanship, work-
ing qualities, and color. CL means that the
product is certified to be properly labeled in a
program of toxicological evaluation by a med-
ical expert. The Art and Creative Materials
Institute makes available a list of certified prod-
ucts. For a copy, or for more information on the
institute’s certification program, teachers can
write to:
The Art and Creative Materials Institute, Inc.
P. O. Box 479
Hanson, MA 02341-0479
Safety Rules
There are certain guidelines to be followed in
selecting and using art supplies. Perhaps the
most important is to know what the materials
are made of and what potential hazards exist. If
a material is improperly labeled, or if adequate
information cannot be obtained about it, don’t
use it. The following rules are also helpful:
SAFETY
Artists and Their Works 455
A
Abbott, Berenice, American, b. 1898, photographer
The Night View, 202
Abrasha, Dutch-American, b. 1948, jewelry designer,
goldsmith
Hanukkah Menorah, 72
Adla, Ashevak, Canadian, Inuit, sculptor
Walking Bear, 101, 102
Albizu, Olga, Puerto Rican, b. 1924, painter
Growth, 148
Albright, Ivan, American, 1897–1983, painter
The Picture of Dorian Gray, 177
Andrews, Benny, African American, b. 1930, painter,
printmaker
Mom and Us, 81
Thelonious at The Five Spot, 82
Anguissola, Sofonisba, Italian, 1527–1625, painter
A Game of Chess, Involving the Painter's Three Sisters and a
Servant, 358
Portrait of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, 292
Arreguin, Alfredo, Mexican American, b. 1935, painter
Nuestra Señora del la Selva, 222–223
B
Bashkirtseff, Marie, Russian, 1860–1884, painter
A Meeting, 301
Bearden, Romare, American, 1914–1988, painter,
printmaker
In the Garden, 184
Return of Ulysses, 12, 13
Beaux, Cecilia, American, 1863–1942, painter
Ethel Page (Mrs. James Large), 290
Bellows, George, American, 1882–1925, painter,
printmaker
Both Members of This Club, 258, 274
Benton, Thomas Hart, American, 1882–1975, painter
Country Dance, 78, 79
Cradling Wheat, 376–377
Berman, Eugene, Russian American, 1899–1972, painter,
stage designer
Vendeur de Chapeaux, 43
Biggers, John, American, b.1924, painter
Starry Crown, 98, 99
Bishop, Isabel, American, 1902–1988, painter
Head #5, 44, 45
Black Hawk, Chief, Native American, 19th century,
draftsman
Crow Men in Ceremonial Dress, 200
Bonheur, Rosa, French, 1822–1899, painter
The Horse Fair, 201, 369
Bonnard, Pierre, French, 1867–1947, painter, graphic
artist
Family Scene, 266
Borsky, David, American, contemporary, photographer
Wall from the Sunken Courtyard of Tiwanaku, Bolivia, 55
Waterfall, 209
Brady, Mathew, American, 1823–1896, photographer
Civil War, 369
Brancusi, Constantin, Romanian, 1876–1957, sculptor
Bird in Space, 118
The Kiss, 104
Brice, Jeff, American, contemporary, computer artist
Untitled, 59
Brown, Roger, American, b. 1941, muralist
Hurricane Hugo, 10–11
Butterfield, Deborah, American, sculptor
Woodrow, 130–131
C
Calder, Alexander, American, 1898–1976, sculptor
Untitled (c. 1942), 213
Canaletto, Italian, 1697–1768, painter
Ascension Day Festival at Venice, 43
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da, Italian, 1573–1610,
painter
The Conversion of St. Paul, 361
Carr, Emily, Canadian, 1871–1945, painter
Cumshewa, 241
A Rushing Sea of Undergrowth, 236
Cassatt, Mary, American, 1845–1926, painter
Margot in Blue, 140
Catlett, Elizabeth, African American, b. 1915, printmaker,
sculptor, painter
Sharecropper, 48–49
Singing Their Songs, 312–313
Cézanne, Paul, French, 1839–1906, painter
The Basket of Apples, 155
The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, 371
Chagall, Marc, Russian, 1887–1985, painter, stained glass
artist
The American Windows, 136
The Green Violinist, 282, 283
Homage to Gogol, 271
Chihuly, Dale, American, b. 1941, glass artist
Malina Window, 40, 41
Chryssa, Greek American, sculptor, painter
The Gates to Times Square, 303
Church, Frederic Edwin, American, 1826–1900, painter
The Icebergs, 2–3
Close, Chuck, American, b. 1940, painter
Paul, 384–385
Self-Portrait, 385
Cromartie, James H., American, painter
View of the White House, South Portico, 230
D
Dali, Salvador, Spanish, 1904–1989, painter
The Elephants (Design for the Opera La Dama Spagnola e il
Cavaliere Romano), 278
David, Jacques-Louis, French, 1748–1825, painter
The Death of Socrates, 366
da Vinci, Leonardo. see Leonardo da Vinci
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
Glarner, Fritz, Swiss American, 1899–1972 painter
Relational Painting, Tondo #40, 147
Goings, Ralph, American, b. 1928, painter, sculptor
Diner With Red Door, 112
Goya, Francisco, Spanish, 1746–1828, painter
The Third of May, 364–365
Grandma Moses, American, 1860–1961, painter
Sugaring Off, 110
Graves, Nancy, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Zaga, 51
Grooms, Red, American, b. 1937, installation artist
Ruckus Rodeo, 24, 25
Gwathmey, Robert, American, 1903–1988, painter
Children Dancing, 297
H
Hanson, Duane, American, b. 1925, sculptor
Football Player, 192–193
Old Couple on a Bench, 381
Hassam, Childe, American, 1859–1935, painter,
printmaker
Jelly Fish, 157
Hines, Jessica, American, contemporary, photographer
Dream Series, 57, 58
Hiroshige, Utagawa (Ando
), Japanese, 1797–1858,
printmaker
Plum Garden at Kameido Umeyashiki, 92–93
Hirschfeld, Al, American, 1903–2003, illustrator
Elvis Presley, “Blue Suede Shoes,” 94
Self-Portrait at 99, 94
Hodler, Ferdinand, Swiss, 1853–1918, painter
James Vilbert, Sculptor, 240
Hofmann, Hans, German (born in America), 1880–1966,
painter
Flowering Swamp, 378
Hokusai, Katsushika, Japanese, 1760–1849, printmaker,
painter
Ejiri in Suruga Province, 330
Shichiri Beach in Sagami Province, 246
Holbein, Hans, German, 1465–1524, painter
Anne of Cleves, 9
Homer, Winslow, American, 1836–1910, painter
Hound and Hunter, 46
Sketch for ‘Hound and Hunter,’ 46
Hoover, John, Native American, Aleut, b. 1919, sculptor
Shaman’s Journey, 180
Hopper, Edward, American, 1882–1967, painter
Railroad Sunset, 77
Houser, Allan, Native American, 1914–1994, sculptor
Coming of Age, 209
Reverie, 298, 299
Hua Yen, Chinese, c. 1682–1765
Conversation in Autumn, 328
Huntington, Anna Hyatt, American, 1876–1973, sculptor
Riders to the Sea, 120
456 Artists and Their Works
Davis, Stuart, American, 1894–1964, painter
Hot Still Scape for Six Colors-7th Avenue Style, 1940, 154–156
Degas, Edgar, French, 1834–1917, painter, sculptor
Before the Ballet, 238
The Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer, 180, 181
Self-Portrait, 181
Delacroix, Eugène, French, 1798–1863, painter
Arabs Skirmishing in the Mountains, 367
Dunnigan, John, American, 20th century, furniture
designer
Slipper Chairs, 33
Dürer, Albrecht, German, 1471–1528, painter, printmaker
An Oriental Ruler Seated on His Throne, 76
E
El Greco, Spanish, 1541–1614, painter
Saint Martin and the Beggar, 360
Ernst, Max, German (in America after 1941), 1891–1976,
painter
Age of Forests, 183
Escher, M. C., Dutch, 1898–1972, printmaker
Day and Night, 218
Portrait of M. C. Escher, 105
Reptiles, 210
Waterfall, 105
Estes, Richard, American, b. 1932, painter
Paris Street Scene, 381
F
Feiss, David, American, b. 1959, animator
Thrown for a Curve, 308
Fish, Janet, American, b. 1939, painter
Oranges, 175, 176
Raspberries and Goldfish, 16–17
Flack, Audrey, American, b. 1931, painter, sculptor
Self-Portrait: The Memory, 82
Frankenthaler, Helen, American, b. 1928, painter
The Bay, 111
G
Gainsborough, Thomas, English, 1727–1788, painter
The Blue Boy, 364
Gaudi, Antonio, Spanish, 1852–1926, architect
ceramic park bench (Barcelona, Spain), 194
Sagrada Familia (church), 194
Gauguin, Paul, French, 1848–1903, painter
Faaturuma (Melancholic), 372
Tahitians, 265–266
Gehry, Frank, American, b. 1929, architect, sculptor
The Experience Music Project (Seattle, Washington), 132
Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao, Spain), 56, 132, 388, 389
Office complex, two towers (Prague, Czech Republic), 132
Gentileschi, Artemisia, Italian, c. 1597–after 1651,
painter
Judith and Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes, 111
Giotto di Bondone, Italian, c. 1266–1337, painter
Madonna and Child, 263
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
Artists and Their Works 457
I
Inness, George, American, 1825–1894, painter
The Lackawanna Valley, 11
J
Jacquette, Yvonne, American, b. 1934, painter
Town of Skowhegan, Maine V, 70
Jimenez, Luis, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Fiesta Jarabel, 314
Howl, 314
Vaquero, 50
Johns, Jasper, American, b. 1930, painter
Cups 4 Picasso, 103
Map, 296
Johnson, Philip, American, b. 1906, architect
Seagram Building (with Mies van der Rohe), 382
Water Garden, 298
Johnson, William H., African American, 1901–1970,
painter
Harbor Under the Midnight Sun, 162
K
Kahlo, Frida, Mexican, 1907–1954, painter
Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky, 239
Self-Portrait with Monkey, 4, 5
Kandinsky, Wassily, Russian, 1866–1944, painter
Tension in Red, 134, 135
Kapoor, Anish, British, b. 1954, sculptor
Sculpture (1981), 168
Kiitsu, Suzuki, Japanese, 1796–1858, painter
Reeds and Cranes (one of a pair of screens), 410–411
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, German, 1880–1938, painter
Seated Woman, 35
Winter Landscape in Moonlight, 34
Klimt, Gustav, Austrian, 1862–1918, painter
Baby (Cradle), 286, 287
Portrait of Joseph Pembaur, 276
Kollwitz, Käthe, German, 1867–1945, painter,
printmaker, graphic artist
Self-Portrait, 374
Krasner, Lee, American, b. 1908, painter
The Springs, 291
L
Lachaise, Gaston, French, 1882–1935, sculptor
Walking Woman, 271, 272
Lange, Dorothea, American, 1895–1965, photojournalist
Migrant Mother, 57
Larraz, Julio, Cuban, b. 1944, painter
Papiamento, 32
Lawrence, Jacob, African American, 1917–2000, painter
Children at Play, 78, 80, 377
Harriet Tubman Series Number 4, 216
Street to M'bari, 66–67
Le Corbusier, Swiss, 1887–1965, architect
Unite d'Habitation, 259
Lee, Doris, American, b. 1905, printmaker, painter
Thanksgiving, 116
Lee-Smith, Hughie, African American, 1915–2000,
painter
The Piper, 28, 29
Leonardo Da Vinci, Italian, 1452–1519, painter, sculptor
sketchbook page, 42
Leyster, Judith, Dutch, 1609–1660, painter
The Concert, 178, 256, 257
Lichtenstein, Roy, American, b. 1923, painter
Blam, 379
Liebovitz, Annie, American, 20th century, photographer
Wilt Chamberlain and Willie Shoemaker, 262
Lin, Maya, American, b. 1959, architect, sculptor
The Civil Rights Memorial, 386
The Wave Field, 207
M
Magritte, René, Belgian, 1898–1967, painter
The False Mirror, 375
Manet, Édouard, French, 1832–1883, painter
The Railway, 368–369
Marc, Franz, German, 1880–1916, painter
Yellow Cow, 154
Marisol, Venezuelan (in America since 1950), b. 1930,
sculptor
The Family, 268
Matisse, Henri, French, 1869–1954, painter
Interior with Egyptian Curtain, 68, 69
Red Interior Still Life on a Blue Table, 38
Mays, J, American, b. 1955, industrial designer
Volkswagen Beetle, 401
McKie, Judy Kensley, American, b. 1944, furniture artist
Monkey Settee, 53
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian, 1475–1564, sculptor,
painter
David, 267
Pietà, 356, 357
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, American, 1886–1969,
architect
Seagram Building (with Johnson), 381–382
Miró, Joan, Spanish, 1893–1983, painter, sculptor
Landscape (The Hare), 235
Mitchell, Joan, American, 1926–1992, painter
Dirty Snow, 179
Mondrian, Piet, Dutch, 1872–1944, painter
Sun, Church in Zeeland, 146
Monet, Claude, French, 1840–1926, painter
Gladioli, 370
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, 153
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, Sunlight, 153
Moore, Henry, English, 1898–1986, sculptor
Dallas Piece, 122
Moroles, Jesús Bautista, American, b. 1950, sculptor
Granite Weaving Playscape, 170, 171
Moses, Anna Mary Robertson. See Grandma Moses
Moulthrop, Philip, American, b. 1947, craftsperson
White Pine Mosaic Bowl, 205–206
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
458 Artists and Their Works
Pippin, Horace, African American, 1888–1946, folk artist
Cabin in the Cotton, 234
Pollaiuolo, Italian, c. 1441–1496, painter
Daphne and Apollo, 168
Pollock, Jackson, American, 1912–1956, painter
Cathedral, 13–14, 42
Poons, Larry, American, b.1937, painter
Orange Crush, 379–380
Pootoogook, Napachie, Inuit, b. 1938, printmaker
My Daughter's First Steps, 268–269
Proctor, Mary L., African American, folk artist
Like a Butterfly, 306
R
Rashid, Karim, Egyptian, b. 1960, industrial designer
Chair, 408
Chess set, 408
Rauschenberg, Robert, American, b. 1925, painter
Red Painting, 290
Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch, 1606-1669, painter
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, 124, 178, 362
Renoir, Pierre Auguste, French, 1841–1919, painter
Two Sisters (On the Terrace), 177
Ringgold, Faith, African American, b. 1930, painter,
soft sculptor
The Men: Mask Face Quilt #2, 198, 199
Rivera, Diego, Mexican, 1886–1957, painter, muralist
Flower Day, 229
Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City, The, 254,
255
Self-Portrait, 229
Rothko, Mark, Russian American, 1903–1970, painter
Ochre and Red on Red, 380
Roualt, Georges, French, 1871–1958, painter
The Italian Woman, 74
Royo, Josep, Spanish, b. 1945, textile artist
Woman (after Joan Miró), 86
Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish, 1577–1640, painter
Daniel in the Lions’ Den, 291
Ruiz, Antonio M., Mexican, 1897–1964, painter
The Bicycle Race, 126
Russell, Julia, American, b. 1949, painter
Jaguar Chair, 304
S
Safdie, Moshe, Israeli, b. 1938, architect
Habitat, 382
Samaras, Lucas, American, b. 1936, sculptor, experimental
artist
Mirrored Room, 62–63
Sandkühler, Iris, American, b. 1958, jewelry
Viking Net Chain Necklace, 84
Savage, Augusta, African American, 20th century,
sculptor
Lift Every Voice and Sing, 209
Schapiro, Miriam, American, b. 1923, painter, sculptor
Father and Daughter, 166–167
In Her Own Image, 180
Munch, Edvard, Norwegian, 1863–1944, painter,
printmaker
The Sick Child, 7
Münter, Gabriele, German, 1877–1962, painter
Breakfast of the Birds, 18
Mununggiritj, Yäma, Australian, Aboriginal artist
Yellow Ochre Quarry, 152
Murray, Elizabeth, American, b. 1940, painter
Things to Come, 150
Myron, Greek, c. 480–440
B
.
C
., sculptor
Discobolus (Discus Thrower), 353
N
Namingha, Dan, Native American, b. 1950, painter
Blessing Rain Chant, 75, 77
Naranjo, Michael, Native American, b. 1944, sculptor
Spirits Soaring, 108, 109
Neel, Alice, American, 1900–1984, painter
Still Life, Rose of Sharon, 74
Nevelson, Louise, American, 1899–1988, sculptor
Dawn, 300
O
O'Keeffe, Georgia, American, 1887–1986, painter
Back of Marie's No. 4, 316–317
Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue, 30
White Rose With Larkspur, No. 2, 240
Oldenburg, Claes, American, b. 1929, painter, sculptor
Clothespin, 261
Shoestring Potatoes Spilling from a Bag, 96, 97
Oonark, Jessie, Canadian, Inuit, 1906–1986, printmaker
Untitled (1973), 346–347
Orozco, José Clemente, Mexican, 1883–1949, painter
Barricade, 28
P
Paley, Albert Raymond, American, b. 1944, sculptor
Portal Gates, 78
Panini, Giovanni Paolo, Italian, 1691/2–1765, painter
Interior of Saint Peter's Rome, 113
Pei, I. M., Chinese American, b. 1917, architect
Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, 399
Pereira, Irene Rice, American, 1907–1971, painter
Pillar of Fire, 289
Picabia, Francis, French, 1879–1953, painter
Figure Triste, 148, 149
Picasso, Pablo, Spanish, 1881–1973, painter, sculptor
“Ma Jolie” (Woman with a Zither or Guitar), 375
Las Meninas (after Velásquez), 14–15
The Old Guitarist, 270
Studio of “La Californie,” 38
The Tragedy, 145
Pinkney, Brian, African American, b. 1961, illustrator
Duke Ellington: The Piano Prince and His Orchestra (cover
illustration), 406
Pinkney, Jerry, African American, b. 1939, illustrator
Journeys with Elijah (illustration), 237
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
Artists and Their Works 459
Scully, Sean, Irish, b. 1945, painter
White Robe, 295
Sewell, Leo, American, found object sculptor
Penguin, 186
Shaughnessy, Arthur, Native American, 1884–1945,
sculptor
Dla'ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear Beneath Kolus,
250–251
Shitao, Qing Dynasty, painter Orchids, Bamboo, and Rock, 83
Silvers, Robert, American, contemporary, digital artist
Wolf, 188
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, Mexican, 1896–1974, painter
Echo of a Scream, 235
Ethnography, 294
Self-Portrait (El Coronelazo), 264
Smith, David, American, 1906–1965, sculptor
The Royal Bird, 117
Smith, Tony, American, 1912–1980, sculptor
Gracehopper, 101
Solberg, Ramona, American, contemporary, jewelry
Cracker Jack Choo Choo, 214
Stella, Frank, American, b. 1936, painter, sculptor
Agbatana III, 380
St. Michael's Counterguard (Malta Series), 383
Stella, Joseph, Italian American, 1877–1946, painter
Battle of Lights, 212
Straus, Meyer, American, 19th century, painter
Bayou Teche, 6
Sullivan, Louis, American, 1856–1924, architect
Elevator Grille, 204
Wainwright Building, 56
Sutej, Miroslav, Yugoslavian, b. 1936, lithographer
Ultra AB, 288
T
Tamayo, Rufino, Mexican, 1899–1991, painter
Fruit Vendors, 196–197
Girl Attacked by a Strange Bird, 141
Taymor, Julie, American, director, theater artist, puppetry
The Lion King, 224
Thomas, Alma, American, 1891–1978, painter
Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and Crocuses, 26
Torivio, Dorothy, Native American, b. 1946, ceramicist
Vase, 233
Torres-Garcia, Joaquin, Uruguayan, 1874–1949, painter
New York City: Bird's Eye View, 88
Turner, Joseph M. W., English, 1775–1851, painter
Snowstorm: Steamboat off a Harbours Mouth, 368
Twiggs, Leo, African American, b. 1934, batik painter
East Wind Suite: Door, 10, 42
Single Family Blues, 269
V
van Alen, William, American, 1882–1954, architect
Chrysler Building, 206
van der Weyden, Rogier, Flemish, 1399–1464, painter
Portrait of a Lady, 359
van Eyck, Jan, Flemish, before 1395–1441, painter
The Arnolfi Wedding, 168, 231, 359
van Gogh, Vincent, Dutch, 1853–1890, painter
Café Terrace at Night, 293
The Starry Night, 372–373
Sunflowers, 178
Velázquez, Diego, Spanish, 1599–1660, painter
Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), 14–15
Vermeer, Jan, Dutch, 1632–1675, painter
The Concert, 350, 351
Girl with the Red Hat, 362
Vigée-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Élisabeth, French,
1755–1842, painter
Portrait of Princess Belozersky, 268
W
Walkus, George, Kwakiutl, 20th century, maskmaker
Secret Society Mask (Four Headed Cannibal Spirit), 272, 273
Warhol, Andy, American, 1928–1987, painter, printmaker
100 Cans, 20, 21
Self-Portrait, 21
Watteau, Antoine, French, 1684–1721, painter
Embarkation for Cythera, 362–363
Wilkinson, Signe, American, political cartoonist
Self-Portrait, 284
The Thoroughly Modern Medical School, 284
Wilson, Jane, American, b. 1924, painter
Tempest, 302
Winter Wheat, 120, 121
Wood, Grant, American, 1892–1942, painter
American Gothic, 12, 23
Woodruff, Hale, American, b. 1900, painter
Poor Man's Cotton, 202, 203
Wright, Frank Lloyd, American, 1867–1959, architect
Armchair, 118–119
Fallingwater House, 300–301
Taliesin West, 182
Xanadu Gallery, 377
Wyeth, Andrew, American, b. 1917, painter
Winter, 1946, 292
X
Xiong, Chaing, Laotian, b. 1953, craftsperson
Hmong Story Cloth, 211
ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS
460 Chronology of Artworks
Artist Unknown, (Tsang) Ngor Monastery, Tibet
Four Mandalas of the Vajravali Series, 1429–1456, 226,
Fig. 9.1
Artist Unknown, Valencia, Spain
Dish, 1430, 232, Fig. 9.9
van Eyck, Jan, Flemish, before 1395–1441, painter
The Arnolfi Wedding, 1434, 231, Fig. 9.8
Artist Unknown, Aztec
Plumed Serpent (Quetzalcoatl), last half of the 15th century,
119, Fig. 5.32
van der Weyden, Rogier, Flemish, 1399–1464, painter
Portrait of a Lady, c. 1460, 359, Fig. 13.10
Dürer, Albrecht, German, 1471–1528, painter, printmaker
An Oriental Ruler Seated on His Throne, c. 1495, 76,
Fig. 4.15
Artist Unknown, Shanxi or Henan Province, China
Jar, late 15th century, 297, Fig. 11.15
1500–1599
Artist Unknown, Africa
Queen Idia, 16th century, 348
Artist Unknown, Nigeria
Plaque: Oba or Chief, 16th–17th century, 262, Fig. 10.10
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian, 1475–1564, sculptor,
painter
David, 1501–1504, 267, Fig. 10.19
Pietà, c. 1500, 357, Fig. 13.8
Holbein, Hans, German, 1465–1524, painter
Anne of Cleves, 1539, 9, Fig. 1.6
Artist Unknown, African, Edo people
Mounted King with Attendants, c. 16th–17th century, 335,
Fig. 12.21
Anguissola, Sofonisba, Italian, 1527–1625, painter
A Game of Chess, Involving the Painter's Three Sisters and a
Servant, 1555, 358, Fig. 13.9
Portrait of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, c. 1578, 292,
Fig. 11.9
Artist Unknown, India
Stalling Elephant With Two Riders, 1590–1595, 174, Fig. 7.4
El Greco, Spanish, 1541–1614, painter
Saint Martin and the Beggar, 1597/1599, 360, Fig. 13.11
1600–1699
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da, Italian, 1573–1610,
painter
The Conversion of St. Paul, c. 1601, 361, Fig. 13.12
Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish, 1577–1640, painter
Daniel in the Lions’ Den, 1615, 291, Fig. 11.7
Gentileschi, Artemisia, Italian, c. 1597–after 1651, painter
Judith and Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes, c. 1625,
111, Fig. 5.17
Leyster, Judith, Dutch, 1609–1660, painter
The Concert, c. 1633, 257, Fig. 10.4
Artist Unknown, African, Asante people
Man’s cloth (Kente cloth), 17th century, 336, Fig. 12.23
Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch, 1606–1669, painter
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, 1653, 124, Fig. 5.36
PREHISTORIC–1
A
.
D
.
Artist Unknown, Altamira Caves, Spain
The Hall of the Bulls, c. 15,000
B
.
C
., 320, Fig. 12.2
Artist Unknown
Statua di Donna, 2700–2600
B
.
C
., 322, Fig. 12.3
Artist Unknown, Egyptian
The Goddess Hathor Places the Magic Collar on Sethos I,
c. 1303–1290
B
.
C
, 323, Fig. 12.5
Artist Unknown, Mexican, Olmec
Colossal Head, 1200
B
.
C
.–
A
.
D
. 500, 339, Fig. 12.26
Artist Unknown, Chinese, Shang dynasty
Ritual Wine Container, 1200
B
.
C
., 325, Fig. 12.8
Artist Unknown, Indian
Siva as Lord of the Dance, c. 950, 327, Fig. 12.10
Artist Unknown, Sanchi India
Great Stupa, 1st century
B
.
C
., 326, Fig. 12.9
Myron, Greek, c. 480–440
B
.
C
., sculptor
Discobolus (Discus Thrower), c. 450
B
.
C
., 353, Fig. 13.3
Artist Unknown, Roman
Portrait Statue of Boy, 50
B
.
C
., 353, Fig. 13.4
A
.
D
. 1–1399
Artist Unknown, Mexican, Zapotec (from Monte Alban)
Urn, 500–700, 230, Fig. 9.6
Artist Unknown, Kashmir
Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni, 8th century, 318, Fig. 12.1
Artist Unknown, Huari people, Peru
Tunic, 800–1000, 207, Fig. 8.11
Artist Unknown, Byzantine
Virgin and Child, mid 10th–11th century, 354, Fig. 13.5
Artist Unknown, African, Yoruba people
Portrait of a king, 11th–15th century, 332, Fig. 12.17
Artist Unknown, African, Bamana people
Bamana iron figure, 13th century, 334, Fig. 12.19
Artist Unknown, African, Dogon people
Seated Man and Woman, 13th century, 334, Fig. 12.20
Artist Unknown, African, Mali
Equestrian figure, c. 13th century, 334, Fig. 12.18
Artist Unknown, Armenian
Front cover of The Gospels, 13th century, 158, Fig. 6.30
Artist Unknown, Japanese
Great Buddha at Kamakura, 1252, 329, Fig. 12.14
Giotto di Bondone, Italian, c. 1266–1337, painter
Madonna and Child, 1320–30, 263, Fig. 10.13
Artist Unknown
Missal (The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew), 1389–1404,
391, Fig. 14.4
1400–1499
Leonardo Da Vinci, Italian, 1452–1519, painter, sculptor
sketchbook page, date unknown, 42, Fig. 3.2
Pollaiuolo, Italian, c. 1441–1496, painter
Daphne and Apollo, 15th century, 168
Artist Unknown, Egyptian
Nakht and Wife, c. 1425, 260, Fig. 10.8
Artist Unknown, Ming Dynasty
Chinese pair of vases, 1426–1435, 99, Fig. 5.4
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
Artist Unknown, Northwest coast region, Haida
Haida totem pole, c. 1870, 343, Fig. 12.30
Manet, Édouard, French, 1832–1883, painter
The Railway, 1873, 369, Fig. 13.20
Monet, Claude, French, 1840–1926, painter
Gladioli, 1876, 370, Fig. 13.22
Black Hawk, Chief, Native American, 19th century,
draftsman
Crow Men in Ceremonial Dress, 1880–1881, 200, Fig 8.2
Degas, Edgar, French, 1834–1917, painter, sculptor
The Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer, c. 1880, 181, Fig. 7.12
Renoir, Pierre Auguste, French, 1841–1919, painter
Two Sisters (On the Terrace), 1881, 177, Fig. 7.7
Bashkirtseff, Marie, Russian, 1860–1884, painter
A Meeting, 1884, 301, Fig. 11.21
Beaux, Cecilia, American, 1863–1942, painter
Ethel Page (Mrs. James Large), 1884, 290, Fig. 11.5
Cézanne, Paul, French, 1839–1906, painter
The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, 1885, 371,
Fig. 13.23
van Gogh, Vincent, Dutch, 1853–1890, painter
Café Terrace at Night, 1888, 293, Fig. 11.10
Sunflowers, 1888, 178, Fig. 7.8
The Starry Night, 1889, 373, Fig. 13.25
Sullivan, Louis, American, 1856–1924, architect
Wainwright Building, 1890–1891, 56, Fig. 3.17
Artist Unknown, Native American
Feather Bonnet, c. 1890, 345, Fig. 12.33
Artist Unknown, Native American, Navajo
Saddle blanket, c. 1890, 344, Fig. 12.32
Degas, Edgar, French, 1834–1917, painter, sculptor
Before the Ballet, 1890/1892, 238, Fig. 9.18
Klimt, Gustav, Austrian, 1862–1918, painter
Portrait of Joseph Pembaur, 1890, 276, Fig. 10.29
Gauguin, Paul, French, 1848–1903, painter
Faaturuma (Melancholic), 1891, 372, Fig. 13.24
Tahitians, 1891–93, 265, Fig. 10.17
Homer, Winslow, American, 1836–1910, painter
Hound and Hunter, 1892, 46, Fig. 3.8
Sketch for ‘Hound and Hunter’, 1892, 46, Fig. 3.9
Bonnard, Pierre, French, 1867–1947, painter,
graphic artist
Family Scene, 1893, 266, Fig. 10.18
Sullivan, Louis, American, 1856–1924, architect
Elevator Grille, 1893–1894, 204, Fig. 8.7
Monet, Claude, French, 1840–1926, painter
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, 1894, 153, Fig. 6.24
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, Sunlight, 1894, 153,
Fig. 6.25
Cézanne, Paul, French, 1839–1906, painter
The Basket of Apples, c. 1895, 155, Fig 6.27
Church, Frederic Edwin, American, 1826–1900, painter
The Icebergs, 1861, 2–3
Straus, Meyer, American, 19th century, painter
Bayou Teche, 1870, 6, Fig. 1.2
Chronology of Artworks 461
Velázquez, Diego, Spanish, 1599–1660, painter
Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), 1656, 15, Fig. 1.15
Vermeer, Jan, Dutch, 1632–1675, painter
The Concert, 1658–60, 350, Fig. 13.1
Girl with the Red Hat, 1665/1666, 362, Fig. 13.13
1700–1799
Shitao, Qing Dynasty
Orchids, Bamboo, and Rock, c. 1700, 83, Fig. 4.24
Watteau, Antoine, French, 1684–1721, painter
Embarkment for Cythera, 1717–19, 363, Fig. 13.14
Panini, Giovanni Paolo, Italian, 1691/2–1765, painter
Interior of Saint Peter's Rome, 1746–1754, 113, Fig. 5.19
Hua Yen, Chinese, c. 1682–1765
Conversation in Autumn, 1765, 328, Fig. 12.12
Canaletto, Italian, 1697–1768, painter
Ascension Day Festival at Venice,1766, 43, Fig. 3.4
Gainsborough, Thomas, English, 1727–1788, painter
The Blue Boy, c. 1770, 364, Fig. 13.15
David, Jacques-Louis, French, 1748–1825, painter
The Death of Socrates, 1787, 366, Fig. 13.17
Vigée-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Élisabeth, French,
1755–1842, painter
Portrait of Princess Belozersky, 1798, 268, Fig. 10.20
1800–1899
Artist Unknown, Himachai Pradesh, India
Chamba Rumal, early 19th century, 244, Fig. 9.24
Kiitsu, Suzuki, Japanese, 1796–1858, painter
Reeds and Cranes, (one of a pair of screens), nineteenth
century, 410–411
Goya, Francisco, Spanish, 1746–1828, painter
The Third of May, 1808, 1814, 365, Fig. 13.16
Hokusai, Katsushika, Japanese, 1760–1849,
printmaker, painter
Shichiri Beach in Sagami Province, 1823–1831, 246, Fig. 9.25
Ejiri in Suruga Province, 1831, 330, Fig. 12.15
Turner, Joseph M. W., English, 1775–1851, painter
Snowstorm: Steamboat off a Harbours Mouth, 1842, 368,
Fig. 13.19
Artist Unknown, African, Akan people
Necklace, 19th century, 336, Fig. 12.22
Artist Unknown, Inuit
Mask of Moon Goddess, before 1900, 342, Fig. 12.29
Bonheur, Rosa, French, 1822–1899, painter
The Horse Fair, 1853–1855, 201, Fig. 8.3
Inness, George, American, 1825–1894, painter
The Lackawanna Valley, c. 1856, 11, Fig. 1.9
Hiroshige, Utagawa (Ando
), Japanese, 1797–1858,
printmaker
Plum Garden at Kameido Umeyashiki, 1857, 92, Fig. 4.32
Degas, Edgar, French, 1834–1917, painter, sculptor
Self-Portrait, c. 1862, 181
Delacroix, Eugène, French, 1798–1863, painter
Arabs Skirmishing in the Mountains, 1863, 367, Fig. 13.18
Brady, Mathew, American, 1823–1896, photographer
Civil War, 1865, 369, Fig. 3.21
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
462 Chronology of Artworks
Torres-Garcia, Joaquin, Uruguayan, 1874–1949, painter
New York City: Bird's Eye View, 1920, 88, Fig. 4.27
Kollwitz, Käthe, German, 1867–1945, painter,
printmaker, graphic artist
Self-Portrait, 1921, 374, Fig. 13.26
Lachaise, Gaston, French, 1882–1935, sculptor
Walking Woman, 1922, 272, Fig. 10.26
Chagall, Marc, Russian, 1887–1985, painter, stained glass
artist
The Green Violinist, 1923–24, 282, Fig. 10.35
Rivera, Diego, Mexican, 1886–1957, painter, muralist
Flower Day, 1925, 229, Fig. 9.5
Yoruba people
Headdress for Epa Masquerade, first half of twentieth
century, 36, Fig. 2.10
Ernst, Max, German (in America after 1941), 1891–1976,
painter
Age of Forests, 1926, 183, Fig. 7.15
Kandinsky, Wassily, Russian, 1866–1944, painter
Tension in Red, 1926, 134, Fig. 6.1
Miró, Joan, Spanish, 1893–1983, painter, sculptor
Landscape (The Hare), 1927, 235, Fig. 9.13
O'Keeffe, Georgia, American, 1887–1986, painter
White Rose With Larkspur, No. 2, 1927, 240, Fig. 9.21
Brancusi, Constantin, Romanian, 1876–1957, sculptor
Bird in Space, 1928, 118, Fig. 5.30
Magritte, René, Belgian, 1898–1967, painter
The False Mirror, 1928, 375, Fig. 13.28
Benton, Thomas Hart, American, 1882–1975, painter
Country Dance, 1929, 79, Fig. 4.18
Hopper, Edward, American, 1882–1967, painter
Railroad Sunset, 1929, 77, Fig. 4.16
van Alen, William, American, 1882–1954, architect
Chrysler Building, completed 1930, 206, Fig. 8.9
Wood, Grant, American, 1892–1942, painter
American Gothic, 1930, 12, Fig. 1.10
O'Keeffe, Georgia, American, 1887–1986, painter
Back of Marie's No. 4, 1931, 316–317
Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue, 1931, 30, Fig. 2.5
Orozco, José Clemente, Mexican, 1883–1949, painter
Barricade, 1931, 28, Fig. 2.3
Rivera, Diego, Mexican, 1886–1957, painter, muralist
The Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City, 1931,
254, Fig. 10.1
Carr, Emily, Canadian, 1871–1945, painter
A Rushing Sea of Undergrowth, 1932–1935, 236, Fig. 9.15
Münter, Gabriele, German, 1877–1962, painter
Breakfast of the Birds, 1934, 18, Fig. 1.17
Lee, Doris, American, b. 1905, printmaker, painter
Thanksgiving, 1935, 116, Fig. 5.27
Pippin, Horace, African American, 1888–1946, folk artist
Cabin in the Cotton, mid-1930s, 234, Fig. 9.12
Abbott, Berenice, American, b. 1898, photographer
The Night View, 1936, 202, Fig. 8.4
Lange, Dorothea, American, 1895–1965, photojournalist
Migrant Mother, 1936, 57, Fig. 3.18
Wright, Frank Lloyd, American, 1867–1959, architect
Fallingwater House, 1936, 301, Fig. 11.20
1900–1949
Matisse, Henri, French, 1869–1954, painter
Red Interior Still Life on a Blue Table, early twentieth
century, 38
Cassatt, Mary, American, 1845–1926, painter
Margot in Blue, 1902, 140, Fig. 6.8
Picasso, Pablo, Spanish, 1881–1973, painter, sculptor
The Old Guitarist, 1903, 270, Fig. 10.24
The Tragedy, 1903, 145, Fig. 6.13
Hodler, Ferdinand, Swiss, 1853–1918, painter
James Vilbert, Sculptor, 1907, 240, Fig. 9.20
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, German, 1880–1938, painter
Seated Woman, 1907, 35, Fig. 2.9
Munch, Edvard, Norwegian, 1863–1944, painter,
printmaker
The Sick Child, 1907, 7, Fig. 1.3
Shaughnessy, Arthur, Native American, 1884–1945,
sculptor
Dla'ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear Beneath Kolus,
c. 1907, 250, Fig. 9.30
Brancusi, Constantin, Romanian, 1876–1957, sculptor
The Kiss, c. 1908, 104, Fig. 5.9
Wright, Frank Lloyd, American, 1867–1959, architect
Armchair, c. 1908, 119, Fig. 5.31
Bellows, George, American, 1882–1925, painter,
printmaker
Both Members of This Club, 1909, 258, 274, Fig. 10.6,
Fig. 10.28
Artist Unknown, Native American, Pueblo
Water jar, 1910, 343, Fig. 12.31
Mondrian, Piet, Dutch, 1872–1944, painter
Sun, Church in Zeeland, 1910, 146, Fig. 6.15
Marc, Franz, German, 1880–1916, painter
Yellow Cow, 1911, 154, Fig. 6.26
Picasso, Pablo, Spanish, 1881–1973, painter, sculptor
“Ma Jolie” (Woman with a Zither or Guitar), 1911–12, 375,
Fig. 13.27
Carr, Emily, Canadian, 1871–1945, painter
Cumshewa, c. 1912, 241, Fig. 9.22
Hassam, Childe, American, 1859–1935, painter,
printmaker
Jelly Fish, 1912, 157, Fig. 6.29
Huntington, Anna Hyatt, American, 1876–1973, sculptor
Riders to the Sea, 1912, 120, Fig. 5.33
Picabia, Francis, French, 1879–1953, painter
Figure Triste, 1912, 149, Fig. 6.21
Stella, Joseph, Italian American, 1877–1946, painter
Battle of Lights, 1913-1914, 212, Fig. 8.19
Chagall, Marc, Russian, 1887–1985, painter,
stained glass artist
Homage to Gogol, 1917, 271, Fig. 10.25
Klimt, Gustav, Austrian, 1862–1918, painter
Baby (Cradle), 1917, 286, Fig. 11.1
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, German, 1880–1938, painter
Winter Landscape in Moonlight, 1919, 34, Fig. 2.8
Artist Unknown, New Ireland
Mask, c. 1920, 273, Fig. 10.27
Artist Unknown, Venezuela
Apron, beaded, early twentieth century, 208, Fig. 8.12
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
Chronology of Artworks 463
Johnson, William H., African American, 1901–1970,
painter
Harbor Under the Midnight Sun, 1937, 162, Fig. 6.32
Kahlo, Frida, Mexican, 1907–1954, painter
Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky, 1937, 239, Fig. 9.19
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, Mexican, 1896–1974, painter
Echo of a Scream, 1937, 235, Fig. 9.14
Wright, Frank Lloyd, American, 1867–1959, architect
Taliesin West, 1937, 182, Fig 7.13
Benton, Thomas Hart, American, 1882–1975, painter
Cradling Wheat, 1938, 376, Fig. 13.29
Escher, M. C., Dutch, 1898–1972, printmaker
Day and Night, 1938, 218, Fig. 8.23
Roualt, Georges, French, 1871–1958, painter
The Italian Woman, 1938, 74, Fig. 4.12
Ruiz, Antonio M., Mexican, 1897–1964, painter
The Bicycle Race, 1938, 126, Fig. 5.37
Walkus, George, Kwakiutl, 20th century, maskmaker
Secret Society Mask (Four Headed Cannibal Spirit), 1938,
273, Fig. 10.27
Kahlo, Frida, Mexican, 1907–1954, painter
Self-Portrait with Monkey, 1938, 4, 5, Fig. 1.1
Berman, Eugene, Russian American, 1899–1972, painter,
stage designer
Vendeur de Chapeaux, 1939, 43, Fig. 3.3
Lawrence, Jacob, African American, 1917–2000, painter
Harriet Tubman Series Number 4, 1939–1940, 216,
Fig. 8.22
Savage, Augusta, African American, 20th century,
sculptor
Lift Every Voice and Sing, 1939, 209, Fig. 8.15
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, Mexican, 1896–1974, painter
Ethnography, 1939, 294, Fig. 11.11
Davis, Stuart, American, 1894–1964, painter
Hot Still Scape for Six Colors-7th Avenue Style, 1940, 1940,
156, Fig. 6.28
Rivera, Diego, Mexican, 1886–1957, painter, muralist
Self-Portrait, 1941, 229
Calder, Alexander, American, 1898–1976, sculptor
Untitled, c. 1942, 213, Fig. 8.20
Albright, Ivan, American, 1897–1983, painter
The Picture of Dorian Gray, 1943–1944, 177, Fig. 7.4
Escher, M. C., Dutch, 1898–1972, printmaker
Reptiles, 1943, 210, Fig. 8.17
Woodruff, Hale, American, b. 1900, painter
Poor Man’s Cotton, 1944, 202, Fig. 8.6
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, Mexican, 1896–1974, painter
Self-Portrait (El Coronelazo), 1945, 264, Fig. 10.14
Wyeth, Andrew, American, b. 1917, painter
Winter 1946, 1946, 292, Fig. 11.8
Lawrence, Jacob, African-American, b. 1917, painter
Children at Play, 1947, 80, Fig. 4.19
Le Corbusier, Swiss, 1887–1965, architect
Unite d’Habitation, 1947–1952, 259, Fig. 10.7
Pollock, Jackson, American, 1912–1956, painter
Cathedral, 1947, 14, Fig. 1.13
Smith, David, American, 1906–1965, sculptor
The Royal Bird, 1947–1948, 117, Fig. 5.29
Tamayo, Rufino, Mexican, 1899–1991, painter
Girl Attacked by a Strange Bird, 1947, 141, Fig. 6.9
Gwathmey, Robert, American, 1903–1988, painter
Children Dancing, c. 1948, 297, Fig. 11.14
Matisse, Henri, French, 1869–1954, painter
Interior with Egyptian Curtain, 1948, 68, Fig. 4.1
Wright, Frank Lloyd, American, 1867–1959, architect
Xanadu Gallery, 1949, 377, Fig. 13.30
1950–1974
Adla, Ashevak, Canadian, Inuit, sculptor
Walking Bear, 1950, 102, Fig. 5.7
Borsky, David, American, 1950–2000, photographer
Waterfall, 1950–2000, 209, Fig. 8.14
Brice, Jeff, American, 1950–2000, computer artist
Untitled, 1950–2000, 59, Fig. 3.20
Mays, J, American, b. 1955, industrial designer
Volkswagen Beetle, 1950–2000, 401, Fig. 14.20
Moore, Henry, English, 1898–1986, sculptor
Dallas Piece, 1950–2000, 122, Fig. 5.35
Pinkney, Jerry, African American, b. 1939, illustrator
Journeys with Elijah (illustration), 1950–2000, 237,
Fig. 9.16
Rashid, Karim, Egyptian, b. 1960, industrial designer
Chair, 1950–2000, 408
Chess set, 1950–2000, 408
Sewell, Leo, American, found object sculptor
Penguin, 1950–2000, 186, Fig. 7.17
Taymor, Julie, American, director, theater artist, puppetry
The Lion King, 1950–2000, 224
Wilkinson, Signe, American
Self-Portrait, 1950–2000, 284
Tamayo, Rufino, Mexican, 1899–1991, painter
Fruit Vendors, 1952, 196–197
Lee-Smith, Hughie, African American, 1915–2000,
painter
The Piper, 1953, 29, Fig. 2.4
Rauschenberg, Robert, American, b. 1925, painter
Red Painting, 1953, 290, Fig. 11.4
Rothko, Mark, Russian American, 1903–1970, painter
Ochre and Red on Red, 1954, 380, Fig. 13.34
Picasso, Pablo, Spanish, 1881–1973, painter, sculptor
Studio of “La Californie,” 1955, 38
Glarner, Fritz, Swiss American, 1899–1972 painter
Relational Painting, Tondo #40, 1955–1956, 147, Fig. 6.17
Grandma Moses, American, 1860–1961, painter
Sugaring Off, 1955, 110, Fig. 5.15
Pereira, Irene Rice, American, 1907–1971, painter
Pillar of Fire, 1955, 289, Fig. 11.3
Hofmann, Hans, German (born in America), 1880–1966,
painter
Flowering Swamp, 1957, 378, Fig. 13.31
Picasso, Pablo, Spanish, 1881–1973, painter, sculptor
Las Meninas (after Velásquez), 1957, 14, Fig. 1.14
Andrews, Benny, African American, b. 1930, painter,
printmaker
Thelonious at The Five Spot, 1958, 82, Fig. 4.22
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
464 Chronology of Artworks
Catlett, Elizabeth, African American, b. 1915, printmaker,
sculptor, painter
Sharecropper, 1970, 48, Fig. 3.10
Andrews, Benny, African American, b. 1930, painter,
printmaker
Mom and Us, 1972, 81, Fig. 4.20
Estes, Richard, American, b. 1932, painter
Paris Street Scene, 1972, 381, Fig. 13.37
Johns, Jasper, American, b. 1930, painter
Cups 4 Picasso, 1972, 103, Fig. 5.8
Fish, Janet, American, b. 1939, painter
Oranges, 1973, 176, Fig. 7.5
Neel, Alice, American, 1900–1984, painter
Still Life, Rose of Sharon, 1973, 74, Fig. 4.13
Oonark, Jessie, Canadian, Inuit, 1906–1986, printmaker
Untitled, c. 1973, 346, Fig. 12.34
Bearden, Romare, American, 1914–1988, painter,
printmaker
In the Garden, 1974, 184, Fig. 7.16
Paley, Albert Raymond, American, b. 1944, sculptor
Portal Gates, 1974, 78, Fig. 4.17
Artist Unknown, Yup'ik people
Bird Mask, 1988, 13, Fig. 1.12
1975
Grooms, Red, American, b. 1937, installation artist
Ruckus Rodeo, 1975–1976, 24, Fig. 2.1
Bearden, Romare, American, 1914–1988, painter,
printmaker
Return of Ulysses, 1976, 12, 13, Fig. 1.11
Johnson, Philip, American, b. 1906, architect
Water Garden, 1976, 298, Fig. 11.17
Oldenburg, Claes, American, b. 1929, painter, sculptor
Clothespin, 1976, 261, Fig. 10.9
Chagall, Marc, Russian, 1887–1985, painter, stained-glass
artist
The American Windows, 1977, 136, Fig. 6.2
Houser, Allan, Native American, 1914–1994, sculptor
Coming of Age, 1977, 209, Fig. 8.16
Jimenez, Luis, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Howl, 1977, 314
Royo, Josep, Spanish, b. 1945, textile artist
Woman (after Joan Miró), 1977, 86, Fig. 4.26
Goings, Ralph, American, b. 1928, painter, sculptor
Diner With Red Door, 1979, 112, Fig. 5.18
Cromartie, James H., American, painter
View of the White House, South Portico, 1980, 230, Fig. 9.7
Jimenez, Luis, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Vaquero, modeled 1980, cast 1990, 50, Fig. 3.11
Mitchell, Joan, American, 1926–1992, painter
Dirty Snow, 1980, 179, Fig. 7.9
Fish, Janet, American, b. 1939, painter
Raspberries and Goldfish, 1981, 17, Fig. 1.16
Hanson, Duane, American, b. 1925, sculptor
Football Player, 1981, 192, Fig. 7.23
Houser, Allan, Native American, 1914–1994, sculptor
Reverie, 1981, 299, Fig. 11.18
Artist Unknown, Ayacucho, Peru
Church Quinua, 1958, 107, Fig. 5.12
Flack, Audrey, American, b. 1931, painter, sculptor
Self-Portrait: The Memory, 1958, 82, Fig. 4.23
Johnson, Philip, American, b. 1906, architect
Seagram Building (with Mies van der Rohe), 1958, 382,
Fig. 13.38
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, American, 1886–1969,
architect
Seagram Building (with Johnson), 1958, 382, Fig. 13.38
Albizu, Olga, Puerto Rican, b. 1924, painter
Growth, 1960, 148, Fig. 6.20
Artist Unknown, Kuba Group, Congo
Robe, 1950–1975, 298, Fig. 11.16
Dali, Salvador, Spanish, 1904–1989, painter
The Elephants (Design for the Opera La Dama Spagnola e il
Cavaliere Romano), 1961, 278, Fig. 10.30
Escher, M. C., Dutch, 1898–1972, printmaker
Waterfall, 1961, 105, Fig. 5.10
Johns, Jasper, American, b. 1930, painter
Map, 1961, 296, Fig. 11.13
Mununggiritj, Yäma, Australian, Aboriginal artist
Yellow Ochre Quarry, 1961, 152, Fig. 6.23
Smith, Tony, American, 1912–1980, sculptor
Gracehopper, 1961, 101, Fig. 5.6
Lichtenstein, Roy, American, 1923–1997, painter
Blam, 1962, 379, Fig. 13.32
Marisol, Venezuelan (in America since 1950), b. 1930,
sculptor
The Family, 1962, 268, Fig. 10.21
Nevelson, Louise, American, 1899–1988, sculptor
Dawn, 1962, 300, Fig. 11.19
Warhol, Andy, American, 1928–1987, painter, printmaker
100 Cans, 1962, 20, Fig. 1.18
Frankenthaler, Helen, American, b. 1928, painter
The Bay, 1963, 111, Fig. 5.16
Poons, Larry, American, b.1937, painter
Orange Crush, 1963, 379, Fig. 13.33
Krasner, Lee, American, b. 1908, painter
The Springs, 1964, 291, Fig. 11.6
Lawrence, Jacob, African American, 1917–2000, painter
Street to M'bari, 1964, 66–67
Chryssa, Greek American, sculptor, painter
The Gates to Times Square, 1966, 303, Fig. 11.23
Oldenburg, Claes, American, b. 1929, painter, sculptor
Shoestring Potatoes Spilling from a Bag, 1966, 96, Fig. 5.1
Samaras, Lucas, American, b. 1936, sculptor,
experimental artist
Mirrored Room, 1966, 62, Fig. 3.22
Sutej, Miroslav, Yugoslavian, b. 1936, lithographer
Ultra AB, 1966, 288, Fig. 11.2
Safdie, Moshe, Israeli, b. 1938, architect
Habitat, 1967, 382, Fig. 13.39
Stella, Frank, American, b. 1936, painter, sculptor
Agbatana III, 1968, 380, Fig. 13.35
Thomas, Alma, American, 1891–1978, painter
Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and Crocuses, 1969, 26, Fig. 2.2
Artist Unknown, Tapirapé people
Mask, c. 1970, 182, Fig. 7.14
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
Chronology of Artworks 465
Kapoor, Anish, British, b. 1954, sculptor
Sculpture, 1981, 168
Graves, Nancy, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Zaga, 1983, 51, Fig. 3.13
Schapiro, Miriam, American, b. 1923, painter, sculptor
In Her Own Image, 1983, 180, Fig. 7.10
Stella, Frank, Italian American, 1877–1946, painter
St. Michael's Counterguard (Malta Series), 1984, 383,
Fig. 13.40
Torivio, Dorothy, Native American, b. 1946, ceramicist
Vase, c. 1984, 233, Fig. 9.11
Artist Unknown, Bwa people, Burkina Faso
Leaf masks, 1985, 337, Fig. 12.24
Naranjo, Michael, Native American, b. 1944, sculptor
Spirits Soaring, 1985, 109, Fig. 5.14
Jimenez, Luis, American, b. 1940, sculptor
Fiesta Jarabel, 1986, 314
Ringgold, Faith, African American, b. 1930, painter, soft
sculptor
The Men: Mask Face Quilt #2, 1986, 198, Fig. 8.1
Warhol, Andy, American, 1928–1987, painter, printmaker
Self-Portrait, 1986, 21
Biggers, John, American, b.1924, painter
Starry Crown, 1987, 99, Fig. 5.3
Larraz, Julio, Cuban, b. 1944, painter
Papiamento, 1987, 32, Fig. 2.6
Liebovitz, Annie, American, 20th century, photographer
Wilt Chamberlain and Willie Shoemaker, 1987, 262,
Fig. 10.11
Xiong, Chaing, Laotian, b. 1953, craftsperson
Hmong Story Cloth, 1987, 211, Fig. 8.18
Butterfield, Deborah, American, sculptor
Woodrow, 1988, 130, Fig. 5.41
Jacquette, Yvonne, American, b. 1934, painter
Town of Skowhegan, Maine V, 1988, 70, Fig. 4.2
Murray, Elizabeth, American, b. 1940, painter
Things to Come, 1988, 150, Fig. 6.22
Arreguin, Alfredo, Mexican American, b. 1935, painter
Nuestra Señora del la Selva, 1989, 222, Fig. 8.28
Twiggs, Leo, African American, b. 1934, batik painter
East Wind Suite: Door, 1989, 10, 42, Fig. 1.7
Brown, Roger, American, b. 1941, muralist
Hurricane Hugo, 1990, 10–11, Fig. 1.8
Dunnigan, John, American, 20th century, furniture
designer
Slipper Chairs, 1990, 33, Fig. 2.7
Pootoogook, Napachie, Inuit, b. 1938, printmaker
My Daughter's First Steps, 1990, 269, Fig. 10.22
Scully, Sean, Irish, b. 1945, painter
White Robe, 1990, 295, Fig. 11.12
Close, Chuck, American, b. 1940, painter
Self-Portrait, 1991, 385
Wilson, Jane, American, b. 1924, painter
Winter Wheat, 1991, 121, Fig. 5.34
Catlett, Elizabeth, African American, b. 1915, printmaker,
sculptor, painter
Singing Their Songs, 1992, 312, Fig. 11.31
Namingha, Dan, Native American, b. 1950, painter
Blessing Rain Chant, 1992, 75, Fig. 4.14
Chihuly, Dale, American, b. 1941, glass artist
Malina Window, 1993, 40, Fig. 3.1
Moulthrop, Philip, American, b. 1947, craftsperson
White Pine Mosaic Bowl, 1993, 205, Fig. 8.8
Wilson, Jane, American, b. 1924, painter
Tempest, 1993, 302, Fig. 11.22
Close, Chuck, American, b. 1940, painter
Paul, 1994, 384, Fig. 13.41
Abrasha, Dutch American, b. 1948, jewelry designer,
goldsmith
Hanukkah Menorah, 1995, 72, Fig. 4.6
Artist Unknown, Kuna people
Mola: Our Environment, 1995, 160, Fig. 6.31
Hanson, Duane, American, b. 1925, sculptor
Old Couple on a Bench, 1995, 381, Fig. 13.36
Lin, Maya, American, b. 1959, architect, sculptor
The Wave Field, 1995, 207, Fig. 8.10
McKie, Judy Kensley, American, b. 1944, furniture artist
Monkey Settee, 1995, 53, Fig. 3.15
Moroles, Jesús Bautista, American, b. 1950, sculptor
Granite Weaving Playscape, 1995, 170, Fig. 7.1
Pei, I. M., Chinese American, b. 1917, architect
Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, 1995, 399,
Fig. 14.16
Solberg, Ramona, American, contemporary, jewelry
Cracker Jack Choo Choo, 1995, 214, Fig. 8.21
Gehry, Frank, American, b. 1929, architect, sculptor
Office complex, two towers (Prague, Czech Republic),
1996, 132
Twiggs, Leo, African American, b. 1934, batik painter
Single Family Blues, 1996, 269, Fig. 10.23
Gehry, Frank, American, b. 1929, architect, sculptor
Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao, Spain), 1997, 388,
Fig. 14.1
Schapiro, Miriam, American, b. 1923, painter, sculptor
Father and Daughter, 1997, 166, Fig. 6.37
Feiss, David, American, b. 1959, animator
Thrown for a Curve, 1998, 308, Fig. 11.26
Pinkney, Brian, African American, b. 1961, illustrator
Duke Ellington: The Piano Prince and His Orchestra (cover
illustration), 1998, 406, Fig. 14.27
Gehry, Frank, American, b. 1929 , architect, sculptor
The Experience Music Project (Seattle, Washington),
1999–2000, 132
Proctor, Mary L., African American, folk artist
Like a Butterfly, 1999, 306, Fig. 11.25
Hoover, John, Native American, Aleut, b. 1919, sculptor
Shaman’s Journey, 2000, 180, Fig. 7.11
Sandkühler, Iris, American, b. 1958, jewelry
Viking Net Chain Necklace, 2001, 84, Fig. 4.25
Hirschfeld, Al, American, 1903–2003, illustrator
Self-Portrait at 99, 2002, 94
Russell, Julia, American, b. 1949, painter
Jaguar Chair, 2002, 304, Fig. 11.24
Wilkinson, Signe, American
The Thoroughly Modern Medical School, 2003, 284
CHRONOLOGY OF ARTWORKS
466 Glossary
Art criticism An organized approach for studying a work
of art. It has four stages: description, analysis,
interpretation, and judgment (p. 25).
Art history operations A four-step approach for
organizing the way you gather information about a
work of art (p. 34).
Artistic style See individual style.
Artists Creative individuals who use imagination and skill
to communicate in visual form (p. 11).
Ashcan School Group of American artists working in the
early twentieth century who used city people and city
scenes for subject matter (p. 376). Originally called “The
Eight,” they helped to organize the Armory Show.
Assembling A sculpting technique in which the artist
gathers and joins together a variety of different materials
to make a sculpture. Also called constructing (p. 186).
Asymmetrical balance Another name for informal
balance, in which unlike objects have equal visual
weight or eye attraction (p. 234).
Atmospheric perspective Effect of air and light on how
an object is perceived by the viewer (p. 114). The more
air between the viewer and the object, the more the
object seems to fade. A bright object seems closer to the
viewer than a dull object.
B
Background Part of the picture plane that seems to be
farthest from the viewer.
Balance Principle of art concerned with equalizing visual
forces, or elements, in a work of art (p. 228). If a work
of art has visual balance, the viewer feels that the
elements have been arranged in a satisfying way. Visual
imbalance makes the viewer feel that the elements need
to be rearranged. The two types of balance are formal
(also called symmetrical) and informal (also called
asymmetrical).
Baroque Artistic style that emphasized dramatic lighting,
movement, and emotional intensity. It developed after
the Reformation in the seventeenth century. Artists used
movement of forms and figures toward the viewer,
dramatic lighting effects, contrast between dark and
light, ornamentation, and curved lines to express energy
and strong emotions (p. 361).
Bas relief A relief sculpture with positive areas that
project slightly from the flat surface.
Binder A liquid that holds together the grains of
pigment (p. 45).
Blending Technique of shading through smooth, gradual
application of dark value (p .44).
Brayer Roller with a handle used to apply ink to a surface.
Buttress Projecting brick or stone structure that supports
an arch or vault. A flying buttress is connected with a
wall by an arch. It reaches over the side aisle to support
the roof of a cathedral.
Byzantine art Artistic style that developed around
Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) in the eastern
Roman Empire. It featured very rich colors and heavily
outlined figures that appeared flat and stiff (p. 319)
C
Calligraphic lines Flowing lines made with brushstrokes
similar to Asian writing (p. 83).
This section contains important words and phrases used
in ArtTalk that may be new to you. You may want to refer
to this list of terms as you read the chapters, complete the
exercises, and prepare to create your own works of art.
You can also use the Glossary to review what you have
learned in ArtTalk.
A
Abstract art Twentieth-century art containing shapes that
simplify shapes of real objects to emphasize form instead
of subject matter.
Abstract Expressionism Painting style developed after
World War II in New York City that emphasized abstract
elements of art rather than recognizable subject matter,
and also stressed feelings and emotions (p. 378).
Acrylic paint Pigments mixed with an acrylic vehicle.
Available in different degrees of quality: school and
artists' acrylics. School acrylics are less expensive than
the professional acrylics, can be washed out of brushes
and clothes, and are nontoxic.
Action Painting The technique of dripping and splashing
paint onto canvases stretched on the floor (p. 13). See
Abstract Expressionism.
Active Expressing movement. Diagonal and zigzag lines
(p. 76) and diagonally slanting shapes and forms
(p. 120) are active. Opposite of static.
Aesthetic experience Your personal interaction with a
work of art (p. 27).
Aesthetics The philosophy or study of the nature and
value of art (p. 26).
Afterimage Weak image of complementary color created
by a viewer's brain as a reaction to prolonged looking at
a color. After staring at something red, the viewer sees
an afterimage of green (p. 137).
Age of Faith See Middle Ages.
Air brush Atomizer operated by compressed air used for
spraying on paint.
Alternating rhythm Visual rhythm set up by repeating
motifs but changing position or content of motifs or
spaces between them (p. 208).
Analogous colors Colors that sit side by side on the color
wheel and have a common hue (p. 145). Violet, red-
violet, and red are analogous colors. Analogous colors
can be used as a color scheme.
Analysis In art criticism, the step in which you discover
how the principles of art are used to organize the art
elements of line, color, shape, form, space, and texture.
In art history, the step in which you determine the style
of the work (p. 28).
Animators Artists who create moving cartoons (p. 395).
Applied art Art made to be functional as well as visually
pleasing (p. 52).
Approximate symmetry Balance that is almost
symmetrical (p. 231). This type of symmetry produces
the effect of stability, as formal balance does, but small
differences make the arrangement more interesting.
Arbitrary color Color chosen by an artist to express his
or her feelings (p. 154). Opposite of optical color.
Arch Curved stone structure supporting weight of material
over an open space. Doorways and bridges use arches.
Architect A person who designs buildings that are well
constructed, aesthetically pleasing, and functional
(p. 386).
Architecture Art form of designing and planning
construction of buildings, cities, and bridges (p. 54).
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Glossary 467
GLOSSARY
Complementary colors The colors opposite each other
on the color wheel (p. 142). A complement of a color
absorbs all the light waves the color reflects and is the
strongest contrast to the color. Mixing a hue with its
complementary color dulls it. Red and green are
complementary colors. Complementary colors can be
used as a color scheme.
Composition The way the principles of art are used to
organize the elements of art (p. 18).
Content The message the work communicates. The
content can relate to the subject matter or be an idea or
emotion. Theme is another word for content (p. 19).
Contour drawing Drawing in which only contour lines
are used to represent the subject matter (p. 81). Artists
keep their eyes on the object they are drawing and
concentrate on directions and curves.
Contour line A line that defines the edges and surface
ridges of an object (p. 81).
Contrast Technique for creating a focal point by using
differences in elements (p. 291).
Convergence Technique for creating a focal point by
arranging elements so that many lines or shapes point
to one item or area (p. 293).
Cool colors Blue, green, and violet (p. 148). Cool colors
suggest coolness and seem to recede from a viewer.
Cool colors can be used as a color scheme. Opposite of
warm colors.
Crafts Art forms creating works of art that are both
beautiful and useful. Crafts include weaving, fabric
design, ceramics, and jewelry making (p. 52).
Crayons Pigments held together with wax and molded
into sticks.
Credit line A list of important facts about a work of art.
A credit line usually includes the artist's name, the title
of the work, year completed, medium used, size (height,
width, and depth), location (gallery, museum, or
collection and city), donors, and date donated (p. 19).
Crewel Loosely twisted yarn used in embroidery.
Criteria Standards of judgment (p. 26).
Crosshatching The technique of using crossed lines for
shading (p. 44).
Cubism Twentieth-century art movement that emphasizes
structure and design (p. 374). Three-dimensional objects
are pictured from many different points of view at the
same time.
Culture Behaviors and ideas of a group of people.
Studying art objects produced by a group of people is
one way to learn about a culture.
Cuneiform The Sumerian writing system made up of
wedge-shaped characters (p. 321).
Curved lines Lines that are always bending and change
direction gradually (p. 73).
D
Dark Ages See Middle Ages.
Decalcomania A technique in which paint is forced into
random textured patterns by pulling apart canvases
between which blobs of paint have been squeezed
(p 183).
Dense Compact; having parts crowded together. Dense
materials are solid and heavy. Opposite of soft.
Description A list of all the things you see in the work
(p. 27).
Calligraphy An Asian method of beautiful handwriting
(p. 83).
Canvas Rough cloth on which an oil painting is made.
Carving A sculpting technique in which the sculptor cuts,
chips, or drills from a solid mass of material to create a
sculpture. Material is removed until the sculpture is
complete; therefore, carving is referred to as a
subtractive process (p. 51).
Casting A sculpting technique in which molten metal or
another substance is poured into a mold and allowed to
harden. Just as in printmaking, an edition of sculptures
can be made from the same mold (p. 51).
Central axis A dividing line that works like the point of
balance in the balance scale. The central axis is used to
measure visual weight in a work of art. It can be
vertical (balance between sides is measured) or
horizontal (balance between top and bottom is
measured) (p. 228).
Ceramics Art of making objects with clay to produce
pottery and sculpture. Pottery is fired in a kiln to make
it stronger.
Chiaroscuro The arrangement of light and shadow (p.
112). This technique was introduced by Italian artists
during the Renaissance and used widely by Baroque
artists. Chiaroscuro is also called modeling or shading.
Classical Referring to the art of ancient Greece and
Rome. The Greeks created art based on the ideals of
perfect proportion and logic instead of emotion. The
Romans adapted Greek art and spread it throughout the
civilized world (p. 352).
Clay Stiff, sticky earth that is used in ceramics. It is wet,
and it hardens after drying or heating (p. 53).
Clustering Technique for creating a focal point by grouping
several different shapes closely together (p. 301).
Coil Long roll joined into a circle or spiral. Clay coils are
used to make pottery.
Collage An artwork created by pasting cut or torn
materials such as paper, photographs, and fabric to a flat
surface (p. 179).
Color An element of art that is derived from reflected
light (p. 134). The sensation of color is aroused in the
brain by response of the eyes to different wavelengths
of light. Color has three properties: hue, value, and
intensity.
Color-field painting Twentieth-century art created using
only flat fields of color (p. 380).
Color scheme Plan for organizing colors. Types of color
schemes include monochromatic, analogous,
complementary, triad, split complementary, warm, and
cool (p. 144).
Color spectrum The effect that occurs when light passes
through a prism; the beam of white light is bent and
separated into bands of color. Colors always appear in
the same order, by wavelengths, from longest to
shortest: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. (p.
136).
Color triad Three colors spaced an equal distance apart
on the color wheel (p. 146). The primary color triad is
red, yellow, and blue; the secondary color triad is
orange, green, and violet. A color triad is a type of color
scheme.
Color wheel The spectrum bent into a circle (p. 138).
Compass Instrument used for measuring and drawing
arcs and circles.
468 Glossary
Fiberfill Lightweight, fluffy filling material made of
synthetic fibers.
Figure Human form in a work of art.
Fine art Art made to be experienced visually. Opposite of
applied or functional art (p. 52).
Fire To apply heat to harden pottery.
Flowing rhythm Visual rhythm created by repeating
wavy lines (p. 208).
Focal point The first part of a work to attract the attention
of the viewer (p. 290). Focal points are created by
contrast, location, isolation, convergence, and use of the
unusual.
Folk artists Artists who are self-taught and therefore
have had little or no formal schooling in artistic methods
(p. 10).
Foreground Part of the picture plane that appears closest
to the viewer. The foreground is usually at the bottom
of the picture.
Foreshortening To shorten an object to make it look as if
it extends backward into space (p. 264). This method
reproduces proportions a viewer actually sees, which
depend on the viewer's distance from the object or
person.
Formal balance Way of organizing parts of a design so
that equal, or very similar, elements are placed on
opposite sides of a central axis (p. 229). Formal balance
suggests stability. Symmetry is a type of formal balance.
Opposite of informal balance.
Formal qualities How well the work is organized (p. 31).
This aesthetic quality is favored by Formalism.
Formalism Theory that places emphasis on the formal
qualities. One of the three aesthetic theories of art
criticism, the others being Emotionalism and
Imitationalism (p. 31).
Forms Objects having three dimensions (p. 101). Like a
shape, a form has height and width, but it also has
depth. Forms are either geometric or free-form.
Free-form shapes Irregular and uneven shapes (5). Their
outlines are curved, or angular, or both. Free-form
shapes are often referred to as organic (found in
nature). Opposite of geometric shapes.
Freestanding Work of art surrounded on all sides by
space. A three-dimensional work of art is freestanding.
Opposite of relief (p. 50).
Frottage Designs and textural effects that are created by
placing paper over objects that have raised surfaces
and rubbing the paper with graphite, wax, or crayon.
(p. 183).
Functional art Works of art made to be used instead of
only enjoyed. Objects must be judged by how well they
work when used (p. 33).
Futurists Early twentieth-century Italian artists who
arranged angular forms to suggest motion (p. 212). They
called the forces of movement dynamism.
G
Gallery Place for displaying or selling works of art.
Genre painting Paintings that have scenes from everyday
life as their subject matter.
Geometric shapes Precise shapes that can be described
using mathematical formulas (p. 98). Basic geometric
shapes are the circle, the square, and the triangle. Basic
geometric forms are the cylinder, the cube, and the
pyramid. Opposite of free-form shapes.
Design Plan, organization, or arrangement of elements in
a work of art.
Diagonal lines Lines that slant (p. 72)
Digital camera A camera that records images digitally.
These images can then be downloaded into computer
applications where they can be altered and enhanced
(p. 60).
Digital system A system that processes words and
images directly as numbers or digits (p. 59).
Dimension The amount of space an object takes up in
one direction (p. 70). The three dimensions are height,
width, and depth.
Distortion Deviations from expected, normal
proportions (p. 268).
Divine Proportion See Golden Mean.
Dome Hemispherical vault or ceiling over a circular
opening. A dome rises above the center part of a
building (p. 326).
Dominant element Element of a work of art noticed
first. Elements noticed later are called subordinate
(p. 290).
Draw program A computer art application in which
images are stored as a series of lines and curves.
Objects can be resized without distortion in draw
programs (p. 60).
Dyes Pigments that dissolve in liquid. Dye sinks into a
material and stains it (p. 151).
Dynasty A period of time during which a single family
provided a succession of rulers (p. 324).
E
Edition All the prints made from the same plate or set of
plates (p. 48).
Elements of art Basic visual symbols in the language of
art. The elements of art are line, shape and form, space,
color, value, and texture (p. 16).
Embroidery Method of decorating fabric with stitches.
Emotionalism Theory that requires that a work of art must
arouse a response of feelings, moods, or emotions in the
viewer. One of the three aesthetic theories of art criticism,
the others being Formalism and Imitationalism (p. 32).
Emphasis Principle of art that makes one part of a work
dominant over the other parts (p. 290). The element
noticed first is called dominant; the elements noticed
later are called subordinate
Engraving Method of cutting a design into a material,
usually metal, with a sharp tool. A print can be made
by inking an engraved surface.
Exaggeration Deviations from expected, normal
proportions (p. 268).
Expressionism Twentieth-century art movement. A style
that emphasized the expression of innermost feelings
(p. 374).
Expressive qualities Those qualities that communicate
ideas and moods (p. 31).
F
Fauves French for “wild beasts.” A group of early
twentieth-century painters who used brilliant colors and
bold distortions in an uncontrolled way. Their leader
was Henri Matisse.
Fiber Thin, threadlike linear material that can be woven
or spun into fabric (p. 52).
GLOSSARY
Glossary 469
Gesture An expressive movement (p. 82).
Gesture drawing Line drawing done quickly to capture
movement of the subject's body.
Glaze In ceramics, a thin, glossy coating fired into pottery.
In painting, a thin layer of transparent paint.
Golden Mean A line divided into two parts so that the
smaller line has the same proportion, or ratio, to the
larger line as the larger line has to the whole line
(p. 256). Perfect ratio (relationship of parts) discovered
by Euclid, a Greek mathematician. Its mathematical
expression is 1 to 1.6. It was also called the Golden
Section and the Golden Rectangle. The long sides of
the Golden Rectangle are a little more than half again
as long as the short sides. This ratio was rediscovered
in the early sixteenth century and named the Divine
Proportion.
Gothic Artistic style developed in western Europe
between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries. Featured
churches that seemed to soar upward, pointed arches,
and stained-glass windows (p. 355).
Gouache Pigments ground in water and mixed with gum
to form opaque watercolor. Gouache resembles school
tempera or poster paint.
Graphic designer A person who translates ideas into
images and arranges them in appealing and memorable
ways (p. 392).
Grattage Wet paint is scratched with a variety of tools,
such as forks, razors, and combs for the purpose of
creating different textures (p. 183).
Grid Pattern of intersecting vertical and horizontal lines
(p. 206).
Griots Oral historians who are also musicians and
performers (p. 334).
H
Hard-edge In two-dimensional art, shapes with clearly
defined outlines. Hard-edge shapes look dense. Opposite
of soft-edge.
Harmony Technique of shading with a series of fine
parallel lines (p. 44).
Hatching Technique of shading with a series of fine
parallel lines (3).
Hierarchical proportion When figures are arranged in a
work of art so scale indicates importance (p. 260).
Hieroglyphics Picture writing used by ancient
Egyptians (12).
High-key painting Painting using many tints of a color
(p. 140). Opposite of low-key painting.
Highlights Small areas of white used to show the very
brightest spots (p. 112). Highlights show the surfaces of
the subject that reflect the most light. They are used to
create the illusion of form. Opposite of shadows.
High relief Sculpture in which areas project far out from
a flat surface (p. 106).
High-resolution Producing a sharp image.
Holograms Images in three dimensions created with a
laser beam (p. 107).
Horizon Point at which earth and sky seem to meet.
Horizontal line Line parallel to the horizon (p. 72).
Horizontal lines lie flat and are parallel to the bottom
edge of the paper or canvas.
Hue The name of a color in the color spectrum (p. 138).
Hue is related to the wavelength of reflected light. The
primary hues are red, yellow, and blue; they are called
primary because they cannot be made by mixing other
hues together. The secondary hues, made by mixing two
primary hues, are orange, violet, and green. Hue is one
of the three properties of color.
I
Illustrator A person who creates the visual images that
complement written words (p. 393).
Imitationalism An aesthetic theory focusing on realistic
presentation. One of the three aesthetic theories of art
criticism, the others being Emotionalism and
Formalism (p. 31).
Implied lines A series of points that the viewer's eyes
automatically connect. Implied lines are suggested, not
real (p. 71).
Impressionism Style of painting started in France in the
1860s. It featured everyday subjects and emphasized the
momentary effects of light on color (p. 370).
Individual style The artist’s personal way of using the
elements and principles of art to express feelings and
ideas (p. 35).
Informal balance Way of organizing parts of a design
involving a balance of unlike objects (p. 234).
Asymmetry is another term for informal balance.
Opposite of formal balance.
Intaglio (in-tal-yo or in-tal-ee-o) A printmaking
technique in which ink is forced into lines that have
been cut or etched on a hard surface such as metal or
wood. The plate’s surface is then wiped clean and the
prints are made (p. 49).
Intensity The brightness or dullness of a hue. A pure hue
is called a high-intensity color. A dulled hue (a color
mixed with its complement) is called a low-intensity color.
Intensity is one of the three properties of color (p. 142).
Interior designer A person who plans the design and
decoration of the interior spaces in homes and offices
(p. 400).
Intermediate color A color made by mixing a primary
color with a secondary color. Red-orange is an
intermediate color (p. 138).
International style A style of architecture developed after
World War II that emphasizes a plain, austere building
style (p. 381).
Interpretation In art criticism, the step in which you
explain or tell the meaning or mood of the work. In art
history, the step in which you do research about the
artist (p. 27).
Invented texture A kind of visual texture that does not
represent a real texture but creates a sensation of one
by repeating lines and shapes in a two-dimensional
pattern (p. 174). Opposite of simulated texture.
Isolation Technique for creating a focal point by putting
one object alone to emphasize it (p. 292).
J
Judgment In art criticism, the step in which you
determine the degree of artistic merit. In art history,
the step in which you determine if the work has made
an important contribution to the history of art (p. 27).
K
Kinetic A work of art that moves in space (p. 213).
GLOSSARY
470 Glossary
(because few new ideas developed) and the Age of Faith
(because religion was a powerful force) (p. 354).
Middle ground Area in a picture between the foreground
and the background.
Minimalism Twentieth-century artistic style that uses a
minimum of art elements (p. 380).
Mobile Moving sculpture (p. 213)
Modeling A sculpting technique in which a soft, pliable
material is built up and shaped. Because more material
is added to build a form, modeling is referred to as an
additive process (p. 51).
Module A three-dimensional motif (p. 204).
Monochromatic A color scheme that uses only one hue
and the tints and shades of that hue for a unifying
effect (p. 145).
Mortar and pestle Ceramic bowl and tool for grinding
something into a powder..
Mosaics Pictures made with small cubes of colored
marble, glass, or tile and set into cement.
Mosques Muslim places of worship (p. 331).
Motif A unit that is repeated in visual rhythm (p. 202).
Units in a motif may or may not be an exact duplicate
of the first unit.
Movement See visual movement.
Multimedia programs Computer software programs
that help users design, organize, and combine text,
graphics, video, and sound in one presentation (p. 61).
Mural Painting on a wall or ceiling.
Museum curator Person who oversees the operations of
a museum (p. 404).
N
Negative spaces Empty spaces surrounding shapes and
forms (p. 103). The shape and size of negative spaces
affect the interpretation of positive spaces. Negative
spaces are also called ground
Neoclassicism New classicism. French artistic style
developed in the nineteenth century after the Rococo
style. An approach to art that borrowed subject matter
and formal design qualities from the art of Greece and
Rome (p. 366).
Neolithic period New Stone Age. A prehistoric period
stretching roughly from 7000
B
.
C
. to 2000
B
.
C
. (p. 321).
Neutral colors Black, white, and gray. Black reflects no
wavelengths of light, white reflects all wavelengths of
light, and gray reflects all wavelengths of light equally
but only partially (p. 139).
Nonobjective art Art that has no recognizable subject
matter (p. 18).
O
Oil paint Slow-drying paint made by mixing pigments in
oil and usually used on canvas (p. 47).
Opaque Quality of a material that does not let any light
pass through. Opposite of transparent.
Op Art Optical art. Twentieth-century artistic style in
which artists use scientific knowledge about vision to
create optical illusions of movement (p. 379).
Optical color Color perceived by the viewer due to the
effect of atmosphere or unusual light on the actual color
(p. 152). Opposite of arbitrary color.
Organic shapes/forms Shapes or forms made by the
forces of nature. Opposite of manufactured shapes/forms
(p. 111).
L
Landscape Painting or drawing in which natural land
scenery, such as mountains, trees, rivers, or lakes, is the
main feature.
Layout The way items are arranged on the page (p. 454).
Line An element of art that is the path of a moving point
through space. Although lines can vary in appearance
(they can have different lengths, widths, textures,
directions, and degree of curve), they are considered
one-dimensional and are measured by length. A line is
also used by an artist to control the viewer's eye
movement. There are five kinds of lines: vertical,
horizontal, diagonal, curved, and zigzag (p. 70).
Linear perspective A graphic system that creates the
illusion of depth and volume on a flat surface. In one-
point linear perspective, all receding lines meet at a
single point. In two-point linear perspective, different
sets of lines meet at different points (p. 115).
Literal qualities The realistic qualities that appear in the
subject of the work (p. 31).
Lithography A printmaking technique in which the
image to be printed is drawn on limestone, zinc, or
aluminum with a special greasy pencil or pencil. Ink is
attracted to this material (p. 49).
Location The technique of using placement of elements
to create a focal point (p. 292). Items near the center of
a work of art are usually noticed first.
Logos Symbols or trademarks that are immediately
recognizable (p. 392).
Loom Machine or frame for weaving.
Low-key painting Painting using many shades or dark
values of a color (p. 140). Opposite of high-key
painting.
Low-relief See bas-relief.
M
Mannerism European sixteenth-century artistic style
featuring highly emotional scenes and elongated figures
(p. 360).
Manufactured shapes/forms Shapes or forms made by
people either by hand or by machine. Opposite of
organic shapes/forms.
Mat To frame a picture or drawing with a cardboard
border.
Matte surface Surface that reflects a soft, dull light
(p. 175). Paper has a matte surface. Opposite of shiny
surface.
Medieval Related to the Middle Ages.
Media See medium.
Medium Material used to make art. Plural is media
(p. 19).
Megaliths Large monuments created from huge stone
slabs (p. 321).
Mexican muralists Early twentieth-century artists
whose paintings on walls and ceilings used solid forms
and powerful colors to express their feelings about the
Mexican Revolution. Also called Mexican
Expressionists (p. 377).
Middle Ages Period of roughly one thousand years
from the destruction of the Roman Empire to the
Renaissance. Culture centered around the Catholic
Church. The Middle Ages are also called the Dark Ages
GLOSSARY
Glossary 471
Outline A line that shows or creates the outer edges of a
shape (p. 71).
P
Package designer Person who produces the containers
that attract the attention of consumers (p. 402).
Pagoda A tower several stories high with roofs curving
slightly upward at the edges (p. 329).
Paint Pigments mixed with oil or water. Pigment particles
in paint stick to the surface of the material on which
the paint is applied (p. 44).
Paint program A computer art application in which
images are stored as bitmaps. Paint programs are
capable of producing more lifelike pictures than draw
programs (p. 60, 449).
Palette Tray for mixing colors of paint
Papier-mâché French for “mashed paper.” Modeling
material made of paper and liquid paste and molded
over a supporting structure called the armature.
Paleolithic period Old Stone Age. Began about two
million years ago and ended with the close of the last
ice age about 13,000
B
.
C
. (p. 320).
Parallel lines Lines that move in the same direction and
always stay the same distance apart.
Pastels Pigments held together with gum and molded into
sticks.
Paste-up Model of a printed page. It is photographed for
the purpose of making a plate for the printing process.
Pattern The principle of art that refers to a two-
dimensional decorative visual repetition (p. 202). A
pattern has no movement and may or may not have
rhythm.
Perceive To become deeply aware through the senses of
the special nature of a visual object (p. 6).
Perspective A graphic system that creates the illusion
of depth and volume on a two-dimensional surface
(p. 113). It was developed during the Renaissance by
architect Filippo Brunelleschi. Perspective is created by
overlapping, size variations, placement, detail, color, and
converging lines.
Pharaohs Egyptian rulers who were worshiped as gods
and held complete authority over the kingdom (p. 323).
Photography The technique of capturing optical images
on light-sensitive surfaces (p. 57).
Photojournalists Visual reporters (p. 395).
Photo-Realism See Super-Realism.
Picture plane The surface of a painting or drawing.
Pigments Finely ground, colored powders that form paint
when mixed with a liquid (p. 150).
Plaster Mixture of lime, sand, and water that hardens on
drying.
Point of view Angle from which the viewer sees an
object (p. 108). The shapes and forms a viewer sees
depend on his or her point of view.
Polymer medium Liquid used in acrylic painting as a
thinning or finishing material (p. 47).
Pop art Artistic style used in the early 1960s in the United
States that portrayed images of popular culture (mass
media, commercial art, comic strips, advertising) (p. 378).
Portrait Image of a person, especially the face and upper
body.
Positive spaces Shapes or forms in two- and three-
dimensional art (p. 103). Empty spaces surrounding
them are called negative spaces or ground.
Post-and-lintel A method of construction in which one
long stone is balanced on top of two posts. Currently
referred to as post-and-beam construction (p. 321).
Post-Impressionism French painting style of the late
nineteenth century that stressed a more individual
approach to painting, unique to each artist working at
the time (p. 371).
Post-Modernism An approach to art that incorporates
traditional elements and techniques while retaining
some characteristics of modern art styles or movements
(p. 382).
Pre-Columbian The historical time period before the
arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in
1492 (p. 339).
Prehistoric Period before history was written down
(p. 320).
Principles of art Rules that govern how artists organize
the elements of art. The principles of art are rhythm,
movement, pattern, balance, proportion, variety,
emphasis, and harmony (p. 18).
Print Impression created by an artist made on paper or
fabric from a printing plate, stone, or block and repeated
many times to produce identical images (p. 48).
Printing plate Surface containing the impression
transferred to paper or fabric to make a print (p. 48).
Printmaking A process in which an artist repeatedly
transfers an original image from one prepared surface to
another (p. 48).
Prism Wedge-shaped piece of glass that bends white light
and separates it into spectral hues.
Profile Side view of a face.
Progressive rhythm Visual rhythm that changes a motif
each time it is repeated (p. 209).
Proportion Principle of art concerned with the size
relationships of one part to another (p. 256).
Protractor Semicircular instrument used to measure and
draw angles.
Proximity Technique for creating unity by limiting
negative spaces between shapes (p. 301).
R
Radial balance Type of balance in which forces or
elements of a design come out (radiate) from a central
point (p. 232).
Random rhythm Visual rhythm in which a motif is
repeated in no apparent order, with no regular spaces
(p. 205).
Rasp File with sharp, rough teeth used for cutting into a
surface.
Realism Mid-nineteenth-century artistic style in which
familiar scenes are presented as they actually appeared
(p. 368).
Realists Artists in the nineteenth century who portrayed
political, social, and moral issues (p. 368).
Recede To move back or become more distant.
Reformation Religious revolution in western Europe in
the sixteenth century. It started as a reform movement
in the Catholic Church and led to the beginnings of
Protestantism (p. 360).
Regionalists Artists who painted the farmlands and cities
of the United States in an optimistic way (p. 376).
Regular rhythm Visual rhythm achieved through
repeating identical motifs using the same intervals of
space between them (p. 206).
GLOSSARY
472 Glossary
Shade A dark value of a hue made by adding black to it.
Opposite of tint (p. 140).
Shading The use of light and dark values to give the
illusion of form (p. 44).
Shadows Shaded areas in a drawing or painting. Shadows
show the surfaces of the subject that reflect the least
light and are used to create the illusion of form.
Opposite of highlights.
Shape A two-dimensional area that is defined in some
way. While a form has depth, a shape has only height
and width. Shapes are either geometric or free-form
(p. 98).
Shiny surface Surface that reflects bright light. Window
glass has a shiny surface. Opposite of matte surface
(p. 175).
Sighting Technique for determining the proportional
relationship of one part of an object to another.
Silhouette Outline drawing of a shape. Originally a
silhouette was a profile portrait, filled in with a solid
color.
Simplicity Technique for creating unity by limiting the
number of variations of an element of art.
Simulated texture A kind of visual texture that imitates
real texture by using a two-dimensional pattern to create
the illusion of a three-dimensional surface (p. 173). A
plastic tabletop can use a pattern to simulate the texture of
wood. Opposite of invented texture.
Sketch Quick, rough drawing without much detail that
can be used as a plan or reference for later work.
Slip Creamy mixture of clay and water used to fasten
pieces of clay together.
Smooth texture Regular surface that reflects light evenly.
Opposite of rough texture (p. 175).
Soft edge In two-dimensional art, shapes with fuzzy,
blurred outlines. Soft-edge shapes look soft. Opposite of
hard-edge.
Soft sculpture Sculpture made with fabric and stuffed
with soft material.
Solvent The liquid that controls the thickness or the
thinness of the paint (p. 150).
Space The element of art that refers to the emptiness or
area between, around, above, below, or within objects.
Shapes and forms are defined by space around and
within them (p. 103).
Spectral colors Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet
(p. 136).
Split-complementary colors One hue and the hues
on each side of its complement on the color wheel
(p. 147). Red-orange, blue, and green are split-
complementary colors. Split-complementary colors can
be used as a color scheme.
Stained glass Colored glass cut into pieces, arranged in a
design, and joined with strips of lead.
Static Inactive (p. 77). Vertical and horizontal lines and
horizontal shapes and forms are static. Opposite of active.
Still life Painting or drawing of inanimate (nonmoving)
objects.
Stippling Technique of shading using dots (p. 44).
Stitchery Technique for decorating fabric by stitching
fibers onto it.
Stone Age Period of history during which stone tools
were used (p. 320).
Storyboards A series of still drawings that show a story's
progress (p. 395).
Stupas Beehive-shaped domed places of worship (p. 326).
Relief printing A printmaking technique in which the
artist cuts away the sections of a surface not meant to
hold ink. As a result, the image to be printed is raised
from the background (p. 48).
Relief sculpture Type of sculpture in which forms
project from a flat background. Opposite of
freestanding (p. 50).
Renaissance The name given to the period at the end of
the Middle Ages when artists, writers, and philosophers
were “re-awakened” to art forms and ideas from ancient
Greece and Rome (p. 356).
Repetition Technique for creating rhythm and unity in
which a motif or single element appears again and
again (p. 308).
Reproduction A copy of a work of art (p. 48).
Rhythm The principle of art that indicates movement
by the repetition of elements or objects (p. 200).
Visual rhythm is perceived through the eyes and is
created by repeating positive spaces separated by
negative spaces. There are five types of rhythm:
random, regular, alternating, flowing, and progressive.
Rococo Eighteenth-century artistic style that began in the
luxurious homes of the French aristocracy and spread to
the rest of Europe. It stressed free graceful movement, a
playful use of line, and delicate colors (p. 363).
Romanesque Style of architecture and sculpture
developed during the Middle Ages in western Europe
that featured buildings of massive size; solid, heavy
walls; wide use of the rounded Roman arch; and many
sculptural decorations (p. 354).
Romanticism Early nineteenth-century artistic style that
was a reaction against Neoclassicism. It found its
subjects in the world of the dramatic and in cultures
foreign to Europe. It emphasized rich color and high
emotion (p. 367).
Rough texture Irregular surface that reflects light
unevenly (p. 175). Opposite of smooth texture.
Rubbing Technique for transferring textural quality of a
surface to paper by placing paper over the surface and
rubbing the top of the paper with crayon or pencil
(p. 183).
S
Safety labels Labels identifying art products that are safe
to use or that must be used with caution.
Scale Size as measured against a standard reference. Scale
can refer to an entire work of art or to elements within
it (p. 260).
Scanner A device that “reads” a printed image and then
translates it into a language the computer can use to
make a visual image on the screen (p. 61).
Score To make neat, sharp creases in paper using a
cutting tool.
Screen printing A printmaking technique in which a
stencil and screen are used as the printing plate. The
stencil is placed on a fabric screen stretched across a
frame and ink is pressed through the screen where it is
not covered by the stencil (p. 49).
Scroll A long roll of parchment or silk (p. 328).
Sculpture Three-dimensional work of art created out of
wood, stone, metal, or clay by carving, welding, casting,
or modeling (p. 50).
Seascape Painting or drawing in which the sea is the
subject.
GLOSSARY
Glossary 473
Style See individual style.
Subject The image viewers can easily identify in a work
of art (p. 18).
Subordinate element Element of a work of art noticed
after the dominant element (p. 290).
Super-Realism Twentieth-century artistic style that
depicts objects as precisely and accurately as they
actually appear (p. 381).
Surrealism Twentieth-century artistic style in which
dreams, fantasy, and the subconscious served as
inspiration for artists (p. 375).
Symbol Something that stands for, or represents,
something else (p. 16).
Symmetry A special type of formal balance in which two
halves of a balanced composition are identical, mirror
images of each other (p. 230).
Synthetic Made by chemical processes rather than natural
processes.
T
Tactile texture Texture that can be perceived through
touch. Opposite of visual texture (p. 173).
Tapestry Fabric wall hanging that is woven, painted, or
embroidered.
Tempera Paint made by mixing pigments with egg yolk
(egg tempera) or another liquid. School poster paint is a
type of tempera (p. 47).
Texture The element of art that refers to how things feel,
or look as if they might feel if touched. Texture is
perceived by touch and sight. Objects can have rough or
smooth textures and matte or shiny surfaces (p. 171).
Tint A light value of a hue made by mixing the hue with
white. Opposite of shade (p. 140).
Tonality Arrangement of colors in a painting so that one
color dominates the work of art (p. 157).
Totem poles Tall posts carved and painted with a series
of animal symbols associated with a particular family or
clan (p. 343).
Transparent Quality of a material that allows light to
pass through. Opposite of opaque.
Trompe l’oeil French for “deceive the eye.” Style of
painting in which painters try to give the viewer the
illusion of seeing a three-dimensional object, so that the
viewer wonders whether he or she is seeing a picture or
something real.
U
Unity The quality of wholeness or oneness that is
achieved through the effective use of the elements and
principles of art (p. 296). Unity is created by simplicity,
repetition, and proximity.
Unusual Technique for creating a focal point by using the
unexpected (p. 295).
V
Value The element of art that describes the darkness or
lightness of an object (p. 75). Value depends on how
much light a surface reflects. Value is also one of the
three properties of color.
Vanishing point Point on the horizon where receding
parallel lines seem to meet (p. 115).
Variety Principle of art concerned with difference or
contrast (p. 288).
Vault Arched roof, ceiling, or covering made of brick,
stone, or concrete (p. 55).
Vehicle Liquid, like water or oil, that pigments are mixed
with to make paint or dye (3).
Vertical lines Lines that are straight up and down
(p. 72). Vertical lines are at right angles to the bottom
edge of the paper or canvas and the horizon, and
parallel to the side of the paper or canvas.
Viewing frame A piece of paper with an area cut from
the middle. By holding the frame at arm's length and
looking through it at the subject, the artist can focus on
the area of the subject he or she wants to draw or
paint.
Visual arts The arts that produce beautiful objects to
look at.
Visual movement The principle of art used to create the
look and feeling of action and to guide the viewer’s eyes
throughout the work of art (p. 211).
Visual rhythm Rhythm you perceive through your eyes
rather than through your ears (p. 200).
Visual texture Illusion of a three-dimensional surface
based on the memory of how things feel. There are two
types of visual texture: invented and simulated (p. 173).
Opposite of tactile texture.
Visual weight Attraction that elements in a work of art
have for the viewer's eyes. Visual weight is affected by
size, contour, intensity of colors, warmth and coolness
of colors, contrast in value, texture, and position
(p. 228).
W
Warm colors Red, orange, and yellow (p. 148). Warm
colors suggest warmth and seem to move toward the
viewer. Warm colors can be used as a color scheme.
Opposite of cool colors.
Warp In weaving, lengthwise threads held in place on the
loom and crossed by weft threads.
Watercolor paint Transparent pigments mixed with water
(p. 47).
Weaving Making fabric by interlacing two sets of parallel
threads, held at right angles to each other on a loom
(p. 52).
Weft In weaving, crosswise threads that are carried over
and under the warp threads.
Woodblock printing Making prints by carving images in
blocks of wood (p. 330).
Y
Yarn Fibers spun into strands for weaving, knitting, or
embroidery.
Z
Ziggurats Stepped mountains made of brick-covered
earth (12).
Zigzag lines Lines formed by short, sharp turns (4).
Zigzag lines are a combination of diagonal lines. They
can change direction suddenly.
GLOSSARY
474 Glosario
simetría produce el efecto de la estabilidad, como lo
hace el equilibrio formal, pero pequeñas diferencias
hacen que el arreglo sea más interesante.
Arbitrary color/color arbitrario Color escogido por el
artista para expresar sus sentimientos (p. 154). El
opuesto de color óptico.
Arch/arco Estructura de piedra en forma curva que apoya
el peso de material sobre un espacio abierto. Las puertas
y los puentes usan arcos.
Architect/arquitecto Persona que diseña edificios bien
construidos, estéticamente agradables y funcionales
(p. 386).
Architecture/arquitectura Forma de arte que consiste en
diseñar y planificar la construcción de edificios, ciudades
y puentes (p. 54).
Art criticism/crítica del arte Método organizado de
estudiar una obra de arte. Tiene cuatro etapas:
descripción, análisis, interpretación y opinión (p. 25).
Art history operations/funcionamientos de la historia
de arte Un método de cuatro estapas de organizar la
manera en que uno puede allegar información sobre
una obra de arte. (p. 34)
Artistic style/estilo artístico Véase individual style.
Artists/artistas Personas creativas que usan la imaginación
y la habilidad para comunicar de forma visual (p. 11).
Artwork/obra de arte La expresión visual de una idea o
una experiencia creada con destreza (p. 6).
Ashcan School/escuela cubo de la basura Grupo de
artistas estadounidenses que trabajaban a principios del
siglo XX y usaban a la gente y las escenas de la ciudad
como tema para su obra (p. 376). Originalmente
conocidos como "El ocho," ayudaron a organizar la
exposición del Armory.
Assembling/juntar Técnica de escultura en la que el
artista junta y pega una variedad de materiales distintos
para hacer una escultura. Llamado también construcción
(p. 186).
Asymmetrical balance/equilibrio asimétrico Otro
nombre para el equilibrio informal, en el que objetos no
similares tienen igual peso visual o atraen igualmente al
ojo (p. 234).
Atmospheric perspective/perspectiva atmosférica
Efecto del aire y la luz en cómo se percibe un objeto
(p. 114). Más aire entre el observador y el objeto, más
parece desvanecerse el objeto. Un objeto brillante parece
ser más cerca al observador que un objeto opaco.
B
Background/fondo La parte del plano óptico que parece
más lejos del observador.
Balance/equilibrio Principio del arte que se preocupa por
igualar las fuerzas visuales, o elementos, en una obra de
arte (p. 228). Si una obra tiene equilibrio visual, el
observador siente que los elementos han sido
distribuidos de una manera satisfactoria. El desequilibrio
visual hace que el observador sienta que los elementos
deben ser redistribuidos. Los dos tipos de equilibrio son
el formal—que también se llama simétrico—e informal,
o asimétrico.
Baroque/barroco Estilo artístico que recalcaba la
iluminación dramática, el movimiento y la intensidad
emocional. Se desenvolvió después de la Reforma en el
siglo XVII. Los artistas utilizaban formas y figuras que
avanzaban hacia el observador, dramáticos efectos de
Glosario
Esta sección contiene las palabras y frases importantes
que se usan en ArtTalk y que pueden ser nuevas para ti.
Tal vez querrás consultar esta lista de términos mientras
lees los capítulos, completas los ejercicios y te preparas para
crear tus propias obras de arte. También puedes usar este
glosario para revisar lo que has aprendido en ArtTalk.
A
Abstract art/arte abstracto Arte del siglo XX que
contiene formas bidimensionales que simplifican las
formas de objetos reales con tal de recalcar la forma en
vez del contenido.
Abstract Expressionism/expresionismo abstracto Estilo
de pintura desarrollado en Nueva York después de la
Segunda Guerra Mundial. Recalcaba los elementos
abstractos del arte en lugar del contenido reconocible.
También recalcaba los sentimientos y las emociones
(p. 378).
Acrylic paint/pintura acrílica Pigmentos mezclados con
vehículo acrílico. Disponibles en varios grados de
calidad: para uso escolar y para artistas. Acrílicos para
uso escolar son menos costosos que acrílicos
profesionales. Se quitan de los pinceles y de la ropa en
el lavado y no son tóxicos.
Action Painting/Pintura de acción El método de dejar
caer y chapotear gotas de pintura sobre un lienzo.
(p. 13) Véase Abstract Expressionism.
Active/activo Que expresa movimiento. Son activas las
líneas diagonales y en zigzag (p. 76) y las figuras y
formas que se inclinan diagonalmente (p. 120). El
opuesto de inmóvil.
Aesthetic experience/experiencia estética Tu
interacción personal con una obra de arte (p. 27).
Aesthetics/estética La filosofía o el estudio de la
naturaleza del arte y de su valor (p. 26).
Afterimage/post-imagen Imagen débil de un color
complementario creada por el cerébro del observador
como reacción de la observación prolongada de un
color. Después de ver algo rojo, el observador ve una
post-imagen verde. (p. 137)
Age of Faith/Edad de la Fé Véase Middle Ages.
Air brush/pistola de aire Atomizador impulsado por aire
comprimido que se usa para rociar la pintura.
Alternating rhythm/ritmo alterno Ritmo visual que se
crea al repetir motivos pero cambiar la posición o el
contenido de éstos o los espacios entre ellos. (p. 208)
Analogous colors/colores análogos Colores que se
ubican uno al lado del otro en el círculo cromático y
que tienen en común el mismo color primario o
secundario (p. 145). Violeta, rojo-violeta y rojo son
colores análogos. Los colores análogos se pueden usar en
una combinación de colores.
Analysis/análisis En la crítica del arte, el paso en el que
descubres cómo se usan los principios del arte para
organizar los elementos del arte: línea, color, formas bi- y
tridimensionales, espacio y textura. En la historia del arte,
el paso en el que determinas el estilo de la obra (p. 28).
Animators/animadores Artistas que crean dibujos
animados (p. 395).
Applied art/artes aplicadas Artes en las que los objetos
creados deben ser funcionales tanto como bellos (p. 52).
Approximate symmetry/simetría aproximada
Equilibrio que es casi simétrico (p. 231). Este tipo de
GLOSARIO
Glosario 475
luz, contrastes entre luces y sombras, ornamentación y
líneas curvas para expresar energía y emociones fuertes
(p. 361).
Bas-relief/bajo relieve Véase low relief.
Binder/adhesivo Líquido que mantiene unidos los granos
de pigmento (p. 45).
Blending/casar Técnica de sombrear al aplicar
gradualmente y de modo uniforme un valor oscuro
(p. 44).
Brayer/rodillo Herramienta con mango que se usa para
aplicar tinta a una superficie.
Buttress/contrafuerte Estructura proyectante hecha de
ladrillo o piedra que apoya un arco o una bóveda. El
arbotante es conectado a la pared por un arco. Se
extiende por encima de la nave lateral para apoyar el
techo de una catedral.
Byzantine art/arte bizantino Estilo artístico que se
desenvolvió alrededor de la ciudad de Constantinopla—
ahora Estambul, Turquía—en la parte este del imperio
romano. Presentaba colores vivos y figuras
marcadamente perfiladas que parecían planas y rígidas
(p. 319).
C
Calligraphic lines/líneas caligráficas Líneas fluidas
hechas con pinceladas similares a las de la escritura
asiática (p. 83).
Calligraphy/caligrafía Método asiático de escribir
bellamente (p. 83).
Canvas/lienzo Tela basta en el que se pinta un óleo.
Carving/talla Técnica de escultura en el que el escultor
corta, cincela o perfora un bulto macizo para crear una
escultura. Se quita material hasta que la escultura sea
completa; por lo tanto, se refiere a la talla como un
procedimiento sustractivo (p. 51).
Casting/fundición Técnica de escultura en la que se vierte
metal fundido u otra sustancia a un molde y se lo deja
endurecer. Igual como para la imprenta, se puede sacar
una edición de esculturas del mismo molde (p. 51).
Central axis/eje central Línea divisora que funciona
como el punto de equilibrio en una balanza. El eje
central se usa para medir el peso visual en una obra de
arte. Puede ser vertical—se mide el equilibrio entre los
dos lados —o horizontal— se mide el equilibrio entre la
parte de abajo y la parte de arriba (p. 228).
Ceramics/cerámica Arte de hacer objetos con arcilla para
producir alfarería y escultura. Se coce la alfarería en un
horno para hacerla más fuerte.
Chiaroscuro/claroscuro La distribución de luces y
sombras (p. 112). Técnica introducida por artistas
italianos durante el Renacimiento que fue utilizado
extensamente por artistas barrocos. También se llama
modelaje o sombreado.
Classical/clásico Se refiere al arte de la antigua Grecia y
de Roma. Los griegos crearon un arte basado en los
ideales de la propoción perfecta y en la lógica en vez de
la emoción. Los romanos adaptaron el arte griego y lo
difundieron por el mundo civilizado (p. 352).
Clay/arcilla Tierra espesa y pegajosa que se usa en la
cerámica. Es húmeda y se endurece después de secarse
o ser cocida (p. 53).
Clustering/agrupación Técnica de crear un punto focal al
agrupar juntamente varias formas diferentes (p. 301).
Coil/rollo Anillo o rosca que se junta en un círculo o en
espiral. Los rollos de arcilla se usan para hacer la
alfarería.
Collage/collage Obra de arte a la que han sido pegados
materiales como papel con textura, fotografias, y tela a
una superficie plana (p. 179).
Color/color Elemento del arte que se deriva de la luz
reflejada (p. 136). La sensación del color se despierta en
el cerébro a la hora que responden los ojos a distintas
longitudes de ondas de luz. Aparte del color en sí, las
propiedades del color son el valor y la intensidad.
Color-field painting/pintura de campos de color Arte
del siglo XX creado al utilizar solamente campos planos
de color (p. 380).
Color scheme/combinación de colores Proyecto para
organizar colores. Existen combinaciones de colores
monocromáticos, análogos, complementarios, de tríada,
divididos, cálidos y frescos (p. 144).
Color spectrum/espectro de colores Efecto que ocurre
cuando la luz pasa por un prisma; el rayo de luz blanca
se dobla y se separa en bandas de color. Los colores
siempre aparecen del mismo orden, por longitudes de
onda, de la más larga a la más corta: rojo, anaranjado,
amarillo, verde, azul, violeta. Un arco iris muestra el
espectro (p. 136).
Color triad/tríada de colores Tres colores distribuidos a
distancias iguales en el círculo cromático (p. 146). La
tríada de colores primarios se consiste en el rojo, el
amarillo y el azul; la tríada de colores secundarios se
consiste en el anaranjado, el verde y la violeta. Una
tríada de colores es un tipo de combinación de colores.
Color wheel/círculo cromático El espectro doblado en
forma de un círculo (p. 138).
Compass/compás Instrumento que se usa para medir y
trazar arcos y círculos.
Complementary colors/colores complementarios
Colores opuestos uno al otro en el círculo cromático
(p. 142). El complemento de un color absorbe todas las
ondas de luz que refleja el color y es el contraste más
fuerte a ese color. Mezclar un color con su
complemento lo deslustra. El rojo y el verde son colores
complementarios. Los colores complementarios se
pueden usar en una combinación de colores.
Composition/composición Modo en que los principios
del arte están usados para organizar los elementos del
arte (p. 18).
Content/contenido Mensaje que comunica una obra de
arte. El contenido puede relacionarse con la materia de
la obra o puede ser una idea o emoción. Otra palabra
para contenido es tema (p. 19).
Contour drawing/dibujo de nivel Dibujo en el que
solamente se utilizan las curvas de nivel para
representar el tema (p. 81). El artista mantiene los ojos
en el objeto que dibuja y se concentra en las direcciones
y en las curvas.
Contour line/curva de nivel Línea que define los
contornos y los niveles de superficie de un objeto
(p. 81).
Contrast/contraste Técnica de crear un punto focal al
utilizar diferencias en elementos (p. 291).
Convergence/convergencia Técnica de crear un punto
focal al distribuir los elementos de manera que varias
líneas y formas apunten a un objeto o área (p. 293).
GLOSARIO
476 Glosario
Divine Proportion/proporción divina Véase Golden
Mean.
Dome/cúpula Bóveda o techo hemisférico sobre una
abertura circular. Una cúpula se levanta sobre la parte
central de un edificio (p. 326).
Dominant element/elemento dominante Elemento que
se nota primero en una obra de arte. Los elementos que
se notan después se conocen como secundarios (p. 290).
Draw program/programa de dibujo Una aplicación de
computadora para crear arte en el que las imágenes se
guardan como series de líneas y curvas. En programas
de dibujo se puede cambiar el tamaño de los objetos sin
provocar distorciones (p. 60).
Dyes/tintes Pigmentos que se disuelven en líquido. El
tinte penetra un material y lo mancha (p. 151).
Dynamism/dinamismo Término utilizado por los
futuristas para referirse a las fuerzas del movimiento.
Dynasty/dinastía Un período de tiempo durante el cual
una sola familia proporcionaba una sucesión de
gobernantes (p. 324).
E
Edition/edición Todas las estampas hechas de la misma
plancha o de la misma serie de planchas (p. 48).
Elements of art/elementos del arte Los más básicos
símbolos visuales en el lenguaje del arte. Los elementos
del arte son la línea, las formas bi- y tridimensionales, el
espacio, el color, el valor y la textura (p. 16).
Embroidery/bordado Técnica de decorar la tela con
puntadas.
Emotionalism/sentimentalismo Teoría que requiere que
una obra de arte haga reaccionar al observador de una
manera sentimental. Una de las tres teorías estéticas
dentro de la crítica del arte; las otras son el formalismo
y el imitacionalismo (p. 32).
Emphasis/énfasis Principio del arte que hace que parte de
una obra domine sobre las otras partes (p. 290). El
elemento que se nota primero se conoce como el
dominante; los elementos que se notan después se
conocen como los secundarios.
Engraving/grabado Técnica de cortar un diseño en un
material, normalmente metal, con una herramienta
puntiaguda. Se puede sacar una estampa al entintar una
superficie grabada.
Exaggeration/exageración Desviación de las proporciones
esperadas y/o normales (p. 268).
Expressionism/expresionismo Movimiento artístico del
siglo XX. Un estilo que recalcaba la expresión de los
sentimientos más íntimos (p. 374).
Expressive qualities/calidades expresivas Esas calidades
que comunican las ideas y los sentimientos (p. 31).
F
Fabric/tela Material hecho de fibras. Los tejidos y el fieltro
son telas.
Fauves/fauves En francés, “bestias salvajes.” Un grupo de
pintores al principios del siglo XX que empleaban
colores brillantes y distorciones audaces de una manera
descontrolada. Su líder fue Henri Matisse.
Fiber/fibra Material delgado y lineal, parecido al hilo, que
se puede tejer o hilar para hacer tela (p. 52).
Fiberfill/relleno de fibras Material de relleno ligero y
fofo, hecho de fibras sintéticas.
Cool colors/colores fríos Azul, verde y violeta (p. 148).
Los colores fríos sugieren la frescura y parecen alejarse
del observador. Se pueden usar en una combinación de
colores. Son el opuesto de los colores cálidos.
Crafts/artesanía Forma de arte que crea obras que son
tanto bellas como útiles. La artesanía incluye la
tejeduría, el diseño de telas y la fabricación de joyas
(p. 52).
Crayons/lapices de colores Pigmentos juntados con cera
y moldeados en forma de palitos.
Credit line/leyenda Lista de datos importantes sobre una
obra de arte. Una leyenda normalmente incluye el
nombre del artista, el título de la obra, el año en que
fue completada, el medio, el tamaño—altura, anchura
y profundidad, la ubicación—galeria, museo o colección
y ciudad, los donantes y la fecha en que fue donada
(p. 19).
Crewel/torzal Hilo sueltamente torcido que se usa en el
bordado.
Criteria/criterios Valores que se usan para formar una
opinión sobre algo (p. 26).
Crosshatching/sombreado cruzado Técnica de usar
líneas cruzadas para sombrear (p. 44).
Cubism/cubismo Movimiento artístico del siglo XX que
recalca la estructura y el diseño (p. 374). Los objetos
tridimensionales se representan de varios puntos de vista
diferentes al mismo tiempo.
Culture/cultura Conductas e ideas de un grupo de gente.
Se puede estudiar los objetos de arte producidos por un
grupo de gente para aprender sobre una cultura.
Cuneiform/escritura cuneiforme Sistema de escritura
sumeria compuesto de carácteres de forma de cuña
(p. 321).
Curved lines/líneas curvas Líneas que siempre se doblan
y cambian de dirección gradualmente (p. 73).
D
Dark Ages/Edades Bárbaras Véase Middle Ages.
Decalcomania/decalcomanía Técnica en el que la pintura
es forzada a crear diseños y texturas fortuitos al
despegar dos lienzos entre los cuales gotas de pintura
han sido apretadas (p. 183).
Dense/denso Compacto; que tiene las partes muy juntas.
Los materiales densos son sólidos y pesados. El opuesto
de ligero.
Description/descripción Una lista de todas las cosas que
ves en una obra (p. 27).
Design/diseño Sistema, organización o distribución de los
elementos de una obra de arte.
Diagonal lines/líneas diagonales Líneas que se inclinan
(p. 72).
Digital camera/cámara digital Una cámara que graba las
imágenes de manera digital. Luego estas imágenes se
pueden descargar a aplicaciones de computadora donde
pueden ser alteradas y realzadas (p. 60).
Digital system/sistema digital Un sistema que procesa
palabras e imágenes directamente como números o
dígitos (p. 59).
Dimension/dimensión La cantidad de espacio que ocupa
un objeto en una dirección (p. 70). Las tres dimensiones
son el altura, la anchura y la profundidad.
Distortion/distorción Desviaciones de las proporciones
esperadas y/o normales (p. 268).
GLOSARIO
Glosario 477
Figure/figura La forma humana en una obra de arte.
Fine art/bellas artes Artes creadas para ser
experimentadas de manera visual. El opuesto del arte
funcional (p. 52).
Fire/cocer Aplicar calor a la alfarería para endurecerla.
Flowing rhythm/ritmo fluido Ritmo visual creado al
repetir líneas onduladas (p. 208).
Focal point/punto focal La primera parte de una obra
que atrae la atención del observador (p. 290). Los
puntos focales son creados por el contraste, la
colocación, el aislamiento, la convergencia y el uso de lo
insólito.
Folk artists/artistas de la gente Artistas enseñados por
ellos mismos y por lo tanto no han tenido mucha
instrucción formal en métodos artísticos (p. 10).
Foreground/primer plano La parte del plano óptico que
parece más cerca al observador. El primer plano
normalmente se encuentra en la parte de abajo del
cuadro.
Foreshortening/escorzo Acortar un objeto para que
parezca como si extendiera para atrás en el espacio
(p. 264). Esta técnica reproduce las proporciones que ve
un observador en la actualidad, las cuales dependen de
la distancia entre el observador y el objeto.
Formal balance/equilibrio formal Modo de organizar las
partes de un diseño para que elementos iguales o
similares estén colocados a lados opuestos de un eje
central (p. 229). El equilibrio formal sugiere estabilidad.
La simetría es un tipo de equilibrio formal. El opuesto
del equilibrio informal.
Formal qualities/calidades de forma Lo bien que está
organizada una obra (p. 31). Esta calidad estética es
favorecida por el formalismo.
Formalism/formalismo Teoría que recalca las calidades de
forma. Una de las tres teorías estéticas dentro de la
crítica del arte; las otras son el sentimentalismo y el
imitacionalismo (p. 31).
Forms/formas tridimensionales Así como las formas
bidimensionales, tienen altura y anchura. Tienen
también profundidad. Pueden ser geométricas o de
forma libre (p. 101).
Free-form shapes/formas libres Formas irregulares y
desiguales (p. 99). Sus perfiles pueden ser curvos,
angulares o las dos cosas. A veces, a esas formas se les
llaman formas orgánicas (se encuentran en la
naturaleza). Son el opuesto de las formas geométricas.
Freestanding/independiente Obra de arte rodeada de
espacio por todos lados. Una obra de arte tridimensional
es independiente. El opuesto del relieve (p. 50).
Frottage/frottage Se pone un lienzo recientemente
pintado boca arriba encima de una textura en relieve y
se frota o roza la superficie de la pintura con grafito,
cera, o lápiz de color (p. 183).
Functional art/arte funcional Obras de arte hechas para
el uso en vez del deleite. Los objetos deben ser juzgados
según lo bien que funcionan cuando se usan (p. 33).
Futurists/futuristas Artistas italianos de principios del
siglo XX que distribuían las formas angulares de manera
que sugerían el movimiento (p. 212). Llamaban a las
fuerzas del movimiento el dinamismo.
G
Gallery/galería Lugar para exponer o vender obras de
arte.
Genre painting/pintura de género Pinturas que tienen
como tema escenas de la vida diaria.
Geometric shapes/formas geométricas Formas precisas
que se pueden describir usando fórmulas matemáticas
(p. 98). De las formas geométricas bidimensionales, las
básicas son el círculo, el cuadrado y el triángulo. Formas
geométricas tridimensionales son el cilindro, el cubo y la
pirámide. Las formas geométricas son el opuesto de las
formas libres.
Gesture/gesto Un movimiento expresivo (p. 82).
Gesture drawing/dibujo de gestos Dibujo de líneas
hecho rápidamente para capturar los movimientos de
una persona.
Glaze/barniz En la cerámica, una capa delgada y lustrosa
que se coce a la alfarería. En la pintura, una capa
delgada de pintura transparente.
Golden Mean/regla de oro Una línea dividida en dos
partes de manera que la línea más corta tenga la misma
proporción, o razón, con la línea más larga que tiene la
línea más larga con la línea entera (p. 256). Razón
perfecta—relación de partes—descubierta por Euclid,
matemático griego. Su expresión matemática es 1 a 1.6.
También se llamaba la sección áurea y el rectángulo de
oro. Los lados largos del rectángulo de oro tienen un
poco más del doble de la longitud de los lados cortos.
Esta razón fue redescubierta a principios del siglo XVI y
se llamaba la divina proporción.
Gothic/gótico Estilo artístico que se desenvolvió en el
oeste de Europa entre los siglos XII y XVI. Constaba de
iglesias que parecían elevarse hacia el cielo, arcos
punteados y vidrieras coloreadas (p. 355).
Gouache/gouache Pigmentos molidos en agua y
mezclados con goma para forma una acuarela opaca. El
gouache se parece a la pintura al temple de uso escolar.
Graphic designer/diseñador gráfico Una persona que
traslada ideas a imágenes y las distribuye de modos
atractivos y memorables (p. 392).
Grattage/grattage Se raspa pintura húmeda con una
variedad de herramientas, como tenedores, navajas y
peines, con el fin de crear diferentes texturas (p. 183).
Grid/cuadrícula Diseño de líneas verticales y horizontales
que se cruzan (p. 206).
Griots/griots Artistas que cuentan la historia oral y que
son músicos y actores (p. 334).
H
Hard-edge/línea dura En el arte bidimensional, formas
que tienen los contornos claramente definidos. Las
formas de línea dura parecen densas. El opuesto de la
línea suave.
Harmony/armonía El principio del arte que crea unidad
al subrayar las similitudes entre partes que son
separadas pero relacionadas (p. 295).
Hatching/sombreado rayado Técnica de sombrear
usando una serie de finas líneas paralelas (p. 44).
Hierarchical proportion/escala jerárquica Cuando las
figuras de una obra de arte están distribuidas de manera
que la escala indique importancia (p. 260).
Hieroglyphics/jeroglíficos Escritura con dibujos usada por
los antiguos egipcios y en la que se usan figuras o
símbolos en vez de letras (p. 323).
High-key painting/pintura de tono alto Pintura en la
que se usan muchas tintas de un color (p. 140). El
opuesto de la pintura de tono bajo.
GLOSARIO
478 Glosario
International style/estilo internacional Estilo de
arquitectura que se desenvolvió después de la Segunda
Guerra Mundial y que recalca los edificios sencillos y
adustos (p. 381).
Interpretation/interpretación En la crítica del arte, el
paso en el que explicas o cuentas el significado de la
obra o lo que expresa. En la historia del arte, el paso en
el que haces investigaciones sobre el artista (p. 27).
Invented texture/textura inventada Un tipo de textura
visual que no representa una textura verdadera pero
que crea la sensación de una textura al repetir líneas y
formas en un diseño bidimensional (p. 174). El opuesto
de la textura simulada.
Isolation/aislamiento Técnica de crear un punto focal al
poner un objeto solo para recalcarlo (p. 292).
J
Judgment/opinión En la crítica del arte, el paso en el
que determinas el grado de mérito artístico. En la
historia del arte, el paso en el que determinas si la obra
ha hecho una contribución importante a la historia del
arte (p. 27).
K
Kinetic/cinético Una obra de arte que realmente se
mueve en el espacio (p. 213).
L
Landscape/paisaje Pintura o dibujo en el que la
naturaleza, incluyendo montañas, arboles, ríos o lagos,
es el tema principal.
Layout/composición de la página En la imprenta, la
manera en que las formas y las líneas están distribuidas
en la página (p. 454).
Line/línea Un elemento del arte que es el camino de un
punto que se mueve por el espacio. Aunque las líneas
pueden variar en su apariencia—pueden tender
longitudes, anchuras, texturas, direcciones y grados de
curva diferentes—son consideradas como
unidimensionales y se miden por longitud. Un artista
usa la línea para controlar el movimiento del ojo del
observador. Existen cinco tipos de línea: la vertical, la
horizontal, la diagonal, la curva y la línea en zigzag
(p. 70).
Linear perspective/perspectiva lineal Un sistema gráfico
que crea la ilusión de la profundidad y el volumen en
una superficie plana. En la perspectiva lineal de un
punto, todas las líneas se retiran hasta un solo punto.
En la perspectiva lineal de dos puntos, diferentes grupos
de líneas se juntan en puntos diferentes (p. 115).
Literal qualities/calidades literales Las calidades realístas
que aparecen en el tema de la obra (p. 31).
Lithography/litografía Una técnica de imprenta en la que
la imagen que se quiere imprimir se dibuja en piedra
caliza, cinc, o aluminio con un lápiz grasiento especial o
con un lápiz. Este material atrae la tinta (p. 49).
Location/colocación La técnica de colocar los elementos
para crear un punto focal (p. 292). Los objetos que
están cerca del medio de una obra de arte normalmente
se notan primero.
Logos/logotipos Símbolos o marcas registradas que se
reconocen inmediatamente (p. 392).
Highlights/toques de luz Pequeñas áreas de blanco que
se usan para mostrar las partes más claras (p. 112). Los
toques de luz muestran las superficies de un objeto que
reflejan más luz. Se usan para crear la ilusión de la
tridimensionalidad. Son el opuesto de las sombras.
High relief/alto relieve Escultura de la cual áreas
sobresalen de una superficie plana (p. 106).
High-resolution/resolución alta Que produce una
imagen nítida.
Holograms/hologramas Imágenes de tres dimensiones
creadas por un rayo láser (p. 107).
Horizon/horizonte Punto donde parecen juntarse la tierra
y el cielo.
Horizontal line/línea horizontal Línea paralela al
horizonte (p. 72). Las líneas horizontales son rectas y
paralelas al borde inferior de un papel o lienzo.
Hue/color El nombre de un color en el espectro de colores
(p. 138). Los colores primarios son el rojo, el amarillo y
el azul. Se consideran primarios debido a que no se
pueden formar al mezclar diferentes colores. Los colores
secundarios son los que se hacen al mezclar dos colores
primarios. Son el anaranjado, la violeta y el verde. Cada
color figura entre las tres propiedades del color.
I
Illustrator/ilustrador Persona que crea las imágenes
visuales que complementan las palabras escritas
(p. 393).
Imitationalism/imitacionalismo Teoría estética que se
enfoca en a la representación realística. Una de las tres
teorías estéticas dentro de la crítica del arte; las otras
son el sentimentalismo y el formalismo (p. 31).
Implied lines/líneas implícitas Una serie de puntos que
conectan los ojos del observador automáticamente. Las
líneas implícitas son sugeridas, no reales (p. 71).
Impressionism/impresionismo Estilo de pintura que
empezó en Francia en los años 1860. Representaba
temas de la vida diaria y recalcaba los efectos
momentarios de la luz sobre el color (p. 370).
Individual style/estilo individual La forma personal del
artista de usar los elementos y principios del arte para
expresar sentimientos e ideas (p. 35).
Informal balance/equilibrio informal Modo de organizar
las partes de un diseño que crea un equilibrio entre
objetos dissimilares (p. 234). La asimetría es otro
término para el equilibrio informal. El opuesto del
equilibrio formal.
Intaglio/calcografía Técnica de imprenta en la que la tinta
es metida dentro de líneas que han sido cortadas o
grabadas en una superficie dura como el metal o la
madera. Luego se limpia la superficie de la plancha y se
hacen las estampas (p. 49).
Intensity/intensidad Lo subido o apagado que es un
color. Un color puro se llama un color de alta
intensidad. Un color apagado o deslustrado—que ha sido
mezclado con su complemento—se llama un color de
baja intensidad. La intensidad es una de las tres
propiedades del color. (p. 142)
Interior designer/diseñador de interiores Una persona
que planifica el diseño y la decoración de espacios
interiores de casas y oficinas (p. 400).
Intermediate color/color intermedio Un color hecho al
mezclar un color primario con un color secundario. El
rojo-anaranjado es un color intermedio (p. 138).
GLOSARIO
Glosario 479
Loom/telar Máquina o marco para tejer.
Low-key painting/pintura de tono bajo Tipo de pintura
en la que se usan muchos tonos o valores oscuros de un
color (p. 140). El opuesto de la pintura de tono alto.
Low-relief/bajo relieve Escultura en relieve con áreas
positivas que sobresalen un poquito del superficie plano.
M
Mannerism/manierismo Estilo artístico europeo del siglo
XVI que presentaba escenas muy emocionales y figuras
alargadas (p. 360).
Manufactured shapes/forms/formas fabricadas Formas
bi- o tridimensionales hechas por personas, a mano o a
máquina. El opuesto de las formas orgánicas.
Mat/orlar Enmarcar un cuadro o un dibujo con un borde
de cartón.
Matte surface/superficie mate Superficie que refleja una
luz suave y débil (p. 175). El papel tiene una superficie
mate. El opuesto de una superficie lustrosa.
Medieval/medieval Relacionado con la Edad Media.
Véase Middle Ages.
Medium/medio Material que se usa para hacer arte
(p. 19).
Megaliths/megalitos Monumentos grandes creados con
bloques masivos de piedra (p. 321).
Mexican muralists/muralistas mexicanos Artistas de
principios del siglo XX cuyas pinturas en paredes y
techos utilizaban formas sólidas y colores fuertes para
expresar sentimientos sobre la Revolución Mexicana. Se
llaman también los expresionistas mexicanos (p. 377).
Middle Ages/Edad Media Período de aproximadamente
mil años, de la destrucción del imperio romano hasta el
Renacimiento. Cultura que tenía por centro la iglesia
católica. La Edad Media se llama también las Edades
Bárbaras (porque no surgieron muchas ideas nuevas) y
la Edad de la Fé (porque la religión era una potencia
muy fuerte) (p. 354).
Middle ground/plano medio El área de una imagen
entre el primer plano y el fondo.
Minimalism/minimalismo Estilo artístico del siglo XX
que usa un mínimo de los elementos del arte (p. 380).
Mobile/móvil Escultura que se mueve (p. 213).
Modeling/modelaje Técnica de escultura en el que se
amontona y se le da forma a un material suave y
flexible. Como se añade más material para crear una
forma, se refiere al modelaje como un proceso aditivo
(p. 51).
Module/módulo Un motivo tridimensional (p. 204).
Monochromatic/monocromáticos Una combinación de
colores que utiliza solamente un color y las tintas y
tonos de ese color. Crea un efecto de unidad (p. 145).
Mortar and pestle/mano y metate Plato cerámico y
herramienta que se usan para reducir algo a polvo.
Mosaics/mosaicos Imágenes hechas con cubos pequeños y
coloridos de mármol, vidrio o azulejo que se ponen en
cemento.
Mosques/mezquitas Edificios de culto musulmanes
(p. 331).
Motif/motivo Una unidad que se repite en un ritmo
visual (p. 202). Las unidades de un motivo pueden ser
duplicados exactos de la primera unidad o pueden
variar.
Movement/movimiento Véase visual movement.
Multimedia programs/programas de multimedia
Programas de computadora software que ayudan a los
usuarios a diseñar, organizar y combinar textos,
elementos gráficos, vídeos y sonidos en un solo
documento (p. 61).
Mural/mural Pintura en una pared o en un techo.
Museum curator/director de museo Persona que
superentiende las actividades de un museo (p. 404).
N
Negative spaces/espacios negativos Espacios vacíos que
rodean las formas (p. 103). La forma y el tamaño de los
espacios negativos afectan la interpretación de los
espacios positivos. Los espacios negativos se llaman
también el fondo.
Neoclassicism/neoclasicismo Clasicismo nuevo. Estilo
artístico francés que surgió en el siglo XIX después del
estilo rococó. Una aproximación al arte que adoptaba
temas y calidades de diseño del arte de Grecia y de
Roma (p. 366).
Neolithic period/período neolítico Edad de la Piedra
Nueva. Un período prehistórico que abarcaba
aproximadamente los años 7000
A.C.a 2000 A.C.
(p. 321).
Neutral colors/colores neutrales El negro, el blanco y el
gris. El negro no refleja ninguna longitud de onda de
luz, el blanco refleja todas las longitudes de onda de luz
y el gris refleja igualmente todas las longitudes de onda
de luz, pero solo parcialmente (p. 139).
Nonobjective art/arte no objetivo Arte que no tiene
ningún tema reconocible (p. 18).
O
Oil paint/pintura al óleo Pintura que se seca lentamente
y que es hecha al mezclar pigmentos en óleo.
Normalmente se usa para pintar en un lienzo (p. 47).
Opaque/opaco Calidad de un material que no deja pasar
por si nada de luz. El opuesto de transparente.
Op art/art óptico Estilo artístico del siglo XX en el que
los artistas usan conocimientos científicos sobra la visión
para crear ilusiones ópticas del movimiento (p. 379).
Optical color/color óptico Color percibido por el
observador debido al efecto de la atmósfera o de alguna
luz anormal en el color verdadero (p. 152). El opuesto
del color arbitrario.
Organic shapes/forms/formas orgánicas Formas bi- o
tridimensionales hechas por las fuerzas de la naturaleza.
El opuesto de las formas fabricadas (p. 111).
Outline/contorno Línea que muestra o crea el perfil de
una forma (p. 71).
P
Package designer/diseñador de empaquetadura
Persona que produce los envases que atraen la atención
del consumidor (p. 402).
Pagoda/pagoda Una torre de varios pisos con tejados
cuyos bordes se encorvan un poco hacia arriba (p. 329).
Paint/pintura Pigmentos mezclados con óleo o agua. Los
granos de pigmento se adhieren a la superficie del
material al que se aplica la pintura (p. 44).
Paint program/programa de pintura Una aplicación de
computadora para crear arte en la que las imágenes se
GLOSARIO
480 Glosario
Positive spaces/espacios positivos Formas en el arte bi-
y tridimensional (p. 103). Los espacios vacíos que las
rodean se llaman espacios negativos o el fondo.
Post-and-lintel/poste y dintel Método de construcción
en el que una piedra larga se balancea encima de dos
postes. Actualmente se refiere a esto como la
construcción de poste y viga (p. 321).
Post-Impressionism/postimpresionismo Estilo de
pintura francés que originó al final del siglo XIX.
Recalcaba un estilo individual hacia la pintura, que
pertenecía sólo a un artista específico de la epoca.
(p. 371).
Post-Modernism/posmodernismo Un enfoque hacia el
arte que incorpora elementos y técnicas tradicionales
mientras conserva algunas características de los estilos y
movimientos del arte moderno (p. 382).
Pre-Columbian/precolombino Período de tiempo antes
que Cristóbal Colón descubriera las Américas en 1492
(p. 339).
Prehistoric/prehistórico Período anterior a que se
escribiera la historia (p. 320).
Principles of art/principios del arte Reglas que
determinan cómo los artistas organizan los elementos
del arte. Los principios del arte son el ritmo, el
movimiento, diseño repetido el equilibrio, la proporción,
la variedad, el énfasis, y la armonía (p. 18).
Print/estampa Impresión creada por un artista e impresa
en papel o tela de una plancha de grabar, sea de metal,
piedra o madera. Se puede repetir la impresión muchas
veces para producir imágenes idénticas (p. 48).
Printing plate/plancha de grabar Superficie que
contiene una impresión que se traslada a papel o tela
para hacer una estampa (p. 48).
Printmaking/imprenta Un proceso en el que un artista
traslada repetidamente una imagen original de una
superficie preparada a otra (p. 48).
Prism/prisma Pieza de vidrio en forma de cuña que dobla
la luz blanca y la separa en matices espectrales.
Profile/perfil Vista lateral de una cara.
Progressive rhythm/ritmo progresivo Ritmo visual que
cambia un motivo cada vez que se repite (p. 209).
Proportion/proporción Principio del arte que se preocupa
por las relaciones de tamaño entre una parte y otra
(p. 256).
Protractor/transportador Instrumento semicircular que se
usa para medir y trazar ángulos.
Proximity/proximidad Técnica de crear la unidad al
limitar los espacios negativos entre las formas (p. 301).
R
Radial balance/equilibrio radial Tipo de equilibrio en el
que las fuerzas o los elementos de un diseño se
extienden, o radian, de un punto central (p. 232).
Random rhythm/ritmo aleatorio Ritmo visual en el que
un motivo se repite, pero por ningún orden específico y
sin espacios regulares (p. 205).
Rasp/escofia Lima con dientes afilados y ásperos que se
usa para cortar una superficie.
Realism/realismo Estilo artístico con su origen al
mediados del siglo XIX que presentaba escenas familiares
como realmente se veían (p. 368).
Realists/realistas Artistas del siglo XIX que representaban
cuestiones políticas, sociales y morales (p. 368).
Recede/retirarse Moverse para atrás o alejarse.
guardan como bitmaps. Los programas de pintura son
capaces de producir imágenes más naturales que los
programas de dibujo (p. 60, 449).
Palette/paleta Bandeja que se usa para mezclar colores de
pintura.
Papier-mâché/cartón piedra Material de modelaje hecho
de papel y pasta líquida que se moldea sobre un soporte
llamado la armadura.
Paleolithic period/período paleolítico Edad de la Piedra
Antigua. Empezó hace aproximadamente dos millones
de años y terminó con el fin del último período glacial
hacia 13,000
A.
C. (p. 320).
Parallel lines/líneas paralelas Líneas que se mueven en
la misma dirección y que siempre se mantienen
separadas de la misma distancia.
Pastels/pasteles Pigmentos juntados con goma y
moldeados en forma de palitos.
Paste-up/página pegada Modelo de una página impresa.
Se saca fotografías de ésta con el propósito de hacer una
plancha para la imprenta.
Pattern/diseño repetido El diseño repetido es un
principio del arte que se concentra en el diseño
decorativo del superficie. Suele ser una repetición
bidimensional visual (p. 202).
Perceive/percibir Por medio de los sentidos, hacerse
profundamente conciente de la naturaleza especial de
un objeto visual (p. 6).
Perspective/perspectiva Un sistema gráfico que crea la
ilusión de la profundidad y el volumen en una
superficie bidimensional (p. 113). Durante el
Renacimiento lo desarrolló el arquitecto Filippo
Brunelleschi. La perspectiva se crea al usar el traslapar,
las variaciones de tamaño, la colocación, el detalle, el
color y las líneas convergentes.
Pharaohs/faraónes Gobernadores egipcios quienes fueron
adorados como dioses y tenían una autoridad completa
sobre el reinado (p. 323).
Photogram/fotograma Imagen en papel de cianotipo
creada por gases del amoníaco líquido.
Photography/fotografía La técnica de capturar imágenes
ópticas en superficies sensibles a la luz (p. 57).
Photojournalists/fotoperiodista Reporteros visuales, que
trabajan sacando fotografías (p. 395).
Photo-Realism/fotorrealismo Véase Super-Realism.
Picture plane/plano óptico La superficie de una pintura
o un dibujo.
Pigments/pigmentos Polvos menudamente molidos y
coloridos que forman la pintura cuando se mezclan con
un líquido (p. 150).
Plaster/yeso Mezcla de cal, arena y agua que se endurece
al secarse.
Point of view/punto de vista Ángulo de que el
observador ve un objeto (p. 108). Las formas que ve un
observador dependen del punto de vista de este
observador.
Polymer medium/medio polímero Líquido que se usa
en la pintura acrílica, para hacerla menos densa o como
material de acabado (p. 47).
Pop art/arte pop Estilo artístico que se empleaba a
principios de los años 60 en los Estados Unidos.
Presentaba imágenes de la cultura popular, como de los
medios de comunicación, del arte comercial, de las tiras
cómicas y de la publicidad (p. 378).
Portrait/retrato Imagen de una persona, especialmente de
la cara y la parte superior del cuerpo.
GLOSARIO
Glosario 481
Reformation/Reforma Revolución religiosa que ocurrió
en el oeste de Europa durante el siglo XVI. Empezó
como un movimiento de reforma dentro la iglesia
católica y produjo los principios del protestantismo
(p. 360).
Regionalists/regionalistas Artistas que pintaban los
campos de cultivo y las ciudades de los Estados Unidos
de una manera optimista (p. 376).
Regular rhythm/ritmo regular Ritmo visual creado al
repetir motivos idénticos usando los mismos intervalos
de espacios entre ellos (p. 206).
Relief printing/grabado en relieve Una técnica de
imprenta en el que el artista recorta las secciones de
una superficie que no deben de retener la tinta. Como
resultado, la imagen que se debe imprimir se resalta del
fondo (p. 48).
Relief sculpture/escultura en relieve Tipo de escultura
en la que las formas sobresalen de un fondo plano. El
opuesto de la escultura independiente (p. 50).
Renaissance/Renacimiento Nombre dado al período del
final de la Edad Media cuando los artistas, escritores y
filósofos se despertaron a las formas artísticas y a las
ideas de la antigua Grecia y de Roma (p. 356).
Repetition/repetición Técnica de crear ritmo y unidad en
la cual un motivo o un solo elemento aparece una y
otra vez (p. 308).
Reproduction/reproducción Una copia de una obra de
arte (p. 48).
Rhythm/ritmo El principio del arte que indica el
movimiento con la repetición de elementos y objetos
(p. 200). El ritmo visual se percibe por los ojos y se crea
al repetir espacios positivos separados por espacios
negativos. Hay cinco tipos de ritmo: aleatorio, regular,
alterno, fluido y progresivo.
Rococo/rococó Estilo artístico del siglo XVIII que comenzó
en las casas lujosas de la aristocracia francesa y se
difundió por el resto de Europa. Acentuaba el
movimiento libre y grácil, el uso alegre de la línea y los
colores delicados (p. 363).
Romanesque/arte románico Estilo de arquitectura y
escultura que se desarrolló durante la Edad Media en el
oeste de Europa. Presentaba edificios de tamaño masivo,
paredes sólidas y pesadas, un uso extenso del arco de
medio punto romano y muchas decoraciones
esculturales (p. 354).
Romanticism/Romanticismo Estilo artístico de principios
del siglo XIX que fue una reacción contra el
neoclasicismo. Encontraba sus temas en lo dramático y
en las culturas foráneas a Europa. Recalcaba colores
vivos y emociones exageradas (p. 367).
Rough texture/textura áspera Superficie irregular que
refleja desigualmente la luz (p. 175). El opuesto de la
textura lisa.
Rubbing/calco Técnica de transferir la calidad de textura de
una superficie a un papel al poner el papel encima de la
superficie y sombrear el papel con un lápiz (p. 183).
S
Safety labels/avisos de seguridad Etiquetas en productos
de arte que avisan si los productos son seguros para
usar o si hay que usarlos con precaución.
Scale/escala Tamaño que se mide según un patrón. La
escala puede referirse a una obra de arte entera o a
elementos dentro de ella (p. 260).
Scanner/escáner Un aparato que “lee” una imagen
impresa y luego la traduce a un idioma que puede usar
la computadora para hacer una imagen visual en la
pantalla (p. 61).
Score/rayar Hacer pliegues limpios y definidos en un papel
usando una herramienta de cortar.
Screen printing/serigrafía Técnica de imprenta en la que
un patrón picado y un tamiz se usan como la plancha
de grabar. El patrón se pone en un tamiz de tela
estirada por un marco y se pasa la tinta por el tamiz
donde éste no está cubierto por el patrón (p. 49).
Scroll/rollo de pergamino Un rollo largo de pergamino o
de seda (p. 328).
Sculpture/escultura Obra de arte tridimensional creada al
tallar, soldar, fundir o modelar madera, piedra, metal o
arcilla (p. 50).
Seascape/marina Pintura o dibujo que tiene el mar como
tema.
Shade/tono Un valor oscuro de un color hecho al añadirle
el negro. El opuesto de una tinta (p. 140).
Shading/sombreado El uso de valores claras y oscuras
para representar la profundidad y la textura (p. 44).
Shadows/sombras Áreas sombreadas en un dibujo o en
una pintura. Las sombras muestran las superficies de un
objeto que reflejan menos luz y se usan para crear la
ilusión de formas tridimensionales. El opuesto de los
toques de luz.
Shape/forma bidimensional Un área que se define de
alguna manera. Mientras las formas tridimensionales
tienen profundidad, las bidimensionales solamente
tienen altura y anchura. Pueden ser geométricas o de
forma libre (p. 98).
Shiny surface/superficie lustrosa Superficie que refleja
luz brillante. El vidrio de una ventana tiene una
superficie lustrosa. El opuesto de una superficie mate
(p. 175).
Sighting/poner mira Técnica de determinar la relación
entre proporciones entre una parte de un objeto y otra.
Silhouette/silueta Dibujo del contorno de una forma.
Originalmente una silueta fue un retrato de perfil,
rellenado con un color sólido.
Simplicity/simplicidad Técnica para crear la unidad al
limitar el número de variaciones de un elemento del
arte.
Simulated texture/textura simulada Un tipo de textura
visual que imita la textura real al usar un diseño
bidimensional para crear la ilusión de una superficie
tridimensional (p. 173). Una mesa de plástico puede
tener un diseño que imita la textura de la madera. El
opuesto de la textura inventada.
Sketch/bosquejo Dibujo brusco hecho rápidamente sin
mucho detalle, que se puede usar como modelo o
referencia para una obra posterior.
Slip/barbotina Mezcla cremosa de arcilla y agua que se
usa para pegar piezas de arcilla.
Smooth texture/textura lisa Superficie regular que
refleja la luz de manera equitativa. El opuesto de una
textura áspera (p. 175).
Soft edge/línea suave En el arte bidimensional, formas
con los contornos borrosos e imprecisos. Las formas de
línea suave parecen suaves. El opuesto de la línea dura.
Soft sculpture/escultura blanda Escultura hecha con tela
y rellena con materia blanda.
Solvent/solvente El líquido que controla lo espeso o lo
acuoso que sea la pintura (p. 150).
GLOSARIO
482 Glosario
y la vista. Los objetos pueden tener texturas ásperas o
lisas y superficies mates o lustrosas (p. 171).
Tint/tinta Un valor claro de un color hecho al mezclar el
color con blanco. El opuesto de un tono (p. 140).
Tonality/tonalidad Arreglo de colores en una pintura en
el que un solo color domina (p. 157).
Totem poles/postes totémicos Postes altos tallados y
pintados con una serie de símbolos de animales
asociados con cierta familia o con cierto clan (p. 343).
Transparent/transparente Calidad de un material que
deja pasar la luz por si. El opuesto de opaco.
Trompe l’oiel/trampantojo En frances quiere decir
“decepcionar el ojo”. Estilo de pintura en el que los
pintores tratan de dar al observador la ilusión de ver un
objeto tridimensional, para que el observador se
pregunte si está viendo una imagen o algo real.
U
Unity/unidad La calidad de integridad que se logra con
el uso eficaz de los elementos y los principios del arte
(p. 296). La unidad se crea con la simplicidad, la
repetición y la proximidad.
Unusual/insólito Técnica de crear un punto focal al usar
lo inesperado (p. 295).
V
Value/valor El elemento del arte que describe la oscuridad
o la claridad de un objeto (p. 75). El valor depende de
cuánta luz refleja una superficie. El valor es también
una de tres propiedades del color.
Vanishing point/punto de fuga Punto en el horizonte
donde parecen juntarse las líneas paralelas que se
retiran (p. 115).
Variety/variedad Principio del arte que se preocupa por la
diferencia y el contraste (p. 288).
Vault/bóveda Tejado, techo o cubierta en forma de arco
hecho con ladrillo, piedra o concreto (p. 55).
Vehicle/vehículo Líquido, como el agua o el óleo, con
que se mezclan los pigmentos para hacer pintura o tinte.
Vertical lines/líneas verticales Líneas rectas que corren
de arriba para abajo, y de abajo para arriba (p. 72). Las
líneas verticales forman ángulos rectos con el borde
inferior de un papel o lienzo y con el horizonte, y son
paralelas a los bordes laterales de un papel o lienzo.
Viewing frame/marco de observación Una hoja de
papel con un área recortada del medio. Al sostener el
marco con el brazo extendido y ver un objeto por éste,
el artista puede fijarse en el área del objeto que quiere
dibujar o pintar.
Visual arts/artes visuales Las artes que producen objetos
bellos de ver.
Visual movement/movimiento visual El principio del
arte usado para crear la impresión y la sensación de la
acción y para guiar los ojos del observador por la obra
de arte (p. 211).
Visual rhythm/ritmo visual Ritmo que percibes con los
ojos en vez de con los oídos (p. 200).
Visual texture/textura visual Ilusión de una superficie
tridimensional basada en la memoria de cómo sienten
las cosas. Hay dos tipos de textura visual: la inventada y
la simulada (p. 173). El opuesto de la textura táctil.
Visual weight/peso visual La atracción que tienen los
elementos en una obra de arte para los ojos del
Space/espacio El elemento del arte que se refiere al vacío
o al área entre, alrededor de, encima de y debajo de
objetos. Las formas se definen por el espacio alrededor y
dentro de ellas (p. 103).
Spectral colors/colores espectrales Rojo, anaranjado,
amarillo, verde, azul y violeta (p. 136).
Split complementary colors/colores complementarios
divididos Un color y los colores a cada lado de su
complemento en el círculo cromático (p. 147). El rojo-
anaranjado, el azul y el verde son colores
complementarios divididos. Los colores complementarios
divididos se pueden usar como una combinación de
colores.
Stained glass/vidriera Recortes de vidrio colorido,
organizados en un diseño y unidos con varillas de
plomo.
Static/inmóvil Inactivo (p. 77). Las líneas verticales y
horizontales y las formas horizontales son inmóviles. El
opuesto de activo.
Still life/naturaleza muerta Pintura o dibujo de objetos
inanimados e inmóviles.
Stippling/sombreado punteado Técnica de sombrear
usando puntitos (p. 44).
Stitchery/puntadura Técnica de decorar la tela al coserle
fibras.
Stone Age/Edad de la Piedra Período de la historia
durante el cual se usaban herramientas de piedra (p. 320).
Storyboards/guión gráfico Una serie de dibujos de vista
fija que muestran la marcha de una historia (p. 395).
Stupas/stupas Edificios de culto con cupola y en forma de
colmena (p. 326).
Style/estilo Véase individual style.
Subject/tema La imagen que los observadores pueden
reconocer fácilmente en una obra de arte (p. 18).
Subordinate element/elemento secundario Elemento
de una obra de arte que se nota después de notar el
elemento dominante (p. 290).
Super-Realism/superrealismo Estilo artístico del siglo XX
que representa los objetos de modo preciso y exacto, tal
cómo parecen en la realidad (p. 381).
Surrealism/surrealismo Estilo artístico del siglo XX en el
que los sueños, la fantasía y el subconsciente servían a
los artistas como inspiración (p. 375).
Symbol/símbolo Algo que significa, o representa, otra
cosa (p. 16).
Symmetry/simetría Un tipo especial de equilibrio formal
en el que las dos mitades de una composición
equilibrada son reflejos idénticos (p. 230).
Synthetic/sintético Hecho con procesos químicos en vez
de procesos naturales.
T
Tactile texture/textura táctil Textura que se puede
percebir por el tacto. El opuesto de la textura visual
(p. 173).
Tapestry/tapiz Tela para colgar en la pared que es tejida,
pintada o bordada.
Tempera/pintura al temple Pintura hecha al mezclar
pigmentos con yema de huevo (temple de huevo) u
otro líquido. En las escuelas se usa la pintura al temple
de uso escolar (p. 47).
Texture/textura El elemento del arte que se refiere a
cómo se sienten las cosas, o cómo parecen que se
sentirían si se tocaron. La textura se percibe con el tacto
GLOSARIO
Glosario 483
observador. El peso visual es afectado por el tamaño, el
contorno, la intensidad de colores, lo cálido y lo frío que
son los colores, los contrastes de valor, la textura y la
posición (p. 228).
W
Warm colors/colores cálidos Rojo, anaranjado y amarillo
(p. 148). Los colores cálidos sugieren el calor y parecen
acercarse al observador. Se puede usar los colores cálidos
como una combinación de colores. El opuesto de los
colores fríos.
Warp/urdimbre En la tejeduría, hilos de largo sujetados
en el telar y cruzados por los hilos de trama.
Watercolor paint/pintura acuarela Pigmentos
transparentes mezclados con agua (p. 47).
Weaving/tejeduría El hacer tela al entrelazar dos juegos
de hilos paralelos, sujetados a ángulos rectos uno del
otro en un telar (p. 52).
Weft/trama En la tejeduría, hilos de cruce que se pasan
por encima y por debajo de los hilos de urdimbre.
Woodblock printing/grabado en madera El hacer
estampas al tallar imágenes en bloques de madera
(p. 330).
Y
Yarn/hilo Fibras hiladas en hebras para la tejeduría, el
labor de punto o el bordado.
Z
Ziggurats/zigurats Montañas escalonadas hechas de tierra
cubierta con ladrillos (p. 322).
Zigzag lines/líneas en zigzag Líneas formadas por
cambios de dirección cortos y fuertes (p. 73). Las líneas
en zigzag son una combinación de líneas diagonales. Se
pueden cambiar de dirección repentinamente.
GLOSARIO
484 Index
judging functional objects, 33
judging installation art, 63
judging your own artwork, 33
qualities of art, 31
theories, 31–32
See also Art criticism; Art Criticism in Action
African American Dance Ensemble, 225,
420
African art, 332–338
ancient Ife, 332–333
Asante kingdom, 335–337
Benin kingdom, 334–335
Bwa people, 337–338
Mali empire, 333–334
role of, 332
saving, 348
Afterimages, 137–138
Agbatana III (Stella), 380
Age of Faith, 354
Age of Forests (Ernst), 183
Akan people, 335–336
Albizu, Olga, Growth, 148, 149, 169
Albright, Ivan, 177
The Picture of Dorian Gray, 177
Aleut sculpture, 180
Alternating patterns, 208, 217
Alternating rhythm, 208
American Gothic (Wood), 12, 23
American Windows, The (Chagall), 41, 136
Analogous colors, 145, 165
Analysis step
of art criticism, 27–30
of art history, 34, 35
Ancient Chinese art, 324–325
Ancient Egyptian civilization, 323
Ancient Greece, 352–353
Ancient Ife, 332–333
Ancient Indian civilization, 323–324
Ancient Rome, 353
Anderson, N., Blue Dome-House Blessing,
227, 232
Andrews, Benny
Mom and Us, 81, 82, 95, 315
Thelonious at the Five Spot, 82, 95
Angkor Wat temple, 327
Anguissola, Sofonisba, 358
A Game of Chess, Involving the Painter's Three
Sisters and a Servant, 358
Portrait of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia,
292
Animation, 308–309, 451, 452
Animators, 308–309, 395–396
Ankhesenamun, Queen, 107
Anne of Cleves (Holbein), 9
Apollo, 276
Applied art
crafts, 52–53, 182–183
defined, 52
fine art vs., 52
texture in, 182–183
Approximate symmetry, 231, 240
Apron, beaded (Venezuela), 208, 210
Arabs Skirmishing in the Mountains
(Delacroix), 367
Arbitrary color, 154
Architects, 132, 386, 398, 399
landscape architects, 400
Architecture, 54–56, 132
activities, 54, 353, 355
ancient Greek, 352, 353
ancient Indian, 323–324
ancient Roman, 353
formal balance in, 240
Gothic, 355
Indian, 326, 327
informal balance in, 241
International Style, 381–382
Islamic, 331
Japanese, 328–329
media, 57–61
Mesopotamian, 322
Post-Modern, 382–383
pre-Columbian, 340, 341
prehistoric, 321
Romanesque, 354–355
texture in, 182
twentieth century, 376–377, 381–383
Arctic Region Art, 342
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer
(Rembrandt), 124, 178, 362
Armchair (Wright), 118–119
Armory Show of 1913, 376
Arnolfi Wedding, The (van Eyck), 168, 231,
359
Arreguin, Alfredo, 223
Nuestra Señora de la Selva, 222, 223
Art
as communication, 6–7
moving, 224
purposes of, 7–9
Art criticism, 26–30
aesthetics, 31–33
criteria, 26
defined, 25, 26
judging ceremonial objects, 33, 37
judging functional objects, 33
judging installation art, 63
judging your own artwork, 33
reasons for studying, 26–27
steps of, 27–30
See also Aesthetics; Art Criticism in Action
Art Criticism in Action, see table of
contents, xv
Art directors, 402–403
Art education careers, 404–405
Art history
Abstract Expressionism, 378
activities, 353, 355, 365, 373, 381
African art, 332–338
after 1945, 378–383
ancient Chinese art, 324–325
ancient Egyptian art, 323
ancient Greece and Rome, 352–353
ancient Indian art, 323–324
Baroque art, 361–362
Byzantine art, 354
Chinese art, 327–328
Color-Field painting, 380
Cubism, 374–375
early twentieth century art, 374–377
eighteenth century art, 363–365
Expressionism, 374
Futurists, 212
Gothic art, 355
Impressionism, 153, 181, 370, 373
Indian art, 326–327
International Style architecture, 381–382
Islamic art, 331
Japanese art, 328–330
Mannerism, 360
Mesopotamian art, 321–322
Middle Ages art, 354–355
Minimalism, 380
Native American art, 341–345
Neoclassicism, 366–367
nineteenth century art, 366–373
Op art, 379
Pop art, 378–379
Post-Impressionism, 371–373
Post-Modernism, 382–383
pre-Columbian art, 339–341
prehistoric art, 320
A
Abbott, Berenice, The Night View, 202
Aboriginal bark painting, 152
Abrasha, Hanukkah Menorah, 71–72
Abstract Expressionism, 168, 378
Acrylic paint, 47
Action painting, 13–14
Active shapes and forms, 120
Activities
active and static shapes, 120–121
aesthetic theories, 33
alternating pattern, 208
alternating rhythm, 208
analyzing ancient art, 325
analyzing lines in artworks, 73
animation critique, 396
architecture, 54, 353
art history, 353, 355, 365, 373, 381
balance, 231, 233, 238, 241
calligraphic lines, 83
careers in art, 396, 400
color, 142, 143, 149, 152, 157
color schemes, 149
contour lines, 81
contrast, 175, 289
credit line, 19
depth, creating, 115
display design, 400
emphasis, 295
expressive lines, 78
forms, 102, 112
geometric and free-form shapes, 100
gesture drawing, 82
gothic style, 355
human proportions, 264, 266
impressionism, 373
informal balance, 238
intensity, 143
lines, 76, 78, 81–83
logo design, 392
masks, 338
mixing colors, 152
motifs, 204
patterns, 204
perceiving, 7
point of view, 108
printing plate, 49
progressive rhythm, 210
proportion, 261, 264, 266, 273
radial balance, 233
random rhythm, 206
rhythm, 204, 206, 208, 210
scale, 261, 264, 266
shading, 112
shapes, 100, 108, 120–121
sketchbook, 15
sketching events, 345
space, 104, 107, 115
symbols, 16
symmetry, 231
texture, 174, 175, 183
traditional and digital media, 60
unity, 302
values, 76, 142
variety and contrast, 290
watercolor, 47
Adla, Ashevak, Walking Bear, 102
Advertising designers, 390, 393
Aesthetic experience, 27
Aestheticians, 31
Aesthetics, 31–33
activity, 33
defined, 26
judging ceremonial objects, 33, 37
INDEX
INDEX
Index 485
Realism, 368–370
Regionalism, 376–377
Renaissance art, 356–360
Rococo art, 363–365
Romanesque art, 354–355
Romanticism, 367–368
seventeenth century art, 360–362
Super-Realism, 381
Surrealism, 375
Art history operations, 34–35
Artistic decisions
evaluating in personal artworks, 85, 87, 89,
91, 123, 125, 127, 159, 161, 163, 165,
185, 187, 189, 191, 215, 217–219, 221,
243, 245, 247, 275, 277, 279, 281, 305,
307, 309, 311
interpreting in personal artworks, 85, 87,
89, 97, 123, 125, 127, 159, 161, 163,
185, 187, 189, 215, 217–219, 243, 245,
247, 275, 277, 279, 305, 307, 309
justifying in personal artworks, 85, 87, 123,
127, 187, 189, 218–219, 247, 277, 305
Artists
defined, 11
reasons for creating, 10
sources of ideas, 11–15
as sources of ideas, 14–15
Art Nouveau, 287
Art reviews. See Aesthetics; Art criticism; Art
Criticism in Action
Artsource® Performing Arts Handbook
African American Dance Ensemble, 225,
420
Ballet Folklorico de Mexico, 95, 416
Cello Man, 285, 422
Cunningham, Merce, 65, 415
“Danza de la Reata,” 95, 416
Davis, Chuck, 225, 420
Eth-Noh-Tec, 253, 421
Faustwork Mask Theater, 23, 413
Featherstone, Joanna, 169, 418
Friesen, Eugene, 285, 422
Graham, Martha, 39, 414
Green Table, The, 387, 425
Jooss, Kurt, 387, 425
Korean Classical Music and Dance
Company, 349, 424
Lewitzky Dance Company, 133, 417
Ramirez, John, 409, 426
Vocalworks, 315, 423
Winter, Paul, 195, 419
Art teachers, 404
Art therapists, 404
Art trade, illegal, 348
Artworks
basic properties of, 18–19
definition of, 6
Asante kingdom, 335–337
Ascension Day Festival at Venice (Canaletto),
43
Ashcan School, 376
Asian art
ancient Chinese, 324–325
ancient Indian, 323–324
Chinese, 327–328
folk traditions of music and dance, 349, 424
Indian, 326–327
Japanese, 328–330
Assemblages, 186
Assembling technique, 51
Assistive technology, 391
Assyrian civilization, 322
Asymmetry (informal balance), 234–238,
246–247
Atmospheric perspective, 114
AVI sound files, 452
Avocational opportunities in art,
comparing/contrasting, 23, 389, 405
Aztec culture, 119, 340–341
Aztec people, Sculpture in the form of the
deity Quetzalcoatl, 119
B
Baby (Cradle) (Klimt), 286, 287
Babylonian civilization, 322
Background, 113
Back of Marie's No. 4 (O'Keeffe), 39,
316–317
Balance, 226–253
activities, 231, 233, 238, 241
asymmetrical, 246–247
central axis, 228–229
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 169, 227, 233, 239–241, 248–249,
251, 385
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 159, 243
defined, 228
expressive qualities of, 239–241
formal, 248
formal balance, 229, 239–241
informal, 248, 249
informal balance, 234–238, 241
radial balance, 231–233, 240–241
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by peers for,
248–249
selecting/analyzing the use of in personal
artworks, 245, 247
student art portfolio, 248–249
symmetry, 230–231, 240
tipping the, 252
visual balance, 228–233
Ball, Philip, 168
Ballet Folklorico de Mexico, 95, 416
Bamana peoples, 334
Bandolier bag (Ojibwe people), 208, 210
Bark painting, Aboriginal, 152
Baroque art, 361–362
activity, 365
defined, 361
in Holland, 361–362
in Italy, 361
Barricade (Orozco), 28
Bashkirtseff, Marie, A Meeting, 301
Basket of Apples, The (Cézanne), 155
Bas relief, 106, 107. See also Relief sculpture
Battle of Lights, Coney Island Mardi Gras
(Stella), 212, 213
Bay, The (Frankenthaler), 111
Bayou Teche (Straus), 6
Bearden, Romare, 184
In the Garden, 184
Return of Ulysses, 12, 13, 133
Beats, 205, 206, 208, 209
Beaux, Cecilia, Ethel Page (Mrs. James
Large), 290
Before the Ballet (Degas), 238
Beliefs as sources of ideas, 12–13
Bellows, George, Both Members of This
Club, 258, 274
Bell Tower of the Cathedral at Pisa, 228
Bench, ceramic, in Barcelona park (Guadi),
194
Benin people, 262, 335
Benton, Thomas Hart, 13
Country Dance, 78, 79, 90
Cradling Wheat, 376, 377
Berman, Eugene, Vendeur de Chapeaux, 43
Bicycle Race, The (Ruiz), 126
Biggers, John, Starry Crown, 99
Binders of paints, 45, 150
Bird in Space (Brancusi), 118, 133
Bird Mask (Yup'ik people), 13
Bishop, Isabel, Head #5, 44, 45
Bitmap, file formats, 449
Black as neutral color, 139
Blackfeet people, 344
Black Hawk, Chief, Crow Men in
Ceremonial Dress, 200
Blam (Lichtenstein), 379, 383
Blanketed Figure Vase (Qoyawayma), 50, 51
Blending technique, 44
Blessing Rain Chant (Namingha), 75, 77, 95
Blue Boy, The (Gainsborough), 193, 364
Blue Dome-House Blessing (Anderson), 227,
232
Blue Rider movement, The, 135
Bondie, Edith, Porkypine Basket, 52, 65
Bonheur, Rosa, 201, 225, 369
The Horse Fair, 201, 225, 369
Bonnard, Pierre, Family Scene, 266
Book illustrations
for Duke Ellington: The Piano Prince and His
Orchestra (Pinkney), 406–407
Islamic, 331
for Journeys with Elijah (Pinkney), 237
Bookmaking, 64, 158–159
Borsky, David
Wall from the sunken courtyard of Tiwauaku,
55
Waterfall, 209
Both Members of This Club (Bellows), 258
Brady, Mathew, 369
Civil War, 369
Brahma, 327
Brancusi, Constantin, 104, 118
Bird in Space, 118, 133
The Kiss, 104, 133, 195
Braque, Georges, 375
Breakfast of the Birds (Münter), 18
Brice, Jeff, Untitled, 59
Bright Earth (Ball), 168
Brown, Roger, Hurricane Hugo, 10–11
Buddhism, 227, 297, 318, 319, 326, 327
Buildings, 194
Burkina Faso, 337
Business and industry careers, 390–403.
See also Careers in art
Bust of Queen Idia (Africa), 348
Butterfield, Deborah, 131
Woodrow, 130–131
Bwa people, 337–338
Byzantine art, 319, 354
C
Cabin in the Cotton (Pippin), 234
Café Terrace at Night (van Gogh), 293
Calder, Alexander, 213, 376
Lobster Trap and Fish Tail, 213
Untitled, 213
Calligraphic drawing, 83
Calligraphy, 83
Cameras, digital, 60
Canaletto, Ascension Day Festival at Venice,
43
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da, 361
The Conversion of St. Paul, 361
Careers in art, 388–409
activities, 396, 400
advertising designer, 393
animator, 395–396
architect, 398, 399
art director, 402–403
art education careers, 404–405
art teacher, 404
art therapist, 404
INDEX
486 Index
Chihuly, Dale, 41
Malina Window, 40, 41
Children, proportions of, 263
Children at Play (Lawrence), 78, 80, 95, 377
Children Dancing (Gwathmey), 297, 303
Chinese art, 327–328
ancient, 324–325
Chinese pair of vases (Ming Dynasty), 99
Chrysler Building (van Alen), 206
Chryssa, 303
The Gates to Times Square, 303
Church, Frederic Edwin, The Icebergs, 2–3
Church Quinua (Peru), 107
Cinematographers, 58, 395
Circular forms, 280
Civil Rights Memorial, The (Lin), 386
Civil War (Brady), 369
Clay
crafts processes, 53
free-form sculpture project, 122–123
texture using, 182
wedged, 123
See also Ceramics
Close, Chuck, 385
Paul, 384–385
Self-Portrait, 385
Closed form, 107
Clothespin (Oldenburg), 261
CMYK (Cyan, magenta, yellow and
black), 139, 450
Collage, 167, 179–180, 274–275
activity, 261
defined, 179
digital color studio project, 162–163
studio projects, 306–307
tissue paper, 440
Collagraphs, 184–185
Color, 134–169
activities, 142, 143, 149, 152, 157
afterimages, 137–138
analogous colors, 145
arbitrary color, 154
color schemes, 144–149
color spectrum, 136–138
color triads, 146–147
color wheel, 138
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 23, 135, 149, 164–165, 167, 169,
283, 310–311, 351
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 87, 159, 163, 215, 217, 243, 275,
305, 307
complementary colors, 142–143, 146, 150
defined, 136
expressive qualities, 135, 136, 144–148,
152–157
hue, 138–139
informal balance using, 235–236
intensity, 142–143, 164
mixing colors, 140, 143, 152–154
monochromatic colors, 145
movement and, 155–156
nature and uses of, 150–157
optical color, 152–154
paint, 150–152
perception of, 136–138, 144
perspective technique, 114, 116
pigments, 44–45, 150–152
properties of, 136–143
scheme, 164, 165
seeing, in art, 168
selecting/analyzing the use of in personal
artworks, 279
shades, 140–141
simultaneous contrast, 144
space and, 155
split complements, 147
student art portfolio, 164–165
texture and, 178–179
tints, 140
tonality, 157
value, 139–142, 155–156
warm and cool colors, 148–149, 155
Color-Field painting, 380
Color models, 450
Color schemes, 144–149
activity, 149
analogous colors, 145
color triads, 146–147
complementary colors, 146, 150
defined, 144
monochromatic colors, 145
split complements, 147
warm and cool colors, 148–149, 155
Color spectrum, 136–137
color wheel and, 138
star book studio project, 158–159
Color systems, 139, 450
Color triads, 146–147, 165
Color wheel, 138. See also Color schemes
Colossal Head (Olmec sculpture), 171, 339
Columbus, Christopher, 341
Coming of Age (Houser), 209
Commercial illustrators, 393
Commissions as sources of ideas, 15
Communication, art as, 6–7
Complementary colors, 142–143, 165
in color schemes, 146
defined, 142
intensity and, 143, 150
split complements, 147
Composition of artworks, 18
Computers, 59–61
activity, 60
animators, 396
art tools, 60–61
careers in art and, 390–391
creating art with, 59–60
game designers, 397
monitors, 446
simulators, 397
Concert, The (Leyster), 178, 256, 257
Concert, The (Vermeer), 350, 351
Constantinople, 354
Constructing technique, 51
Constructive Universalism, 88
Content of artworks, 19
Context clues, 3
Contour, informal balance using, 234–235
Contour drawing, 81
Contour lines, 81
Contrast
activities, 175, 289
for focal point, 291
simultaneous contrast, 144
studio project, 124–125
Convergence for focal point, 293
Converging lines (perspective technique),
113, 115, 116
Conversation in Autumn (Yen), 328, 331
Conversion of St. Paul, The (Caravaggio),
361
Cool colors, 148–149, 155
Costumes, 224, 403
Country Dance (Benton), 78, 79, 90
Court Drummers of the Timi of Ede (Yoruba
people), 37
Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue
(O'Keeffe), 30
Cracker Jack Choo Choo (Solberg), 214
Cradling Wheat (Benton), 376, 377
Crafts, 52–53, 182–183
cartoonist, 394
commercial illustrator, 393
comparing/contrasting, 39, 95, 169, 225,
285, 349, 389, 397, 405, 408, 409
costume designer, 403
environmental planning and development,
398–400
exhibit and display designers, 400
fashion designer, 402
film and video, 395–397
fine artists, 405
game designers, 397
graphic design, 391–393
graphic designer, 392
illustration, 393–394
industrial design, 401–402
interior designer, 400
landscape architect, 400
multimedia designer, 396
museum curator, 39
museum curator and designer, 404
package designer, 402
photographer, 394
photojournalist, 395
product designer, 401–402
special effects designer, 396
technology and, 390–391
thinking about, 405
in three-dimensional art, 398–405
in two-dimensional art, 390–397
urban planner, 399
web designers, 397
Caricatures, 94, 284
Carr, Emily
Cumshewa, 241
A Rushing Sea of Undergrowth, 236
Cartoonists, 272, 284, 394
Carving technique, 51
Cassatt, Mary, Margot in Blue, 140, 143
Casting technique, 51, 193
Cathedral (Pollock), 13–14, 42
Cathedrals
Chartres, 355
Gothic, 355
at Pisa, Bell Tower, 228
Reims, 106, 194
Catlett, Elizabeth
Sharecropper, 48, 191
Singing Their Songs, 312–313
Cave painting, 320
Cel (animation), 308
Cello Man (Friesen), 285, 422
Central axis, 228–229
Ceramics
Chinese, 328
studio projects, 242–243
texture in, 182
See also Clay
Ceremonial Robe, 298
Cézanne, Paul, 162, 255, 371
The Basket of Apples, 155
The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, 371
Chagall, Marc
The American Windows, 41, 136
The Green Violinist, 282–283
Homage to Gogol, 271
Chair (Rashid), 408
Chairs, 304, 408
Chamba Rumal (Himachai Pradesh, India),
244
Chamberlain, Wilt, 262
Chartres Cathedrals, 355
Chess set (Rashid), 408
Cheyenne people, 344
Chiaroscuro, 112, 124, 125
INDEX
Index 487
Creating
reasons for, 10
sources of ideas, 11–15
Creative techniques as sources of ideas,
13–14
Credit line, 19
Criteria, 26
Critiquing artworks. See Aesthetics; Art
criticism; Art Criticism in Action
Cromartie, James H., View of the White
House, South Portico, 230
Crosshatching, 44, 76
Crow Men in Ceremonial Dress (Chief Black
Hawk), 200
Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni (Kashmir),
318, 319
Crow people, 344
Cubism, 86, 374–375
Cumshewa, (Carr), 241
Cuneiform writing, 321
Cunningham, Merce, 65, 415
Cups 4 Picasso (Johns), 103–104
Curved lines, 73, 77–78. See also Line(s)
Cyan, magenta, yellow and black
(CMYK), 139, 450
D
Daguerre, L. J. M., 58
Daguerreotype, 58
Dali, Salvador, 278
The Elephants, 278
Dallas Piece (Moore), 122
Daniel in the Lions’ Den (Rubens), 291, 295
“Danza de la Reata,” 95, 416
David, Jacques-Louis, The Death of
Socrates, 366
David (Michelangelo), 267, 273
da Vinci, Leonardo. See Leonardo da Vinci
Davis, Chuck, 225, 420
Davis, Stuart, Hot Still Scape for Six Colors-
7th Avenue Style, 1940, 154–156
Dawn (Nevelson), 300, 303
Day and Night (Escher), 218
Death of Socrates, The (David), 366
Decalcomania, 183
Decorated found objects, 304–305
Decorative patterns, 204
Degas, Edgar, 181
Before the Ballet, 238
The Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer, 180, 181,
195
Self-Portrait, 181
Delacroix, Eugéne, 367
Arabs Skirmishing in the Mountains, 367
Density, 118
Depth, illusion of, 113–116
Depth perception, 108
Der Blaue Reiter, 18, 135
Description step
of art criticism, 27–30
of art history, 34–35
Detail, illusion of depth and, 114
Diagonal lines, 72, 78. See also Line(s)
Digital cameras, 60, 447
Digital effects, 396
Digital fantasy creature, 278–279
Digital image using line, 88
Digital Media Handbook, 445–454
digital cameras, 447
draw software, 450
frame animation software, 452
graphics tablets, 448
multimedia presentation software, 453
page layout software, 454
paint software, 449
scanners, 446
3-D Graphics software, 451
Digital printmaking, 246–247
Digital studio projects
animation movie poster, 308–309
asymmetrical balance painting, 246–247
digital color collage, 162–163
digital fantasy creature, 278–279
digital genre scene, 126–127
digital image using line, 88
digital rendering of reflections, 218–219
layered self-portrait, 188–189
Digital systems, 59
Dimension, 70
Diner With Red Door (Goings), 112, 113
Direction of lines, 73
Direct observation
creating visual solutions by elaborating
on, 5, 15, 81, 82, 97, 104, 108, 124, 125,
184–185, 199, 204, 227, 231, 247, 255,
266
illustrating ideas for artworks from, 7, 82,
87, 124, 125, 129, 158, 231, 247, 277,
353
Directors (theater and film), 224
Dirty Snow (Mitchell), 179
Discobolus (Discus Thrower) (Myron), 352,
353
Dish (Valencia, Spain), 232, 233
Display and exhibit designers, 400
Display techniques, 441–442
Dissolves, 453
Distortion and exaggeration, 268–273
Divine Proportion, 257
Dla'ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear
Beneath Kolus (Shaughnessy), 250–251
Dogon people, 334
Dominant element, 290
Doors, painted, 306
Drawing
activities, 15, 104, 112, 115, 231, 241, 264,
266, 345
calligraphic drawing, 83
contour drawing, 81
contrast, 124–125
gesture drawing, 82
heads and faces, 264–266
human figures, 262–264
media, 43–44
overview, 42–43
shading techniques, 44
sketchbook, 15
studio projects, 276–277
techniques, 428–431
Draw programs, 60
Dream Series (Hines), 57, 58
Duchamp, Marcel, 213
Dunnigan, John, Slipper Chair, 33
Dürer, Albrecht, An Oriental Ruler Seated
on His Throne, 76
Dutch Baroque art, 361–362
Dutch painters, 350, 351
Dyes, 151–152
Dynamism, 212
Dynasties, 324–325
Dzawada'enuxw people, 250–251
E
East Wind Suite: Door (Twiggs), 10, 42
Echoes of Harlem (quilt), 199
Echo of a Scream (Siqueiros), 235, 253
Editions, 48
Edo people, 335
Educational functions of art, 8–9
Education careers, 404–405
Egyptian art, ancient, 323
Eight, The, 376
Eighteenth century art, 362–365
Ejiri in Suruga Province (Hokusai), 330,
335, 349
El Coronelazo (Self-Portrait) (Siqueiros), 264
Elements of art
color, 134–169
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 19
composition and, 18–19
defined, 16
form, 100, 101–102, 111–121
line, 68–95
in nonobjective art, 18
overview, 16–17
shape, 98–100, 101, 108–121
space, 103–107, 111–121
texture, 170–195
value, 139–142
See also Symbols; specific elements
Elephants, The (Design for the Opera La
Dama Spagnola e il Cavaliere Romano)
(Dali), 278
Elevator Grille (Sullivan), 204
El Greco, 360
Saint Martin and the Beggar, 360, 365
Elvis Presley, “Blue Suede Shoes”
(Hirschfeld), 94
Embarkment for Cythera (Watteau), 363
Emotionalism, 32
Emphasis, 287, 289–295, 306–307
activity, 295
of areas, 290–295
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 287, 295, 351
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 88, 89, 123, 307
defined, 290
of elements, 290
focal point, 290–295
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 310–311
student art portfolio, 310–311
unity enhanced by, 302–303
England, Rococo style in, 363–364
Environmental planning and
development careers, 398–400. See also
Careers in art
Equestrian figure (Mali), 333
Ergonomics, 448
Ernst, Max, 183
Age of Forests, 183
Escher, M. C., 105, 218
Day and Night, 218
Portrait of M. C. Escher, 105
Reptiles, 210
Waterfall, 105, 133
Estes, Richard, Paris Street Scene, 381, 383
Etchings, 158, 159
Ethel Page (Mrs. James Large) (Beaux), 290
Ethnography (Siqueiros), 294
Eth-Noh-Tec, 253, 421
Events as sources of ideas, 12
Exaggeration and distortion, 268–273,
278–279, 281, 284
Executable files, 453
Exhibit and display designers, 400
Experience Music Project, The (Gehry), 132
Experiences
creating visual solutions by elaborating on,
16, 127, 160–161
illustrating ideas for artworks from, 127,
160–161, 244–245
Expressionism, 135, 374
INDEX
488 Index
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 65, 97, 102, 128–129, 131, 280,
283, 310–311
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 129, 215, 219, 305
creation in space, 111–116
defined, 101
density, 118
depth perception, 108
expression with, 117–121
geometric, 128
illusion of form, 111–112
natural vs. manufactured, 111
openness, 118–119
overview, 101–102
point of view and, 108–110
and proportion, 280
relationship to shapes, 100, 101
relationship to space, 103
student art portfolio, 128–129
surfaces, 117–118
Found objects
collage, 306–307
decorated, studio project, 304–305
jewelry, studio project, 214–215
Four in Block Work Quilt (Peachey), 202
Four Mandalas of the Vajravali Series (Tibet;
Tsang, Ngor Monastery), 226
Frame animation software, 452
Frames, 454
Frankenthaler, Helen, 111
The Bay, 111
Free-form clay sculpture, 122–123
Free-form forms, 102
Free-form shapes, 99–100
Freestanding works, 50, 106, 107
French Revolution, 366
Friesen, Eugene, 285, 422
Cello Man, 285, 422
Front cover of The Gospels (Armenian), 158
Frottage, 183
Fruit Vendors (Tamayo), 196–197
Functional patterns, 204
Futurists, 212
G
Gainsborough, Thomas, 363–364
The Blue Boy, 193, 364
Game designers, 397
Game of Chess, A, Involving the Painter's
Three Sisters and a Servant (Anguissola),
358
Gates to Times Square, The (Chryssa), 303
Gauguin, Paul, 371, 372
Faaturuma (Melancholic), 372
Tahitians, 265–266
Gehry, Frank, 132, 389
The Experience Music Project, 132
The Guggenheim Museum, 56, 132, 388, 389,
409
Genre scene, 126–127
Gentileschi, Artemisia, Judith and
Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes,
111
Geometric form, 128
Geometric shapes
activity, 100
defined, 98
expressiveness, 117–118
overview, 98–99, 100
German Abstract Expressionism, 18
Gesture drawing, 82
Gestures, 82
GIF file formats, 449
Giotto, Madonna and Child, 263
Girl Attacked by a Strange Bird (Tamayo),
141, 143, 169
Girl with the Red Hat (Vermeer), 362
Gladioli (Monet), 370
Glarner, Fritz, Relational Painting, Tondo
#40, 147
Glassblowing, 40, 41
Glass processes, 53
Goddess Hathor Places the Magic Collar on
Sethos I, The (Egyptian), 323
Gogol, Nikolay Vasilyevich, 271
Goings, Ralph, Diner With Red Door, 112
Golden Mean, 256–259, 274, 275, 280, 281
Golden Rectangle, 256
Gothic art, 355
Gothic ornament, 194
Goya, Francisco, 364
The Third of May, 364–365
Gracehopper (Smith), 101, 102, 104
Graham, Martha, 39, 414
Grandma Moses, Sugaring Off, 110
Granite Weaving Playscape (Moroles), 170,
171
Graphic design, 391–393
Graphic designers, 15, 392
Graphics tablets, 61, 448
Grattage, 183
Graves, Nancy, Zaga, 51, 65
Gray as neutral color, 139–140
Great Buddha at Kamakura (Japan), 171,
329
Great Plains Region art, 344
Great Plaza of Tikal, 171, 340
Great Stupa (Sanchi, India), 326
Greece, ancient, 352–353
Green Table, The, 387, 425
Green Violinist, The (Chagall), 282–283
Griots, 334
Grooms, Red, Ruckus Rodeo, 24, 25
Ground, 103. See also Negative space
Growth (Albizu), 148, 149, 169
Guadi, Antonio, 194
ceramic bench in Barcelona park, 194
Segrada Familia, 194
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain,
(Gehry), 56, 132, 388, 389, 409
Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, The
(Cézanne), 371
Gwathmey, Robert, Children Dancing, 297,
303
H
Habitat (Safdie), 382
Haida people, 342–343
Haida totem pole, 249, 343
Hall of the Bulls, The (cave painting), 320
Handblown glass, 40, 41
Haniwa Horse, 117
Hanson, Duane, 381
Football Player, 192–193
Old Couple on a Bench, 381
Hanukkah Menorah (Abrasha), 71–72
Harbor Under the Midnight Sun (Johnson),
162, 169
Harmony, 287, 295, 306–309
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 385
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 305, 307, 309
defined, 295
and unity, 310
unity enhanced by, 302–303
and variety, 311
Harriet Tubman Series Number 4
(Lawrence), 216
Expressive qualities
activity, 157
of balance, 239–241
of color, 136, 152–157
of color schemes, 144–149
defined, 31
emotionalism and, 32
exaggeration and distortion, 268–273
of line, 77–83
lines, 88, 89
of shapes and forms, 117–121
of value, 140–141, 155–156
Extrude command, 450
F
Faaturuma (Melancholic) (Gauguin), 372
Faces, 264–266, 272
Fallingwater House (Wright), 300–301, 377
False Faces, 345
False Mirror, The (Magritte), 375, 377
Family, The (Marisol), 268
Family Scene (Bonnard), 266
Fashion designers, 402
Father and Daughter (Schapiro), 166–167
Faustwork Mask Theater, 23, 413
Fauves (“Wild Beasts”), 69
Feather Bonnet (Northwestern Plains
people), 345
Featherstone, Joanna, 169, 418
Feiss, David, Thrown for a Curve, 308
Femmage, 167
Fiber processes, 53. See also Weavings
Fiesta Jarabel (Jimenez), 314
Figure, 103. See also Positive space
Figure Triste (Picabia), 148, 169
Film, 58, 395–397
Fine art, 52, 278
Fine artists, 15, 405
Fish, Janet
Oranges, 175, 176
Raspberries and Goldfish, 16–17
Flack, Audrey, Self-Portrait: The Memory,
82
Flash memory, 447
Flower Day (Rivera), 229, 253
Flowering Swamp (Hofmann), 378
Flowing rhythm, 208–209, 220
Focal point, 290–295
Folk artists, 10
Fonts, 392, 454
Football Player (Hanson), 192–193
Foreground, 113
Formal balance, 229, 239–241, 248
Formalism, 31
Formal qualities, 18, 31, 374
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by others
for, 325, 349, 373
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by peers for,
91, 128, 129, 221, 248–249
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 21, 37, 63, 93, 313, 347, 407
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 128–129
selecting/analyzing portfolios by peers for,
90–91, 128–129, 164–165, 190–191,
220–221, 248–249, 280–281, 310–311
See also specific elements, e.g., Color, Line;
specific principles, e.g., Rhythm,
Movement
Form(s)
active vs. static, 120–121
activities, 102, 112
architectural, 132
circular, 280
closed, 107
INDEX
Index 489
Hassam, Childe, Jelly Fish, 157
Hatching technique, 44
Head #5 (Bishop), 44, 45
Headdress for Epa Masquerade (Yoruba
people), 36–37
Heads, 264–266, 272
Hierarchical proportion, 260
High-intensity colors, 142
High-key paintings, 140
Highlights, 112–113
High relief
African, 335
collage, 306–307
defined, 106
See also Relief sculpture
Himalayas, 244
Hinduism, 326–327
Hines, Jessica, Dream Series, 57, 58
Hiroshige, Utagawa (Ando¯¯ ) , 93
Plum Garden at Kameido, 92–93, 349
Hirschfeld, Al, 94
Elvis Presley, “Blue Suede Shoes,” 94
Self-Portrait at 99, 94
Historical and cultural contexts
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 84, 86, 88, 122, 124, 126, 158,
160, 162, 184, 188, 214, 216, 218, 242,
244, 246, 274, 276, 278, 304, 306, 308,
314, 339–345, 365
selecting/analyzing original artworks/
portfolios by peers for, 129, 191, 281, 310
Historical/cultural heritage
comparing/contrasting contemporary styles
to identify general themes, 5, 23, 25, 39,
95, 97, 133, 225, 229, 253, 315, 351
comparing/contrasting contemporary styles
to identify general trends, 25, 41, 285,
351, 383, 409
comparing/contrasting historical styles to
identify general themes, 25, 201, 319,
351, 377, 387
comparing/contrasting historical styles to
identify general trends, 25, 65, 195, 319,
331, 349, 351, 365
describing general characteristics from a
variety of cultures, 171, 227, 251,
304–305, 319, 325, 338, 351, 355, 381
Hmong Story Cloth (Xiong), 211, 213, 225
Hodler, Ferdinand, 240
James Vilbert, Sculptor, 240
Hofmann, Hans, Flowering Swamp, 378
Hokusai, Katsushika, 330
Ejiri in Suruga Province, 330, 335, 349
Portrait of Hokusai as an Old Man, 330
Shichiri Beach in Sagami Province, 246
Holbein, Hans, Anne of Cleves, 9
Holograms, 107
Homage to Gogol (Chagall), 271
Homer, Winslow, 46, 65
Hound and Hunter, 46, 47, 65
Sketch for Hound and Hunter, 46, 47, 65
Hoover, John, Shaman's Journey, 180
Hopper, Edward, Railroad Sunset, 77
Horizontal lines, 72, 77. See also Line(s)
Horse Fair, The (Bonheur), 201, 225, 369
Hot Still Scape for Six Colors-7th Avenue Style
(Davis), 154–156
Hound and Hunter (Homer), 46, 47, 65
Houser, Allan, 299
Coming of Age, 209
Reverie, 298, 299, 315, 387
Howl (Jimenez), 314
Huari people, 207
Hue(s), 138–139, 164
comparing/contrasting the use of in the
artworks of others, 135
defined, 138
intermediate colors, 138
primary, 139
primary hues, 138
secondary hues, 138
shades, 140–141
tints, 140
value, intensity and, 136
value and intensity and, 143
Human figure
activities, 264, 266
drawing human proportions, 262–266
Golden Mean and, 256, 257, 259
heads and faces, 264–266
Humor, 284
Huntington, Anna Hyatt, Riders to the Sea,
120
Hurricane Hugo (Brown), 10–11
Hyper-Realism, 381
I
Icebergs, The (Church), 2–3
Ife, ancient, 332–333
Illusion
of depth, 113–117
of form, 111–112
from positive and negative spaces, 103, 105
Illustration, 393–394
Imagination
creating visual solutions by elaborating on,
16, 78, 97, 115, 122–123, 183, 227, 233,
242–243, 278–279, 295, 325
illustrating ideas for artworks from, 78,
233, 242–243, 278–279, 325
Imitationalism, 31
Implied lines, 71, 90
Impressionism, 153, 181, 370, 373
In-betweeners, 395
Inca empire, 341
Indian art, 318, 319, 326–327
ancient, 323–324
Individual style, 35
Indus River Valley, 323
Industrial design, 401–402, 408
Industry and business careers, 390–403.
See also Careers in art
Infant proportions, 263
Informal balance, 234–238, 241, 248, 249.
See also Balance
In Her Own Image (Schapiro), 180
Inness, George, 11
The Lackawanna Valley, 11
Inspiration, sources of, 11–15
Installations, 25, 40, 41, 63
Intaglio, 49
Intensity, 142–143
activity, 143
color, 164
complementary colors, 142–143, 150
defined, 142
hue, value and, 136
hue and value and, 143
mixing colors, 143, 152–154
scale, 142
Intent
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by others
for, 349, 373
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by peers for,
221, 249, 280, 281
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 4, 9–12, 14, 30, 93, 131, 167,
239–241, 287, 347
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 280, 281
selecting/analyzing portfolios by peers for,
129, 191, 280, 281
Interior designers, 400
Interior of Saint Peter's Rome (Panini), 113
Interior with Egyptian Curtain (Matisse),
68, 69, 95
Intermediate colors, 138
complements, 142
International Style architecture, 381–382
Interpretation step
of art criticism, 27, 29
of art history, 34, 35
In the Garden (Bearden), 184
Inuit people, 102, 342, 347
Invented textures, 174, 183
Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and Crocuses
(Thomas), 26
Iron figure (Mali), 334
Islamic art, 331
Isolation for focal point, 292
Italian Renaissance, 356–358
Italian Woman, The (Roualt), 74
J
Jacquette, Yvonne, Town of Skowhegan,
Maine V, 7 0
Jaguar Chair (Russell), 304
James Vilbert, Sculptor (Hodler), 240
Japanese art, 328–330
Jar (Shanxi or Henan Province, China),
297
Jelly Fish (Hassam), 157
Jenne, 334
Jewelry, 84
Asante people (Africa), 336
as relief sculpture, 106
texture in, 182
Jimenez, Luis, 314
Fiesta Jarabel, 314
Howl, 314
Vaquero, 50
Johns, Jasper
Cups 4 Picasso, 103–104
Map, 296
Johnson, Philip
Seagram Building (with Mies van der Rohe),
382
Water Garden, 298
Johnson, William H., Harbor Under the
Midnight Sun, 162, 169
Jooss, Kurt, 387, 425
JPEG images, 449
Judgment step
of art criticism, 27, 29–30
of art history, 34, 35
Judith and Maidservant with the Head of
Holofernes (Gentileschi), 111
Julie Taymor, 224
The Lion King, 224
K
Kahlo, Frida, 5
Self Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky,
239, 280
Self-Portrait with Monkey, 4, 5
Kandinsky, Wassily, 135
Tension in Red, 134, 135, 154
Kaolin clay, 328
Kapoor, Anish, 168
Kashmir, Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni,
318, 319
Kente cloth, 336, 337
Kiitsu, Suzuki, 411
Reeds and Cranes, 410-411
Kinetic sculpture, 107, 213
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 386
INDEX
490 Index
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 85, 87–89, 217, 305
contour lines, 81
defined, 70
expressive qualities, 77–83
gesture drawing, 82
implied lines, 71, 75
interpreting, 91
meaning of, 70–71
movement, 77–80, 90
outlines, 71
and patterns, 91
perspective technique, 115, 116
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 73, 83
student art portfolio, 90–91
value and, 75–76
variations in appearance, 72–73, 75
Lintels, 321
Lion King, The (Taymor), 224
Literal qualities, 31
Lithography, 49, 184, 312–314
Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer, The
(Degas), 180, 181, 195
Lobster Trap and Fish Tail (Calder), 213
Location
in credit line, 19
for focal point, 292
placement (perspective technique), 114,
116
See also Position
Logos, 392, 393
Looking Closely, see table of contents, xiv
Low-intensity colors, 142, 143
Low-key paintings, 140–141
Low relief, 106, 107. See also Relief
sculpture
M
Machu-Picchu (Peru), 341
Madonna and Child (Giotto), 263
Magritte, René, The False Mirror, 375, 377
Maids of Honor, The (Las Meninas)
(Velázquez), 14–15, 23
“Ma Jolie” (Woman with a Zither or Guitar)
(Picasso), 375
Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a
City, The (Rivera), 254, 255
Mali empire, 333–334
Malina Window (Chihuly), 40, 41
Mandalas, 226, 227, 244–245
Manet, Édouard, 368
The Railway, 65, 368–369
Mannerism, 360
Manufactured vs. natural shapes and
forms, 111
Manuscript illuminators, 391
Map (Johns), 296
Map Still Life with Carnation, Keys, and
Glasses (Zalucha), 173, 176
Marc, Franz, Yellow Cow, 154, 285
Margot in Blue (Cassatt), 140, 143
Marisol, The Family, 268
Mask (New Ireland), 272, 273
Mask of Moon Goddess (Inuit), 342
Masks
activity, 338
Bwa people, 337–338
ceramic, 242–243
exaggeration and distortion in, 272–273
False Faces, 345
Inuit people, 342
mukenga, 242
Tapirapé people, 182, 183
Yup'ik people, 13
Matisse, Henri, 69, 374
and Picasso, 38
Interior with Egyptian Curtain, 68, 69, 95
Red Interior Still Life on a Blue Table, 38
Matte surfaces, 175
Mayan culture, 171, 340
Mays, J, 401
Volkswagen Beetle, 401
McKie, Judy Kensley, Monkey Settee, 53,
65
Meaning
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by others
for, 349, 373
selecting/analyzing exhibitions by peers for,
91, 128, 129, 164, 221, 249
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 21, 63, 69, 83, 88, 93, 131,
135, 157, 167, 171, 183, 223, 251, 283,
313, 385, 407
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 91, 128, 129, 164
selecting/analyzing portfolios by peers for,
91, 128, 129, 164, 191, 281
Media, 40–65
architecture, 54–56
computers, 59–61
crafts, 52–53
drawing, 42–44
film, 58
multimedia art, 61
painting, 44–47
photography, 58
printmaking, 48–49
sculpture, 50–51
technological, 57–61
three-dimensional, 50–56
two-dimensional, 42–49
video, 59
Media and tools
demonstrating effective use of in design,
54, 100, 120, 135, 149, 208, 238, 302,
338, 392
demonstrating effective use of in drawing,
41, 60, 76, 124–125, 127, 135, 157–161,
175, 216–217, 242–245, 274–277,
308–309
demonstrating effective use of in painting,
41, 47, 126–127, 135, 142, 160–163,
175, 188–189, 216–217, 246, 274–279,
304–305, 308–309
demonstrating effective use of in
photography, 88–89
demonstrating effective use of in
printmaking, 41, 49, 184–185
demonstrating effective use of in sculpture,
41, 122–123, 186–187, 242
Medium, 19, 42
Meeting, A (Bashkirtseff), 301
Meet the Artist, see table of contents, xv
Megaliths, 321
Melancholic (Faaturuma) (Gauguin), 372
Men: Mask Face Quilt #2, The (Ringgold),
198, 199
Merce Cunningham Dance Company, 415
Mesopotamian civilization, 321–322
Message of artworks, 19
Metal processes, 53
Metamorphoses, 218
Mexican art, 254, 255, 314
Mexican Day of the Dead (book), 64
Mexican muralists, 377
Mexican Revolution, 377
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 356–358
David, 267, 273
Pietà, 356, 357, 387
Middle Ages, 354–355
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig
Seated Woman, 35
Winter Landscape in Moonlight, 34, 39
Kiss, The (Brancusi), 104, 133, 195
Klimt, Gustav, 287
Baby (Cradle), 286, 287
Portrait of Joseph Pembaur, 276
Kollwitz, Käthe, 374
Self-Portrait, 374
Koran, 331
Korean Classical Music and Dance
Company, 349, 424
Krasner, Lee, The Springs, 291
Kuba people, 242, 298
Kuna people, 160
Kwakiutl art, 342–343
L
Lachaise, Gaston, Walking Woman, 271–273
Lackawanna Valley, The (Inness), 11
Landscape architects, 400
Landscape (The Hare) (Miró), 235
Lange, Dorothea, 57
Migrant Mother, 57
Language of art
composition of artworks, 18–19
content of artworks, 19
credit line, 19
elements of art, 16–17
principles of art, 17–18
subject of artworks, 18
See also Elements of art; Principles of art
Larraz, Julio, Papiamento, 32
Las Meninas (after Velázquez) (Picasso),
14–15, 23
Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor)
(Velázquez), 14–15, 23
Lawrence, Jacob, 67, 80, 377
Children at Play, 78, 80, 95, 377
Harriet Tubman Series Number 4, 216
Street to M'bari, 66–67
Layered self-portrait, 188–189
Layout, 454
Leaf masks (Bwa people), 337–338
Leaning Tower of Pisa, 228, 252
Le Corbusier, Unite d'Habitation, 259
Lee, Doris, Thanksgiving, 116
Lee-Smith, Hughie, The Piper, 28, 29
Legends as sources of ideas, 12
Length of lines, 73, 75. See also Line(s)
Leonardo da Vinci, 42, 168, 259, 358
sketchbook page, 42, 358
Lewitzky Dance Company, 133, 417
Leyster, Judith, The Concert, 178, 256, 257
Libraries (computer), 454
Lichtenstein, Roy, Blam, 379, 383
Liebovitz, Annie, Wilt Chamberlain and
Willie Shoemaker, 262
Lift Every Voice and Sing (Savage), 209
Light, primary colors of, 139
Like a Butterfly (Proctor), 306
Lin, Maya, 386
The Civil Rights Memorial, 386
National Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 386
The Wave Field, 207
Linear perspective
defined, 115, 356
in Italian Renaissance, 356
Line(s), 68–95
activities, 73, 76, 78, 81, 82, 83
basic kinds, 72–73, 75
calligraphic drawing, 83
caricature, 94
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 69, 76, 82, 90, 91, 93, 310–311,
407
INDEX
Index 491
Middle Eastern art
ancient Egyptian, 323
Islamic art, 331
Mesopotamian, 321–322
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, Seagram
Building (with Johnson), 382
Migrant Mother (Lange), 57
Ming dynasty, 99, 328
Minimalism, 380
Miró, Joan, 86
Landscape (The Hare), 235
Mirrored Room (Samaras), 62–63
Mirror images, 218
Missal (illuminated manuscript), 391
Mitchell, Joan, 179
Dirty Snow, 179
Mixed Media
collage, 306–307
studio projects, 274–275
Mixing colors
activity, 152
changing intensity, 143, 153–154
changing value, 140
Mobiles, 213, 376
Modeling, 51, 112, 451
Modules, 204
Mohenjo-Daro, 323–324
Mola: Our Environment, Kuna people, 160
Mom and Us (Andrews), 81, 82, 95
Mondrian, Piet, Sun, Church in Zeeland,
146, 169
Monet, Claude, 370
Gladioli, 370
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, 153
Monkey Settee (McKie), 53, 65
Monochromatic colors, 145, 157, 165
Mood painting, 160–161
Moore, Henry, 122
Dallas Piece, 122
Moroles, Jesús Bautista, 171
Granite Weaving Playscape, 170, 171
Mosaics, 188
Moses, Anna Mary Robertson. See
Grandma Moses
Mosques, 331
Motifs, 202, 204–206, 208, 221
Motion pictures (film), 58, 395–397
Moulthrop, Philip, 205–206
Moulthrop, Philip, White Pine Mosaic Bowl,
205–206
Mounted King with Attendants (Edo people,
Nigeria), 335
Movement
color and, 155–156
of lines, 77–80
and patterns, 212
rhythm creating, 211–213
student art portfolio, 220–221
visual movement, 211–213, 224
Movies, 58, 395–397
animation, 308–309
outline for, 309
poster, 308–309
Moving art, 224
MPEG-3 files, 452
Muhammad, 331
Mukenga Mask, Kuba culture, 242
Multimedia art, 61
Multimedia designers, 396
Multimedia high-relief collage, 306–307
Multimedia presentation software, 453
Multimedia programs, 61
Munch, Edvard, 7
The Sick Child, 7
Münter, Gabriele, Breakfast of the Birds, 18
Mununggiritj, Yäma, Yellow Ochre Quarry,
152
Murals, 254, 255, 377
Murray, Elizabeth, 151
Things to Come, 150–151, 169
Museum curators and designers, 404
Museums, virtual art tours of, 22
Music, Korean, 349
My Daughter's First Steps (Pootoogook),
269
Myron, Discobolus (Discus Thrower), 352,
353
Myths as sources of ideas, 12
N
Nakht and Wife (Egyptian), 260
Namingha, Dan, Blessing Rain Chant, 75,
77, 95
Naranjo, Michael, Spirits Soaring, 108, 109
National Commission for Museums and
Monuments (Nigeria), 348
National Vietnam Veterans Memorial (Lin),
386
Native American art, 341–345
Natural balance. See Formal balance
Natural vs. manufactured shapes and
forms, 111
Nature as source of ideas, 11
Nature tapestry, 86–87
Navajo people, 343–344
Necklace, Viking Chain, 84
Necklace (Akan people, Ghana), 336
Necklace (Pardon), 8, 9
Neel, Alice, Still Life, Rose of Sharon, 69, 74
Negatives, 58
Negative space, 128, 246, 247, 277
activity, 107
artists' manipulation of, 103, 105
defined, 103
overview, 103–104
in three-dimensional art, 106–107
Neoclassicism, 366–367
Neolithic period, 321
Neutral colors, 139–140
Nevelson, Louise, 300
Dawn, 300, 303
New Stone Age, 321
New York City—Bird's Eye View
(Torres-Garcia), 88
Night View, The (Abbott), 202
Nineteenth century art, 366–373
Impressionism, 153, 181, 370, 373
Neoclassicism, 366–367
Post-Impressionism, 371–373
Realism, 368–370
Romanticism, 367–368
Nonobjective art, 18
Northern Renaissance, 358–360
Northwest Coast Region art, 342–343
Nuestra Señora de la Selva (Arreguin),
222–223
O
Oba, 262, 335
Ochre and Red on Red (Rothko), 380
Odyssey, The, 12
Office complex (Prague, Czech Republic;
Gehry), 132
Oil-based paints, 47, 150
Ojibwe people, Bandolier bag, 208, 210
O'Keeffe, Georgia, 30
Back of Marie's No. 4, 39, 316–317
Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue, 30
White Rose With Larkspur, No. 2, 240
Old Couple on a Bench (Hanson), 381
Oldenburg, Claes, 97
Clothespin, 261
Shoestring Potatoes Spilling from a Bag, 96, 97
Old Guitarist, The (Picasso), 270, 285
Old Stone Age, 321
Olmec culture, 171, 294, 339–340
Olmec sculpture, Colossal Head, 171, 339
100 Cans (Warhol), 20–21, 378
On-screen tools, 61
Oonark, Jessie, 347
Untitled, 346–347
Op art, 379
Openness, 118–119
Optical color, 152–154
Orange Crush (Poons), 379
Oranges (Fish), 175, 176
Orchids, Bamboo, and Rock (Shitao, Qing
Dynasty), 83
Oriental Ruler Seated on His Throne, An
(Dürer), 76
Orozco, José Clemente, Barricade, 28
Outlines, 71, 117–118
Overlapping (perspective technique),
114, 116
P
Package designers, 402
Page layout software, 454
Pagoda from the Temple Complex at Horyuji
(Japan), 329
Paint, 150–152
basic ingredients, 44–45, 150–151
oil-based, 47, 150
pigment sources, 151–152
water-soluble, 47, 150
Painters, 15
Painting
Chinese, 327–328
Golden Mean in, 258
Japanese, 330
media, 44–47
mood, 160–161
rhythm and movement, 214–215
studio projects, 276–279
texture in, 177–180
Paint software, 60, 449
Pakistan, 318, 319
Paleolithic period, 320
Paley, Albert Raymond, Portal Gates, 78
Panes (page layout), 454
Panini, Giovanni Paulo, Interior of Saint
Peter's Rome, 113
Papiamento (Larraz), 32
Papier-mâché sculpture, 186–187
Paris Street Scene (Estes), 381, 383
Parthenon (Greece), 352
Pattern(s), 199–224
alternating, 208, 217
and beats, 205, 206
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 91, 199, 208, 210, 407
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 204, 217, 220–221
decorative vs. functional, 204
and motifs, 202, 204–206
and movement, 212
random, 205, 206
regular, 206, 207
repetition and, 199, 221
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 220, 221
student art portfolio, 220–221
visual patterns, 202
Paul (Close), 384–385
INDEX
492 Index
Poor Man's Cotton (Woodruff), 202, 203,
225
Pootoogook, Napachie, My Daughter's
First Steps, 268–269
Pop art, 21, 25, 97, 378–379
Porcelain, Chinese, 328
Porkypine Basket (Bondie), 52, 65
Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
images, 449
Portal Gates (Paley), 78
Portfolio. See Student art portfolio
Portrait of a king (Ife, Nigeria), 332
Portrait of a Lady (van der Weyden), 359,
365
Portrait of Hokusai as an Old Man
(Hokusai), 330
Portrait of M. C. Escher (Escher), 105
Portrait of Princess Belozersky
(Vigée-Lebrun), 268
Portrait of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia
(Anguissola), 292
Portrait Statue of Boy (Roman), 353
Position
informal balance using, 237–238
proximity and unity, 301–302
See also Location
Positive space, 103–104, 105, 128
Post-and-lintel construction, 321
Posters, 308–309
Post-Impressionism, 162, 371–373
Post-Modernism, 382–383
Potlatch, 343
Practical applications, creating designs
for, 84–85, 158–159, 214–215, 304–305,
400
Pre-Columbian art, 160, 255, 339–341
Prehistoric art, 320
Presentations, 453
Primary color triad, 147, 165
Primary hues, 138, 139, 142
Principles of art, 287
balance, 226–253
composition and, 18–19
defined, 18
emphasis, 289–295, 302–303
harmony, 295, 302–303
movement, 211–213
overview, 17–18
proportion, 254–285
rhythm, 199–225
unity, 296–302
variety, 288–289, 302–303
See also specific principles
Printer color systems, 139
Printing plates, 48, 49
Printmaking, 48–49, 312, 313
basic steps, 48
defined, 48
digital, 246–247
editions, 48
Japanese woodblock printing, 92, 93, 246,
330
prints vs. reproductions, 48
techniques, 48–49, 433
Prints, 48
Proctor, Mary, 306
Like a Butterfly, 306
Product designers, 401–402
Profile proportions, 265
Programs, computer. See Software
Progressive rhythm, 209, 210
Proportion, 254–285
artists' use of, 267–273
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 255, 273, 280–281, 283
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 255, 275, 281
defined, 256
exaggeration and distortion, 268–273
Golden Mean, 256–259
human proportions, 262–266
realistic, 267–268
scale, 260–266
student art portfolio, 280–281
Proximity, unity from, 301–302
Pueblo people, 343
Pueblo Scene: Corn Dancers and Church
(Vigil Family, Tesuque Pueblo), 8
Puppetry, 224
Purposes of art, 7–9
Pythagoras, 256
Q
Qoyawayma, Al, Blanketed Figure Vase, 50,
51
Queen Ankhesenamun and King
Tutankhamon (Egypt), 107
Queen Idia (Africa), 348
Quetzalcoatl (Plumed Serpent), 119
Quilts, 198, 199
Quipu, 341
R
Radial balance, 244–245
activity, 233
defined, 232
expressive qualities, 240–241
studio project, 244–245
Railroad Sunset (Hooper), 77
Railway, The (Manet), 65, 368–369
Ramirez, John, 409, 426
Random patterns, 205, 206
Random rhythm, 205
Rashid, Karim, 408
Chair, 408
Chess set, 408
Raspberries and Goldfish (Fish), 16–17
Rauschenberg, Robert, Red Painting, 290
Realism, 65, 168, 368–370
Recycled materials (in sculpture), 186
Red, green and blue (RGB), 139, 450
Red Interior Still Life on a Blue Table
(Matisse), 38
Red Painting (Rauschenberg), 290
Reeds and Cranes (Kiitsu), 410–411
Reflections, 218–219
Regionalists, 376–377
Regular patterns, 206, 207
Regular rhythm, 206–207
Reims Cathedral, 106, 194
Relational Painting, Tondo #40 (Glarner),
147
Relief printing, 48–49, 158–159
Relief sculpture
high relief, 106
jewelry as, 106
low relief or bas relief, 106, 107
overview, 50
space in, 106
Religious beliefs as sources of ideas,
12–13
Rembrandt van Rijn, 124, 362
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, 124, 178, 362
Renaissance, 356
Renaissance art, 356–360
activity, 365
Italian Renaissance, 356–358
Northern Renaissance, 358–360
Rendering, 218–219, 451
Renoir, Pierre Auguste, Two Sisters (On the
Terrace), 177
Peachey, Annie M., Four in Block Work
Quilt, 202
Pei, I. M., 122, 399, 409
Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, 383,
399, 409
Penguin (Sewell), 186
People as sources of ideas, 12
Perceiving
activity, 7
color, 136–138, 144
defined, 6
optical color, 152–154
texture, 172–174
Perception, 6. See also Direct observation;
Experiences; Imagination
Pereira, Irene Rice, Pillar of Fire, 289, 315
Performing Arts Handbook. See
Artsource® Performing Arts Handbook
Personal functions of art, 7
Perspective, 113–116
atmospheric, 114
defined, 113
in Italian Renaissance, 356
linear, 115, 356
techniques, 114–116
Pharaohs, 323
Photographers, 385, 394
Photography, 57–58, 394–395
Photojournalists, 395
Photomosaics, 188
Photorealism, 276, 381, 385
Physical functions of art, 8
Picabia, Francis, Figure Triste, 148, 149, 169
Picasso, Pablo, 255, 270, 374, 375
Las Meninas (after Velázquez), 14–15, 23
“Ma Jolie” (Woman with a Zither or Guitar),
375
and Matisse, 38
The Old Guitarist, 270, 285
Studio of “La Californie,” 38
The Tragedy, 145
Picture of Dorian Gray, The (Albright), 177
Picture plane, 113
Pietà (Michelangelo), 356, 357, 387
Pigments
defined, 150
natural vs. synthetic, 152, 168
in paints, 45, 150–152
sources of, 151–152
Pillar of Fire (Pereira), 289, 315
Pinkney, Brian, 407
Book Illustration for Duke Ellington: The
Piano Prince and His Orchestra, 406–407
Pinkney, Jerry, Illustration from Journeys
with Elijah, 237
Piper, The (Lee-Smith), 28, 29
Pippin, Horace, Cabin in the Cotton, 234
Pisa
Bell Tower of Cathedral at, 228
Leaning Tower of, 252
Pixels, 446
Placement (perspective technique), 114,
116. See also Location; Position
Plank masks (Bwa people), 338
Plaque: Oba or Chief (Nigeria), 260, 262,
285
Plum Garden at Kameido (Hiroshige),
92–93, 349
Plumed Serpent (Quetzalcoatl), 119
PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
images, 449
Point of view, 108–110
Pollaiuolo, Daphne and Apollo, 168
Pollock, Jackson, 13–14
Cathedral, 13–14, 42
Poons, Larry, Orange Crush, 379
INDEX
Index 493
Repetition, 308, 309
and motif, 221
and patterns, 199, 221
rhythm from, 202, 204
unity from, 300–301
Reproductions, 48
Reptiles (Escher), 210
Resizing of images, 450
Resolution, computer monitor, 446
Return of Ulysses (Bearden), 12, 13, 133
Reverie (Houser), 298, 299, 387
Reviewing artworks. See Aesthetics; Art
criticism; Art Criticism in Action
RGB (red, green and blue), 139, 450
Rhythm and movement painting,
216–217
Rhythm(s), 198–225
activities, 204, 206, 208, 210
alternating, 208
and beats, 205, 206
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 199, 213, 407
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 217, 219–221
defined, 200
flowing, 208–209, 220
modules, 204
motifs, 202, 204
and motifs, 205, 206
movement created by, 211–213
patterns, 202, 204
progressive, 210
random, 205
regular, 206–207
repetition and, 200–204
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 220, 221
student art portfolio, 220–221
types of, 205–210
visual, 220
visual rhythm, 200–202
Riders to the Sea (Huntington), 120
Ringgold, Faith, 199
The Men: Mask Face Quilt #2, 198, 199
Ritual Wine Container (Chinese, Shang
dynasty), 325
Rivera, Diego, 229, 255
Flower Day, 229, 253
Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a
City, The, 254, 255
Self-Portrait, 229
Robe (Kuba Group, Congo), 298
Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame and Museum
(Pei), 399, 409
Rococo art, 363–365
Roman, Portrait Statue of Boy, 353
Romanesque architecture, 354–355
Romanticism, 367–368
Rome, ancient, 353
Roots, artistic, 314
Rothko, Mark, Ochre and Red on Red, 380
Roualt, Georges, The Italian Woman, 74
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, Sunlight
(Monet), 153
Rouen Cathedral, West Facade (Monet), 153
Rough texture, 175
Royal Bird, The (Smith), 117
Royo, Joseph, 86
Woman (after Joan Miró), 86
Rubens, Peter Paul, Daniel in the Lions'
Den, 291, 295
Ruckus Rodeo (Grooms), 24, 25
Ruiz, Antonio, The Bicycle Race, 126
Rumal, 244
Rushing Sea of Undergrowth, A (Carr), 236
Russell, Julia, Jaguar Chair, 304
S
Saddle blanket (Navajo), 344
Safdie, Moshe, Habitat, 382
Safety, 443–444
Sagrada Familia (Gaudi), 194
Saint Martin and the Beggar (El Greco),
360, 365
Samaras, Lucas, 63
Mirrored Room, 62–63
Sandkühler, Iris, Viking Net Chain Necklace,
84
Savage, Augusta, Lift Every Voice and Sing,
209
Scale, 260–266, 281
activities, 261, 264, 266
defined, 260
hierarchical proportion, 260
human proportions, 262–266
photographs of art and, 260
Scanners, 61, 446
Schapiro, Miriam, 180
Father and Daughter, 166–167
Schapiro, Miriam, In Her Own Image, 180
Scratchboards, 407
Screen paintings, Japanese, 330
Screen printing, 49
Scroll, portable (Thangka), 226, 227
Scrolls, 328
Scully, Sean, White Robe, 295
Sculptors, 15, 314, 386
Sculpture, 50–51, 97
African, 334–335
ancient Greek and Roman, 352–353
Chinese, 328
defined, 50
free-form clay, 122–123
Indian, 326, 327
Japanese, 328
kinetic, 107, 213
media, 50
mobiles, 213, 376
Post-Modern, 383
pre-Columbian, 339–340
relief sculpture, 50, 106–107
sculpture in the round, 50
sculpture of the deity Quetzalcoatl, 119
techniques, 50–51, 433–435
texture in, 180, 182
Seagram Building (Mies van der Rohe and
Johnson), 382
Seals (ancient Indian), 324
Seated Man and Woman (Dogon people,
Mali), 334
Seated Woman (Kirchner), 35
Secondary hues, 138, 142
Secret Society Mask (Four Headed Cannibal
Spirit) (Walkus), 272, 273
Self-portrait, 184–185, 188–189, 276–277
Self-Portrait: The Memory (Flack), 82
Self-Portrait at 99 (Hirschfeld), 94
Self-Portrait (Close), 385
Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky
(Kahlo), 239, 280
Self-Portrait (Degas), 181
Self-Portrait (El Coronelazo) (Siqueiros),
264, 285
Self-Portrait (Kollwitz), 374
Self-Portrait (Rivera), 229
Self-portrait (Wilkinson), 284
Self-Portrait with Monkey (Kahlo), 4, 5
Self-Portrait (Wood), 12, 23
Serigraphy (screen printing), 49
Set designers, 403
Seventeenth century art, 360–362. See also
Baroque art
Sewell, Leo, 186
Penguin, 186
Shades, 140–141
Shading, 44, 112
Shaman's Journey (Hoover), 180
Shang dynasty wine vessel, 325
Shape(s)
active vs. static, 120–121
activities, 100, 108, 120–121
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 63, 128–129
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 129
creation in space, 111–116
defined, 98
depth perception, 108
expression with, 117–121
free-form, 99–100
geometric, 98–99, 100, 117–118
identifying, 129
natural vs. manufactured, 111
openness, 118–119
outlines, 117–118
overview, 98–100
point of view and, 108–110
relationship to forms, 100, 101–102
relationship to space, 103
student art portfolio, 128–129
Sharecropper (Catlett), 48, 191
Shaughnessy, Arthur, 251
Dla'ehl Interior House Post: Grizzly Bear
Beneath Kolus, 250–251
Sheridan, Philip, 344
Shichiri Beach in Sagami Province
(Hokusai), 246
Shiny surfaces, 175, 176
Shitao, Orchids, Bamboo, and Rock, 83
Shoemaker, Willie, 262
Shoestring Potatoes Spilling from a Bag
(Oldenburg), 96, 97
Sick Child, The (Munch), 7
Silvers, Robert, Wolf, 188
Simplicity, unity from, 298–299
Simulators, computer, 397
Simultaneous contrast, 144
Singing Their Songs (Catlett), 312–313
Single Family Blues (Twiggs), 269
Sioux people, 344
Siqueiros, David Alfaro
Echo of a Scream, 235, 253
Ethnography, 294
Self-Portrait (El Coronelazo), 264, 285
Siva as Lord of the Dance (Tamil Nadu), 327
Size
in credit line, 19
informal balance using, 235
perspective technique, 113–116
Sketchbooks, 15, 42, 358
Sketch for Hound and Hunter (Homer), 46,
47, 65
Slides, 453
Slipper Chair (Dunnigan), 33
Smart card, 447
Smith, David, The Royal Bird, 117
Smith, Tony, Gracehopper, 101, 102, 104
Smooth texture, 175
Snowstorm: Steamboat off a Harbours Mouth
(Turner), 368
Soapstone seals (ancient Indian), 324
Social functions of art, 7
Software, 60–61
draw, 450
frame animation, 452
multimedia presentation, 453
page layout, 454
paint, 449
3-D graphics, 451
INDEX
494 Index
self-portrait collagraph, 184–185
symbolic self-portrait, 276–277
wire jewelry, 84–85
Study (sketch/painting), 125
Stupas, 326
Style, individual, 35
Style sheets, 454
Stylus and graphics tablet, 61
Subject of artworks, 18
Subordinate elements, 290
Sugaring Off (Grandma Moses), 110
Sullivan, Louis
Elevator Grille, 204
Wainwright Building, 56
Sumerian civilization, 321–322
Sun, Church in Zeeland (Mondrian), 146,
169
Sundiata, king, 333
Sunflowers (van Gogh), 40, 178
Sung dynasty, 328
Super-Realism, 381
Surfaces, expressiveness of, 117–118
Surrealism, 278, 375
Sutej, Miroslav, Ultra AB, 288, 315
Symbols, 16, 276–277
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 11, 12, 88
Symmetrical balance, 242–243
Symmetry, 230–231, 240
T
Tactile texture, 173, 190
Tahitians (Gauguin), 265–266
Taj Mahal (India), 331
Taliesin West (Wright), 182
Tamayo, Rufino, 197
Fruit Vendors, 196–197
Girl Attacked by a Strange Bird, 141, 143, 169
Tapestry, 86–87
Tapirapé people, 182, 183
Techniques
display, 444–442
drawing, 428–431
printmaking, 48–49, 433
sculpting, 50–51, 433–435
shading, 44
as sources of ideas, 13–14
Technological media, 57–61
computers, 59–61
film, 58
multimedia art, 61
photography, 57–58
video, 59
virtual art tours, 22
Technology and careers in art, 390–391
Tempera, 47
Tempest (Wilson), 302
Temple at Angkor Wat, 327
Tenochititlán, 340
Tension in Red (Kandinsky), 134, 135, 154
Tepees, 344
Texture, 170–195, 276
activities, 174, 175, 183
artists' use of, 177–183
color and, 178–179
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 171, 176, 190–191, 193
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 123, 171, 185, 187, 189, 215,
243, 307
defined, 171
informal balance using, 236
invented textures, 174, 183
of lines, 73, 75
matte or shiny, 175
perception of, 172–174
rough or smooth, 175
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 183
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 190–191
selecting/analyzing the use of in personal
artworks, 279
student art portfolio, 190–191
tactile, 173, 190
and unity, 191
and value, 190
value and, 175–176
visual, 190–191
visual texture, 173–174, 176
Textured buildings, 194
Thangka (portable scroll), 226, 227
Thanksgiving (Lee), 116
Theater, 224
Thelonious at The Five Spot (Andrews), 82,
95
Therapists, art, 404
Things to Come (Murray), 150, 169
Third of May, The (Goya), 364–365
Thomas, Alma, Iris, Tulips, Jonquils, and
Crocuses, 26
Thoroughly Modern Medical School, The
(Wilkinson), 284
Three-dimensional art, 306–307
careers in, 398–405
space in, 106–107
3-D Graphics software, 451
Three-dimensional media, 50–56
architecture, 54–56
crafts, 52–53
sculpture, 50–51
Throne (Bamileke), 170
Thrown for a Curve (Feiss), 308
Tibet, Four Mandalas of the Vajravali Series,
226
Tikal, 340
Time art scene, see table of contents, xiv
Timeline, animation, 452
Tints, 140–141
Tiwauaku (Bolivia), 55
Tonality, 157
Torivio, Dorothy, Vase, 233
Torres-Garcia, Joaquin, 88
New York City-Bird's Eye View, 88
Totem poles, 249, 250–251, 343
Town of Skowhegan, Maine V (Jacquette), 70
Tragedy, The (Picasso), 145
Triads of colors, 146–147
Tunic (Huari people), 207
Turner, Joseph M. W., 368
Snowstorm: Steamboat off a Harbours Mouth,
368
Twentieth century art
Abstract Expressionism, 378
after 1945, 378–383
architecture, 377, 381–383
Color-Field painting, 380
Cubism, 374–375
early twentieth century, 374–377
in Europe, 374–375
Expressionism, 374
International Style architecture, 381–382
Minimalism, 380
in North America, 376–377
Op art, 379
Pop art, 378–379
Post-Modernism, 382–383
Regionalism, 376–377
Super-Realism, 381
Surrealism, 375
Solberg, Ramona, Cracker Jack Choo Choo,
214
Solvents of paints, 45, 150–151
Sound, 452
Sources of ideas, 11–15
Southwest Region art, 343–344
Space
activities, 104, 107, 115
beats/motifs and, 206, 208
color and, 15
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 97, 107, 126, 128–129, 131
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 123, 127
defined, 103
depth perception, 108
expression with, 117–121
illusion of depth, 113–116
overview, 103–107
perspective techniques, 113–116
positive and negative, 103–105, 128
relationship to shape and form, 103
shapes and forms in, 111–116
student art portfolio, 128–129
in three-dimensional art, 106–107
Special effects designers, 395–396
Spectrum of colors, 136–138
Spirits Soaring (Naranjo), 108, 109
Spiritual beliefs as sources of ideas, 12–13
Spiritual functions of art, 7–8
Springs, The (Krasner), 291
Stage designer, 403
Stalling Elephant with Two Riders (India),
174, 225
Starry Crown (Biggers), 99
Starry Night, The (van Gogh), 372–373
Static lines, 77
Static shapes and forms, 120–121
Statua di Donna (Sumerian), 322
Stella, Frank, 380
Abgatuna III, 380
St. Michael’s Counterguard, 383
Stella, Joseph, Battle of Lights, Coney Island
Mardi Gras, 212, 213
Still Life, Rose of Sharon (Neel), 69, 74
Stippling technique, 44
Stonehenge, 321
Storage, digital, 447
Storyboards, 395
Straus, Meyer, Bayou Teche, 6
Street to M'bari (Jacob), 66–67
Student art portfolio
balance, 248–249
color, 164–165
line, 90–91
proportion, 280–281
rhythm, pattern and movement, 220–221
shape, form and space, 128–129
texture, 190–191
variety, emphasis, harmony and unity,
310–311
Studio of “La Californie” (Picasso), 38
Studio projects
ceramic mask, 242–243
color spectrum star book, 158–159
contrast drawing, 124–125
decorated found object, 304–305
found objects jewelry, 214–215
free-form clay sculpture, 122–123
golden mean and mixed media, 274–275
mood painting, 160–161
multimedia high-relief collage, 306–307
nature tapestry, 86–87
papier-mâché sculpture, 186–187
radial balance mandala, 244–245
rhythm and movement painting, 216–217
INDEX
Index 495
Twiggs, Leo, 10
East Wind Suite: Door, 10, 42
Single Family Blues, 269
Two-dimensional art careers, 390–397
Two-dimensional media, 42–49
drawing, 43–44
painting, 44–47
printmaking, 48–49
U
Ukiyo-e, 330
Ultra AB (Sutej), 288, 315
Underground Railroad, 216
Unite d'Habitation (Le Corbusier), 259
Unity, 18, 186, 187, 227, 274, 275, 287,
296–302, 308–309, 313
activity, 302
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 287, 303, 385
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 187, 275, 309
creating, 296–302
defined, 296
enhancing, 302–303
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
others for, 407
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 310–311
student art portfolio, 310–311
and texture,191
Untitled (Brice), 59
Untitled (Calder), 213
Untitled (Oonark), 346–347
Unusual objects for focal point, 295
Urban planners, 399
Urn, Mexican (Monte Alban; Zapotec),
230, 233, 253
V
Vajrayana Buddhism, 227
Value(s), 139–142, 276–277
activity, 142
and texture, 175–176, 190
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 143, 164–165, 351
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 125, 245
defined, 75, 139
expressive qualities, 140–141, 155–156
focal point using, 290
hue, intensity and, 136
hue and intensity and, 142–143
informal balance using, 236
line and, 75–76
movement and, 155–156
neutral colors, 139–140
scales, 140
van Alen, William, Chrysler Building, 206
van der Weyden, Rogier, 359
Portrait of a Lady, 359, 365
van Eyck, Jan, 168, 359
The Arnolfi Wedding, 168, 231, 359
van Gogh, Vincent, 372–373
Café Terrace at Night, 293
The Starry Night, 373
Sunflowers, 40, 178
Vanishing point, 115
Vaquero (Jimenez), 50
Variety, 288–289, 302–303, 306–307
comparing/contrasting in artworks of
others, 385
comparing/contrasting in personal
artworks, 307
selecting/analyzing original artworks by
peers for, 310–311
student art portfolio, 310–311
Vases (Chinese, Ming dynasty), 99, 297
Vase (Torivio), 233
Vectors, 450
Velázquez, Diego, 14–15
Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), 14–15, 23
Vendeur de Chapeaux (Berman), 43
Vermeer, Jan, 362
The Concert, 350, 351
Girl with the Red Hat, 362
Vertical lines, 72. See also Line(s)
Video, 395
game designers, 397
media, 59
View of the White House, South Portico
(Cromartie), 230
Vigée-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Élisabeth,
Portrait of Princess Belozersky, 268
Vigil Family, Tesuque Pueblo, Pueblo
Scene: Corn Dancers and Church, 8
Viking Net Chain Necklace (Sandkühler), 84
Virgin and Child (Byzantine), 319, 354
Virtual art tours, 22
Vishnu, 327
Visual art journal
balance, 249
color, 165
exaggeration, 281
lines, 91
shapes and forms, 129
texture, 191
variety, emphasis and harmony, 311
visual rhythm, 221
Visual balance, 228–233. See also Balance
Visual interpretation, 306–307
Visual movement, 211–213, 224
Visual patterns, 202
Visual rhythm, 200–202, 220
Visual texture, 173–174, 176, 190–191
Vitruvius, 259
Vocalworks, 315, 423
“Vocalworks Radio Hour,” 315, 423
Voice-recognition software, 391
Volkswagen Beetle (Mays), 401
W
Wainwright Building (Sullivan), 56
Walking Bear (Adla), 102
Walking Woman (Lachaise), 271–273
Walkus, George, Secret Society Mask (Four
Headed Cannibal Spirit), 272, 273
Wall from the sunken courtyard of Tiwauaku
(Borsky), 55
Wall hangings, 346–347
Wall paintings, 260
Warhol, Andy, 21
100 Cans, 20–21, 378
Warm colors, 148, 155
Watercolor, 47, 276–277
Waterfall (Borsky), 209
Waterfall (Escher), 105, 133
Water Garden (Johnson), 298
Water jar (Santo Domingo Pueblo), 343
Water-soluble paints, 47, 150
Watteau, Antoine, 363
Embarkation for Cythera, 363
Wave Field, The (Lin), 207
Weavings, 86–87, 346–347
Asante people (Africa), 336–337
Navajo, 343–344
space in, 106–107
techniques for, 437–438
texture in, 182
Web designers, 397
Western traditions in art, 350–387
White as neutral color, 139
White Pine Mosaic Bowl (Moulthrop),
205–206
White Robe (Scully), 295
White Rose With Larkspur (O'Keeffe), 240
Width of lines, 73, 75. See also Line(s)
“Wild Beasts” (Fauves), 69
Wilkinson, Signe, 284
Self-Portrait, 284
The Thoroughly Modern Medical School, 284
Wilson, Jane
Tempest, 302
Winter Wheat, 120, 121
Wilt Chamberlain and Willie Shoemaker
(Liebovitz), 262
Wine vessel (Shang dynasty), 324
Winter, Paul, 195, 419
Winter Landscape in Moonlight (Kirchner),
34, 39
Winter Wheat (Wilson), 120, 121
Winter 1946 (Wyeth), 292, 295
Wire jewelry, 84–85
Wolf (Silvers), 188
Woman (Royo), 86
Wood, Grant, 12, 313
American Gothic, 12, 23
Self-Portrait, 12, 23
Woodblock printing, Japanese, 92, 93,
246, 330
Wood carvings, 250–251
Woodlands Region art, 345
Wood processes, 53
Woodrow (Butterfield), 130–131
Woodruff, Hale, Poor Man's Cotton, 202,
203, 225
Works of art, basic properties, 18–19
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 182, 377
Armchair, 118–119
Fallingwater House, 300–301, 377
Taliesin West, 182
Xanadu Gallery, 377
Wyeth, Andrew, Winter 1946, 292, 295
X
Xanadu Gallery (Wright), 377
Xiong, Chaing, Hmong Story Cloth, 211,
213, 225
Y
Yamato-e, 330
Yellow Cow (Marc), 154, 285
Yellow Ochre Quarry (Mununggiritj), 152
Yellow River valley, 324
Yen, Hua, Conversation in Autumn, 328, 331
Yoruba people, 333
Court Drummers of the Timi of Ede, 37
Headdress for Epa Masquerade, 36–37
Yup'ik people, Bird Mask, 13
Z
Zaga (Graves), 51, 65
Zalucha, Peggy Flora, 173
Map Still Life with Carnation, Keys, and
Glasses, 173, 176
Ziggurats, 322
Zigzag lines, 73, 78. See also Line(s)
INDEX
496 Credits
Cover Art: © Mark Tomalty/Masterfile
©2003 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY 280, 375(r); ©2003 ARS, NY/ADAGP, Paris 20, 74(t), 104, 118, 136, 164, 184,
271; ©2003 ARS, NY/ VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 18, 374; ©2003 The Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation/ARS, NY 2-3, 30(b),
240(b); ©2003 Pollock-Krasner Foundation/ARS, NY 14(t), 291(t); ©2003 Estate of Pablo Picasso/ARS, NY 14(b),
270(b), 316-17, 375(l); ©2003 Succession H. Matisse, Paris/ARS, NY 24, 164; © 2003 Luis Jimenez/ARS, NY 50;
©2003 Estate of Alexander Calder/ARS, NY 84, 213; ©2003 C. Herscovici, Brussels/ARS, NY 126; © 2003 Andy Warhol
Foundation for the Visual Arts/ARS, NY 207(b); ©2003 Estate of Louise Nevelson/ARS, NY 300; ©2003 Kate Rothko
Prizel & Christopher Rothko/ARS, NY 380(t); ©2003 Frank Stella/ARS, NY 380(b), 383. AKG London 314; Alinari/Art
Resource, NY 357(t); Art Resource, NY 293, 301(b), 323(t), 352; Photographs © The Art Institute of Chicago: 12(b), 116,
119(t), 155; Courtesy of Alfredo Arreguin 222, 223; Austrian Archives/Corbis 403(b); Dave Bartruff/Corbis 394(l); Paul
Barton/Corbis 400(b); Peter Beck/Corbis 398, 404(l); Black Star 322(b); Borromeo/Art Resource 323(b); Bridgeman Art
Library, London/NY 21, 93, 137, 181(tl), 313, 332, 350; Courtesy of Buck-Butterfield, Inc 131; Courtesy of Elizabeth
Catlett 313; Photo: Michael Cavanaugh/Kevin Montague 334(l); Steve Chenn/Corbis 393(t); Christies Images 193;
Photo: Don Cole 336(b); Ansel Adams Publishing Trust/CORBIS 30(t); CORBIS/Bettmann 46, 178; CORBIS/Hulton-
Deutsch Collection 270(t); Photographs © The Detroit Institute of Arts 34, © 1991 111(t), © 1984 111(b), (C) 1998 170,
© 1993 208(b); Cris Eden/Eden Art 80(t); Mary Evans Picture Library/ Ida Kar Collection, 385; Tim Flach/Tony Stone
Images 71(m-2); Forman Archive/Art Resource, NY 13(b), 37; Frank Fortune 29, 122, 246, 274; Owen Franken/CORBIS
399(t); Robert Frerck/Odyssey, Chicago 331; Tim Fuller Photography 394(r), 405; Giraudon/Art Resource, NY 104,
301(b), 323(t); Glencoe Stock 228; The Granger Collection, NY 369(b); Photograph by Carmelo Guadagno 289 © The
Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, NY (FN46.1037) 66-67, (FN81.2885) 289(FN63.1688), 290(t); Estate of Duane
Hanson/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY; 193; Illustration from Journey’s With Elijah, Eight Tales Of The Prophet by
Barbara Diamond Gloldin, illustrations copyright © 1999 by Jerry Pinkney, reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc.
237; Photograph by David Heald 66-67, 290(t); © Heaton/Westlight 329(t); Thomas A. Heinz/Corbis 259; Robert
Holmes/CORBIS 261; From Duke Ellington by Andrea Pinkney and Brian Pinkney. Copyright © 1998 Andrea Pinkney
and Brian Pinkney. Reprinted by permission of Hyperion Books For Children 406, 407; Index/Bridgeman Art Library,
London/SuperStock 14(b); (c) Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC); Copyright-INAC; 347; Jerry Jacka
Photography, Phoenix, Arizona 51(t) 182; © Yvonne Jacquette 70; Mark Jasin/Stockworks 392(b); Andrea Jemolo/
CORBIS 206; Russell Johnson 40; Alain Keler/Art Resource, NY 341; Franko Khoury 205, 207(t), 297(b), 333; Barry
Kornbluh 150; Photo: Carol Lee/ Tony Stone Images 382(b); © 1987 Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images 262; Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, NY 9(b), 15, 22, 64, 128, 132, 231, 267, 276, 358, 363, 365; John Livzey/Tony Stone Images
172(br); Robert Llewwllyn/Image State 393(b); Christopher Mann Photography, Dallas 122; David McNew/Getty Images
397; Cathy Melloan Resources/Photo Edit 390; Photographs ©The Metropolitan Museum of Art 17, 30(b), 74(t), 124,
153(r), 181(b), 201, 214, 238, 260, 262, 265(b), 266, 294, 330, 335, 346, 350, 366; Vancouver Art Gallery/Trevor Mills
298(b); Gene Mittler 56, 354(b) ; Photo by Michael Monteaux 8, 107(t); Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers, Inc 391;
Musee d’Orsay, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library, London/NY 181(t); Digital Images (c)The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed
by SCALA/Art Resource, NY 118, 235, 271, 294 375(2); Photographs © 1999 The Museum of Modern Art, NY 40, 141,
213, 268(r), 271, 296, 375; National Museum of American Art, Washington DC/Art Resource, NY 9(t), 13(t), 33, 48, 50,
52, 53, 72, 78, 88, 166, 177, 186, 388, 410-411; National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution/Art Resource, NY
30(t); The Newark Museum/Art Resource 68, 120, 203; Robert Nix 71(b); Michael Newman/Photo Edit 446, 447, 453,
466; Rosanne Olson/Tony Stone Images; PaceWildenstein 63; Pronin, Anatoly/Art Resource, NY 348; ©AL Qoyawayma.
All rights reserved 51(t); Jose Fuste Raga/Corbis 388; J. Lee Ragans 232(t); Ruth C. Roush 380(b); Christopher Roy 337,
338; Larry Sanders 386; Sandak, 301(t), 377; Scala/Art Resource 106, 107(b), 320, 322(t), 324, 326, 331, 353(t), 357(b),
361; Alan Schein Photography/Corbis 401(b); Photo: Bill Schuemann © Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum 399;
Courtesy of Miriam Shapiro 167; Michael A. Schwarz Photography, Atlanta 186; SEF/Art Resource, NY 327(b); Ariel
Skelley/Corbis xiii; Smithsonian American Art Museum,Washington, DC/Art Resource, NY 162; Photo by Lee Stalsworth
102; Tom Stewart/Corbis 1; Photograph © Ezra Stoller/Esto. All rights reserved 382(t); Hans Strand/Tony Stone Images
71(t); Stone 392; SuperStock 364, 401(t); Dan Tardif/Corbis 402;Tate Gallery, London, Great Britain/Art Resource, NY 7,
146, 368; John Bigelow Taylor, NYC 200; Paul Thompson; Photo: Michael Tincher 299(t); The Motion Picture and
Television Photo Archive Library (MPTV) 396; Sandro Vanninni/Corbis 355; Photo courtesy of VAGA 167; Vanni/Art
Resource, NY, 340; Pierre Vauthey/Corbis 283; Steve Vidler/SuperStock 329(b); © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts/Photo:
Ron Jennings 381(b); Manfred Vollmer/CORBIS 130; David Wakely 254; Werner Forman/Art Resource 13(b), 339;
Katherine Wetzel © 2003 336(t); © 1999 Whitney Museum of American Art 74(b); Peter Willi/Bridgeman Art Library
181(t); Art Wolfe/Tony Stone Images 172(bl); David Young-Wolff/Photo Edit 454; Photo By: Graydon Wood, 1994
232(b), Selected student work & 448 photographed by Lee White Photography, Los Angeles.
CREDITS
CREDITS